E E Colloquium, Savoy Place, London, 9 May 1997

Protection of MV industrial neworks

by G. Fielding, Independent Engineer

1. Protection Objectives

The successful application of protection relays involves achieving an acceptable

compromise between the requirements of speed, dependability and security at an
economic cost.

The advantages of isolating a system fault as quickly as possible include:

- health and safety of personnel and public
- minimisation of effects on plant operation and system stability
- minimisation of damage to plant
Discrimination refers to the ability of the overall protection scheme to isolate the
minimum of plant necessary to remove the effect of the fault.

The dependability of a protection relay or scheme refers not only to the relay itself, but
also to the correct selection and design of the peripheral equipment necessary for its
operation (e.g. current and voltage transformers, c.t.s and v.t.s).

Security is essentially freedom from maloperation, and again is concerned with correct
application (e.g. selection of coordinated relay settings).

The provision of suitable protection devices may be regarded as an insurance policy.

The possible consequences of being under-insured require consideration when
evaluating costs (e.g. 'down-time' due to plant damage, or unnecessary disconnection of
plant).

2. Overcurrent relays

The most-commonly used type of relay is the overcurrent relay which monitors the
current flowing in the phase conductor(s), and, therefore, its operating level must be set
above normal healthy current levels in the circuit. The overcurrent relay may have
various operating characteristics, including nominally instantaneous, dependent time
delay and independent time delay, It is important to realise that overcurrent relays are
designed (and should be applied) as fault detecting, rather than overload devices,
although some degree of overload protection is often inherent.

Instantaneous overcurrent relays have the advantage of being fast in operation -

typically 20ms. In this clontext, instantaneous means no intentional time delay, and their
use must be carehlly restricted, otherwise that other desirable feature, discrimination,
will be lost. The effective 'reach' or 'zone of operation' is very dependent upon the
system impedance, in particular the ratio between source and 'downstream impedance'.

Effective discrimination can be achieved by introducing a deliberate time delay to the

2/ 1
relay characteristic. The simplest method is to use a time delay that is independent of
the level of current (oRen referred to as a 'definite time delay'). The time delays are
adjusted so that the relay most remote from the source has the shortest delay with the
relay nearest the source having the longest delay. Discrimination is achieved solely on a
'time' basis. The disadvantage of this method is that the longest relay operating time
occurs at the point on the system with the highest fault level (i.e. near to the power
source). Problems may also occur in attempting coordination with downstream fbses.

An improvement in protection operating times for faults close to the source can be
achieved by the use of overcurrent relays with a time delay that is dependent upon the
level of current (often referred to as inverse time overcurrent relays, as the operating
time reduces as the current level increases). Design variations enable various
time/current characteristics to be available to suit any specific application - e.g. the
extremely inverse (EI) is particularly suitable for discriminating with fuses. The use of
microprocessors has now enabled the various types of characteristic to be available on
a single relay, and in some relays, dependent and independent features can be combined
to produce an overall characteristic that is more ideally-shaped.

The question arises of how much time to allow between successive relays in order to
achieve discrimination.The time difference is referred to as 'grading margin', t'.
Traditionally, a fixed value of, typically, 0.4s has been extensively used, although, about
23 years ago, the author recommended the following equation, combining a variable
and a fixed time,
t' = [(2Er + Ect)/lOO)]t + tcb + to + ts(s), equation 1, for grading dependent time
relays, where,
Er = relay timing error ('A)
Ect = c.t. ratio error ('A)
t = nominal operating time of downstream relay(s)
tcb = circuit breaker interrupting time(s)
to = relay overshoot time(s)
ts = safety margin(s)
and, for independent time relays,
t' = [2Er/100]t + tcb + to + ts(s), equation 2

The following is a typical comparison between electromechanical and static relays,

e/m static
relay timing error (%) 7.5 5.0 (can be 7.5 for EI)
c.t. timing error (1OP) (%) 10 10
overshoot time (s) 0.065 0.03
safety margin 0.1 0.05

The importance of correct c.t. selection cannot be over-emphasised. The designed

performance specification of a relay is wholly dependent upon the signals it receives
from the c.t.s. Manufacturers' recommendations regarding minimum c.t. requirements
should be followed; it should be remembered that the VA burden imposed by the
secondary wiring on a c.t. with a 5A rated secondary is 25" that imposed on a c.t. with
a 1A secondary. Static relays impose a much lower burden on c.t.s than
electromechanical relays.

