The Ecology of Crime (One of Durbin’ agents as that rapid sca change was act ated wit increases in eine due tothe breallown of socal control, This idea was one of several used by members ofthe Department of Seino at the Unverstyof Chicago nthe 1920s in thee attompe to Pinpoint the environmental factors asoited with erie and to deter fine the relatnship among tse actors. However, insteaoffoe ingen rap change neni siete, they Fase om rp change in neghhortoods| 8 Their procedure invoked comeating the characteristic of each neighborhood withthe cme rates of ht eghbortood. This ist lage scale sty of rime in America produced & mae of dat and large tomber of obserations about crime that ld diet to mich of the Iter workin American eimiology. Since this esearch wat bused on an image of human commits taken fom plan ecology it Beem Town asthe Chien Schoo of Haman Beso ‘THE THEORY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY ‘The term ecology, as itis used today. i often linked tothe dea of pro tecting the natural environment. Ta is original meaning, however, iis ‘a branch of biology in which plants and animals are studied in their re latonships to each other and to their natural habits, Plant life and an imal life ae seen as an intecately complicated whole, a web of Hf in ‘which each part depends on almost every other par for some aspect of its existence. Organisms in theie natural habitat exists an ongoing ba: ance of nature, 2 dmanie equilibrium in which each india must Struggle to survive. Ecologist study this web of interrelationships and Interdependencies in an attempt to discover the forces that define the activities of ach part. ‘Human communities, particularly those organized around a free ‘The Feology of Crime re market economy and a lisse-fire government, could be seon to re= Semble this bite state in nature, Each individ strug for his oF her sural in an tterrelated, mutually dependent community. The Darwinian law of sural ofthe fitest applies here as wel Robert Park proposed a parallel betwoen the distribution of plant hie in mature and the organization of human hfe i societies He had heen ‘Chicago newspaper reporter for twenty-five years and had spent much ‘ofthat time investigating socal conditions in the ety, Chicago at that time hada population of over 2 millon; eeween 1860 and 1910 ts pop tation had doubled every ten years, wth wave alter wave of immigrants Park was appointed tothe Sociology Department at the University of Chicago in 1914, From the study of plant and animal ecology he de rived fw key concepts that formed the bass of what he calle the “the fry of human ecology: The fist concept cane from the observations of the Danish ecolo- gst Warming who noted that a group of plants in given area night Fhave many charicterstics that, in combination, were simular to those of an individual organism? Warming called sich groups “plant commun ties” Other ecologists argued that the plant and animal be in a given Tabitat tended toclevelop "natural economy” in which ciferent species are each able to live more prosperovsly together than separately. This, is called “srmbioss,” or the ling together of diferent species to the ‘tual benefit of each. Since each plant and animal cormnunity was said to resemble an organism, the Balance of nature in the habitat was Sid to resemble a super-organism, Park's work as a newspaperman had led him to vew the ct nasi Alar way—not merely as a geographic phenomenon, but as a kind of ‘sper-ongunia that had “organi unit)" derived fom the symbiotic in tereations of the people who lived within #3 Within this super ‘organism Park ound many "natural areas” whee different types of eo- pl lived. These natural areas, lke the natural areas of plants, hall an fnganic unity of thei een. Some of them were racial o ethnic com tures, such as “Chinatown,” "Lil Ray,” 0 the "Black Bol.” Other natural areas inchaded individuals in certain income oF oceupationl Gat eis Scag ab ee ITs fm ern gg of eel rs ws Sn tay Uaneay Chea Bes Chg io, pp HOEMe Theoretical Criminology groups, or they were instr or business areas. Stil ther areas were ‘hyateally cut of from the tet ofthe city by ead tracks rivers Jor highways, or unused space. Symbiotic relationships exited ot only “mon the people within «natural area where the butcher needed the huaker fr brea and