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3. Earth fault relays

As by far the majority of' system faults are to earth (or start as faults to earth), and as
the fault impedance path may be high (sometimes deliberately so), it is advantageous to
apply protection relays whose sole purpose is to detect earth faults. Because these
relays do not monitor the normal phase current, they may have a current settting of less
than full load, thereby providing appropriate increased sensitivity.

Earth fault relays, connected to measure the system residual current, may be usefully
combined with the overcurrent relays to share a common set of c.t.s.

The characteristics available for earth fault relays are generally similar to those available
for overcurrent relays.

Due to the lower setting,semployed, an electromechanical earth fault relay presents a

much larger burden than an electromechanical overcurrent relay, and correspondingly
larger c.t.s are generally required. If full advantage is to be taken of the more sensitive
settings, it may be necessary to utilise c.t.s with improved nominal accuracy (e.g. 5P
rather than 1OP). The burden of a static relay is much lower, and does not increase with
lower settings. Therefore, the impedance of the static earth fault relay is the same as
that of the static overcuirrent relay.

4.Need for directional control of overcurrent relays

If time-delayed overcurrent relays are set to give correct coordination for current
flowing in one direction, then coordination may be lost if the current flow is in the
opposite direction. In general, fault current could flow in either direction through a
circuit if:
- the system has more than one source of supply
- a parallel circuit is invoved
- the network is operated as a closed ring
Should any of the aforestated conditions apply, then directional control of the
overcurrent relays will be required. The direction of current flow to operate the relay
should be from the busblar into the circuit, and the relays are coordinated in a similar
manner to non-directional relays by considering (in turn) the group of relays 'looking' in
one direction followed by the group 'looking' in the opposite direction. In practice, if
the difference in nominail operating time of the incoming circuit and the outgoing circuit
at a substation is greater than the design grading margin, then the relay with the longer
operating time may be rnade non-directional. Whilst this practice may effect short-term
cost savings, it is likely to introduce problems if the network is reconfigured in the
future, either on a temporary or permanent basis, and therefore is not recommended.

The direction of a.c. current flow can only be established with regard to a reference.
The most convenient reference available is the system voltage, and therefore a
directional relay requires both a current and a voltage input. The disposition of the
current applied to the relay relative to the voltage applied to to the relay at system unity
power factor is termed the 'relay connection'; also, the angle by which these two
quantities must be displaced for the relay to develop maximum torque is termed the

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'maximum torque angle', or (more relevant to static relays) 'relay characteristic angle'
(RCA), at which the relay has its optimum operating response. Several possibilities
exist for 'relay connection' and 'RCA', with each possibility providing certain
advantages depending upon the application. However, the 90° connection with either
30" or 4 5 O RCA, current leading voltage, is now generally accepted as standard for all
applications. A firther advantage of modern technology enables user selection of RCA,
thereby facilitating the use of a standard relay for various applications. The selection of
the most suitable RCA depends upon the location of the relay within the network.
Extensive analysis of system fault conditions, together with considerations of various
boundaries of operation, have reduced the problem of selection to a relatively
straightforward function.

5 . Need for directional control of earth fault relays

An earth fault relay monitors the residual current from all three phases, and hence, the
application of any particular phase-to-neutral or phase-to-phase voltage in order to
establish a directional reference becomes inappropriate, because the phase disposition
of the two quantities would depend upon which phase of the system was faulted. For
this reason, a directional earth fault relay utilises the system residual voltage as the
reference, because the disposition of this voltage relative to the residual current is easily
predictable. The residual voltage reference is obtained from the open delta secondary
(or tertiary) winding of a suitable three phase v.t. (or 3- single phase v.t.s). The v.t.
requires an earthed star primary winding, and a magnetic construction to enable the
correct transformation of residual quantities. The amount of residual voltage available
at the relaying location (point of measurement) will depend upon the method of system
earthing and the source impedance. Generally, directional earth fault relays require only
a very small signal (approx. 1%) to maintain their directional response and ensure
decisive operation.

If the voltage reference signal is insufficient to ensure satisfactory response of the relay,
then an additional current reference may be applied. The relay is then said to be 'dual
polarised' with the current reference being obtained from a suitable source of residual
current - typically the connection to earth from a local power transformer star winding.
It should be noted that not all power transformer earth points provide a suitable current
reference, the main criterion being the possible direction of current flow in the earth
connection under various fault conditions. The appropriate RCA for directional earth
fault relays depends upon the anticipated phase angle between the residual current and
the residual voltage; this in turn depends upon the method of system earthing and the
zero sequence source impedance including the type of circuit 'behind' the relay under
consideration.