the baker needed the butcher for meat), but also mong the natural areas within the eit. Each natural area was seen 38 playing apart in the fe ofthe ety asa whole. “The second basic concept Park took from plant ecology involved the process by which the balance of mature in a given area might change, Krew species may invade the area, come to dominate and drive out ther le Tors. For example, «cleared fed in one ofthe southern tates wil fst he covered it tall weeds. Later this field wll be in ‘aded and dominated by broomsedge and, even liter, by pine trees. F- hull he fel il stblize as an oak hckory forest. Ecologist all this process “invasion, dominance, and succession.” “This process can als be sen human seitis. The history of Amer- Jea i aprocess of invasion, dominance, and succession by Buropeans into the terstry of Native Americans. And in ties one cultural or eth rie group may fake over an entire neighborhood from another group, beginning wh the shift of only one or two residents. Sinilaly, busi ‘ess oF industry may move into and ultimately tke over w previously resident neighborhood. The proceses of invasion, dominance, and succession were further explored by Park’ associate, Emest Burgess, who pointed out that etes| ‘donot merely prow at their edges. Rather, they havea tendency to e% pnd radially fom thee center in pattems of concent cites, each Tnoving gradually outward, Burgess desenbed these concentse circles ome 1s the central business ditt, while Zone Tis the are in mediately around it. Zone Tl generally & the oldest section of the cy, dnd if continually invlsed fn 4 process of invasion, dominance, and ‘Secession by the businesses and industry that are expanding fom Zone 1 Houses in this zone are already deteriorating and wil be allowed to titeriorate further beeanse they willbe torn down inthe foreseeable ature to make way for incoming business ad Industry Since this the least desinble residential section ofthe ety its usualy occupied by the poorest people, including the most recent immigrants to the ety “Zane II is the zone of relatively modest homes and apartment, occ pied by workers and thelr fais who have escape the deteriorating femditions in Zone HL. The Binal zone shin the ity self Zone IV, the residential districts of single-family houses and more expensive “puetnents. Beyond the ty Tit are the suburban areas andthe satel Dhe Bevlogy of Crime 143 Ite es, which conse Zane V, the commuter ze ach of hes Ave zones grin a hs dhl rong utd nt te. resp ye mt pe fa, acs, “las ocean ch ef Io td ues oer zones For sample, Barges noted the beat Ghingos Zane I whereJovth innit ately setded. Zone I ves an aca offshore homes hat as onan ech we residents rm Ze ado same tine ns comeoty Wane dents to more desirable Jewish neighborhonds ta Zones IV and ¥" ‘Win the anewor of hess as Fahad is colleges tied ‘he cy of Chicago sd its problens They attempt acne he process by wih the bia bance an! Ue Secale we Imaal nce th ar acheed the process by wh hen the biotic balance and the social equilibrium are disturbed, the transt- Uo sade fom one ele abled to ane [RESEARCH IN THE “DELINQUENCY AREAS" OF CHICAGO Parks theories were used as the huss fora broadly ranging study of the problem of juvenile detinguency in Chicago by Clifford R. Shaw: The problem of erime and delinquency had become of inereasing concern to socal seientists inthe 1920s becanse the country was gripped In a ime wave generate by resistance to Prohibition, a problen hat was particularly severe in Chicago. ‘Shaw worked asx probation and parole officer dri this period and bnecame convinced tat ehe problem of juvenile delingueney had sor nin the juvenil’s "detachment fom coaventional groups rather than in any biological or peyehologial abnormalities Following his ap- pointinent tothe Institute foe Juvenile Research i Chicago, Sha de vised strategy bused on the theory of human ecology to study the process by which this “detachment from consentional groups occurred area ay gh at er atta se, Soon eae eee Ee fac Mem fray ham, "cca, Petia taba inant an een ke geal Sy sey Chg Pee Cc 1078, Shea Weapons Coan iit iso aa ‘Theoretioal Criminology Because he saw delinquents as essentially normal human beings, he believed that ther legal uctivies were somehow bound up with their environment, Therefore the fist stage of his