6. Protection coordination, MYLV transformers in parallel supplied via parallel feeders

Figure 25 identifies the system arrangement.

6.1. Overcurrent relays

The transformer 11kV overcurrent relays, ref. IC', are required to discriminate with an
LV acb having a 'long time delay' current setting, Ir, of 1250A with a time setting of

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30s @ 1.S*Ir, and a short time delay' current setting of lS*Ir with a time setting of
0.1s. These LV characteristics are illustrated on figure 26, refs. 'a' and 'b', showing the
upper tolerance limits for three phase and phase-to-phase short-circuit conditions,
respectively. The overcurrent setting, ref. 'cl, = 0.85*100/1 = 8 5 4 coresponds to 130%
of transfomer rating in order to permit temporary overloading in the event of the loss of
the adjacent unit. The extremely inverse (EI) characteristic, having a cut-off at 10* is
the most appropriate, with a time multiplier (tms) of 0.56 to provide an operating time
of 0.45s at 8 5 0 4 compared with the upper tolerance of 0.29s for the LV acb. The
grading margin of 0.16s is based upon equation 1, the relevant components being,
(0.1*0.29) + 0.03 + 0.1s. The independent time (IT) current characteristic is set to 1.1*
the upper tolerance of 'b', giving a setting of lOOOA at a time of 0 . 2 4 ~compared
~ with
0.1s for 'b'. The instantaineous setting corresponds to 1.25" the maximum short-circuit
current for an LV fault, i.e., 1.25*23MVA = 1500A.

The 11kV bus section relays, ref Id', are required to discriminate between faults on
either section of busbar. By connecting each relay in the differential circuit of the
appropriate bus section 1c.t.s and feeder c.t.s, the relay will 'see' only the current in the
relevant busbar and downstream circuit. This arrangement is known as 'partial
differential busbar' protection. The overcurrent setting permits the maximum load on
the section = 3.75MVA (197A). A suitable value, allowing for relay tolerance and
resetting, is 0.48*500/1 = 240A. Again the extremely inverse (EI) characteristic, having
a cut-off at 10* is the mlost appropriate, with a time multiplier (tms) of 0.155 (0.16 is
the next available) to provide an operating time of =>0.76s at 10004 compared with
the time of 0.45s for ref IC'. The grading margin of 0.31s uses equation 1, with the
values, (0.25*0.45) + 0.103 + 0.07 + 0.1s. The first IT current characteristic is set to
1.2* lOOOA, giving a setting of 1200A at a time of 0 . 4 6 ~ compared
~ with 0.24s for 'c'.
This grading margin of 0.22s uses equation 2, with the values, (O.l"O.24) + 0.03 + 0.07
+ 0.1s. The second IT characteristic is set to 1.2" 15004 giving a setting of 1800A at a
time of 0 . 2 2 ~
compared
~ with the time of 0.02s for IC'. This grading margin of 0.2s uses
equation 2, with the values, (O.l"O.02) + 0.03 + 0.07 + 0. Is.

The 11kV feeder directional relays, ref. 'g', are employed to discriminate between faults
on either of the parallel jfeeders. Each of these relays must be as sensitive as practicable
because the relay current reduces as the fault location moves upstream.There are,
however, sensitivity limits to both the current and time settings of relay 'g', due to
transient currents fed from induction motors to a short-circuit upstream of the feeders.
For this particular installation, there is approximately 5MVA of induction motor load,
resulting in an initial coritribution of around 2 0 M V 4 at a typical time constant of
80ms, and illustrated by the curve ref. 'e'. An E1 relay characteristic is appropriate, set
at 0.24*500/1 = 1 2 0 4 tms = 0.075, to discriminate with curve ref. 'f', the latter being
the integration of curve 'e'. An instantaneous setting of 2.4*500/1 = 1200A can also be
added to minimise clearance time for high level faults.

A disadvantage of the directional relay is that it can only operate sequentially for a
feeder fault close to the source, and, hence, figure 25 also includes differential relays
using pilot wires, ref. 'h'. These are provided because the protection specification for
this system stipulates sh'ort-circuitfault clearance times within 0.3s. In this respect it
should be noted that the pilot-wire relays are also necessary because the overcurrent
relays at the source end of the feeders must discriminate with relays Id', and, therefore

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do not comply with the 0.3s fault clearance requirement. The reason for this specified
time is to reduce the effect of a short-circuit on the performance of induction motors,
for which longer fault clearance times would seriously prejudice re-acceleration.

6.2. Earth fault relays

The available earth fault current is limited to 1500A by resistance earthing of the source
neutral.

The transformer 11kV earth fault relays, ref'. IC', do not 'see' faults on the LV side,
because they are supplied from the residual connection of the c.t. secondaries. Hence,
there is no need to coordinate their settings LV acb. However, the E1 characterisic is
chosen having a setting of 0.2* 100/1 = 20A, tms = 0.1, with an instantaneous value of
1.6"100/1 = 1 6 0 4 in order to ensure stability for a ct error of 5% during an assumed
through fault of 20*ct rating, and taking into account a system X/R ratio of 5. This
provides a safety factor of not less than 1.5 without the need for stabilising resistance,
whilst ensuring high speed internal-fault operation, the overall characteristic, 'c' being
shown on figure 27.

As described for the overcurrent relays in 6.1., the 11kV bus section relays, ref. Id', are
required to discriminate between faults on either section of busbar. By connecting each
relay residually in the differential circuit of the appropriate bus section c.t.s, the relay
will 'see' only the current in the relevant busbar and downstream circuit. Hence, an E1
characteristic is again appropriate, a suitable setting being 0.2*500/1 = 1OOA.with a
tms of 0.007 (0.05 is the lowest recommended) to provide an operating time of
=>0.36s at 160A, compared with the time of 0.13s for ref. IC'. The grading margin of
0.23s uses equation 1, with the values, (0.25*0.13) + 0.03 + 0.07 + 0.1s. The IT
current characteristic is set to =>1.2* 1 6 0 4 giving a setting of 200A at a time of
0.22s, compared with 0.02s for IC'. This grading margin of 0.2s uses equation 2, with
the values, (0.1 *0.02) + 0.03 + 0.07 + 0.1s.

The settings of the1 1kV feeder directional relays, ref 'g',determined in 6.1., are
sufficiently sensitive for earth fault protection, although a separate residually connected
element is required, having an RCA of 0". As also stated in 6.1., the disadvantage of the
directional relay is that it can only operate sequentially for a feeder fault close to the
source. Hence, the earth fault characteristic of the differential relays using pilot wires,
ref. Ih', as already recommended in 6.1., is shown for the least sensitive phase at
maximum feeder load.

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PR.OTECTION COORDINATION

21123119MVA &

FIGURE 25

217
 a = lv acb, Ir = In = 125OA, tr = 30s @ 1.5*Ir, Im = 15*In, tm = 0.1s
upper tolerance,t h e e-phase fault
b = as 'a', but phase-to-phase fault
c = 51(EI, cut-off @ 1O*Is), Is = 0.85*100/1 = 85A, tms = 0.56, 51(IT), Is
= 10*100/1 = 1000A, t = 0 . 2 4 ~ 50,~ IS= 15*100/1 = 1500A
d = 51(EI, cut-off @ 10*1~),IS = 0.48*500/1 = 240A, t m = ~ 0.16, 51(IT),
Is = 2.4*500/1 = 1200A, t = 0 . 4 6 ~51(IT),
~ IS = 3.6*500/1 = 1800A, t =
0.22s
O/C Protection Coordination

v)
-U
c
0
0
a,
v)

amperes on IIkV side

e = contribution to short-circuit by induction motors (total ratmg SMVA)

f = integration of 'e'
g = 67(EI), Is = 0.24*500/1 = 120A, tms = 0.075, 50, Is = 2.4*500/1 =
1200A
h = 87, Is (least sensitive phase-to-phase) = 1.0*500/1 = 500A

FIGURE 26

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 c = 51N(EI), IS = 0.2!*100/1 = 20A, tms = 0.1, 50N, IS = 1.6*100/1 =
160A
d = 51N(EI), IS = 0.;!*500/1 = lOOA, tms = 0.05, 51N(IT), IS = 0.4*500/1
= 200A, t = 0.22s
g = 67(EI), IS = 0.24*500/1 = 120A, tms = 0.075, 50, IS = 2.4*500/1 =
1200A
h = 87, Is (least sensitive phase-to-earth at 475A4,max. load) = 0.67*500/1
= 333A
E/F Protection Coordination
1o2 I I

1o1

tn
-0
s 10
C

Q)
O

tn

lo-’

1o-2
I I

1o1 1o2 Io3 Io4

amperes on 11kV side

FIGURE 27
0 1997 The institution of Electrical Engineers.
Printed and published by the IEE, Savoy Place, London WC2R OBL, UK.

219