strategy involved analy Ing the characterstis of the neighborhoods that, acconting to police and court recon, had the most delinquents, But even in the worst of these neighborhoods only about 20 percent of the youth were actually Involved with the court. Shaw therefore compiled extensive “Ie histor shes" from individ detinguents to find out exactly baw they had re late to their ensronment. ‘Shaw frst published hs nelghborhood studies in 1929 in a volume entitled Delinquency Areas, al he subsequently published more of his research in two studies coauthored with Henry D. MeKay, Social Far: tors in Juvenile Detingueney (1931) and Juvenile Delinquency and Ure ‘ban Areas (1942). Shaw and MeKay reached the fllawing conclusions 5a result of studying neighborhoods 1. Physic! Stars: The neighborhoods with the highest delagueney aes were Found to be located within or iminetely adjacent to ate a hey ists or commerce. These neghborhoots alo ba the gest number of ‘condemned bulls, and their population wns deren, The ppltion ‘hinge was assumed tobe related to an nds vas fhe ae ich rele in fever buildings beg avalble or esdentalecepation 2. Beonomic Status: The highest rates of deingeey were found in he ares oflowest econone stata ar determined bys numberof pic actors ulin the percentage of fails on welfare, the median rental, andthe Percentage anes ons homes "These area alo had the highest ales tf infant deaths active ease of tuberosity. But Shaw nd ‘Meky conde that reontic conditions did ot fa themselce ease ‘exe problems, This contusion ws aso he fc tht the ates fd ‘quency of ult csinaly, of fan deaths and of tuborculs forthe ty {a whole remained relatively sable between 1039 and 184, hen the (Geet Depression hit ad theve ws tenfold increase inthe numb a families on publ oe pratesstanor. Medan rentals, well riers thee cconotne ease ontinied to show tat the ae wth he highest ‘coneratrations of these problems were a the Invest eeonomie sas rel tie to oer areas of the es. These plems sppeur to be ssid sth the least preyed gre soit, regu othe acta economic ‘ondions ofthat sey ae hole 8. Population Compostion. Ares of highest delinguenty were consent sociated wit higher concentrations of fresgn bor and Afro-American Zyl Sh an yD May, yn i rms, sy ‘The Ecology of Crime us has of fan? To determine the pci role of racial and thn fa tor in the causation of delinquency. Sha and Mekay farther analy thse data The found tht cert ianer ity area in Zone Heenan mong those with the highest dlinguency rates i he iy despite shits fof almost ll the poption ofthese eens, In 1884 sppsoinate'y 90 per. tet ofthe population n these areas was German, Leh, English, Seats, tr Scandinavian By 1980 approximately 85 percent of the popsation ws Cech, tala, Posh, Sl, oer inspite of ths dramatist in th le populations thee wight areas contin to ive soe ofthe highest Akingoeney rte nthe oy. At the sn time thre was o ieee tn ‘lelnguency rates he areas ito which the older mga nnn tes moved They also found that, within similar areas, each group, whether for- ign-bom or native, recent immigrant or older immigrant, black or ‘white, had a delinquency rate that was proportional tothe rate ofthe ‘overall area, No racial national. or nativity group exhibited uniform characteristic rate of dlinguency in all pats of the city. Each group produced delinquency rates that ranged from the lowest t the highest, Inthe ity, depending onthe type of area surveyed. Although some var ton associated with the group could be seen twas apparent thatthe ‘overall delingueney rate of a particular group depended primanly on Ihow many indviduals of that group resided in "delinquency ares and Mekay concluded Tn the Face of these fast lol to stain the contention th, by then selves, he factors of race, natty, nd ational re itl related othe prob Jem of joetle delinquency It sems necessary to conde, rather, th he sigan higher rates of dcingunts ound among the children of Nees, the foreign orn, and more recent immigrant are casey eed to existing ilerences intel especie patton of yeogeaphialdbaton within the tty If these groups were lou nthe sme proportion inl lc ae, ex ‘ting differences sn he relative numberof ys brought ito const fom the saris groups might be expected tbe gpeatyeedaced orto dapear en tire In addition to this research, Shaw compiled and published a series of ie histories” of individual detinguents. including The Jckrller (1990), The Natural History of a Delinquent Career (1931), and Brothers in Crime (1998) The base findings of these histories are summed! np i the follwing points146 ‘Theoretical Criminology 1. Debnquens, by and lage, are not ferent from lange numbers of perons incomertoal sty wih respect to itellgene, pal coin, and penny at 2. Indelineny ares the conventional raion. neighnood int wons publi pinion, through wich neighboriods aly effet x cotrl over The behavr af the cd, were ley dsnterited Inaction, pent ‘al ih eet apse of dinguet ber so that he hid for ep “na scl word wich (linge) a ay accepted and a> Prope fo cont 2. The neighborhoods inoded many opportunities for dlngust athe, ‘lain jn ders, poesonal ences, and resents ho parched thee stolen gods and “updated bigs wich seve a incentive for jnking* Thre wns aio “ak of prepare, trang opportu ‘nd proper ecourgement fr sce employment npr ty" 4. Debaguent acts ates ras boan a an ya 8 par of play setts ofthe treet 5. In these play atv, there fa contin of tration in a ghen neigh Turon! fom alder bays to younger bys. This tion inloes the {tanmison of ch dierent rial hnigos a colin, shop {ng telng om jskmen,or stealing atomataes, otha diferent argh Dotboss were chrateraed bythe same types of offenses ove log Pe see of tine 6 The oral nts ffl soi contr oud at stop hs proces 7.1t was only ner in a deinqunt career thatthe ida began “to deny inal with the erin word ao enby in his em ph Tosphy oie the mr values which prevledin the rina groups with ‘wh he ld contact Tar wa de tho hc oat the Selngsen had with joer and ada erininals om the sect and i ‘crvetiona ition, and to nejton snd tigation bythe com 11 Cin Su, an Cre, Uy fC rhs 5 3 Se He her's Te ae, Uaiy cig Ps Cag TT ot Pe Nal ia fe i Cross gy Chap ap 12 Sam Nt Hay, p 2 Se a Th keep. 16 ed Bh nh, 3, 15 hw. rn Cp. Stn Sw a Mi op. The fori tal 15 hn Be Oo. 8 8 Na op. he err». 18 Se 1 Show art Hay 298 Se sh Te Jot ph 1 rah Ce, ‘The Poology of Crime ur Shaw concluded that delinquency and other socal problems are closely related tothe process of invasion, dominance, and sucesson that determines the concentric growth putters ofthe ity When a particular location in the ity is “invaded by new residents, the estab lished symbiotic relationship tht bind that location to natural area are destroyed. Ultimately this loetion sill be incorporated asa o1- finic part ofa new natural are, and the soil equa vl be r= Stored: Meanwhile the natural organization ofthe location will be se ‘erly impaired ‘These “interstitial areas” (50 called because they are im Detceen the ‘ongunized natural areas) become aficted with a wriety of socal prob- lems that are diretly traceable to the rapid sift in populations. The formal social ganizations that existed i the neighborhood tend to dis. Integrate asthe orginal population retreats. Becanse the neighborhood 's in tanstion, the residents no longer identify with it and thus they ‘do not care as much about its appearance oF reputation. There is ‘marked deerease in “noighboriness” and in the ably ofthe people of the neighborhood to control thee youth, For example, nan established neighborhood, a resident wo is aware tht childs geting into tron ble may call that chil’s parents or may report that cid tothe lea a thorities. But eeause new people are continuously moving into the in terstital area, residents no longer know their ow neighbors or thelr neighbors children, Thus children who are out of thelr parents’ sight may be under almost no control, even i their own neighborhood. The high mobility ofthe residents also means that ehere is high turnover ‘of children in the local schools. This is dseuptive both to leaning and to discipline, Finaly the area tends to bocome a battleground between the invading and retreating cultures. Tis ean generate a great deal of ‘conflict inthe community, which tends to he manifested in individual and gang confit between the youth of the two cultures ‘Although other areas only periodically undergo this process, areas in “Zone I are continually boing invaded both by the central busines di trict and by successive waves of new immigrants coming ito the city from foreign countries and from rural areas, These new immigrant al ready have many problems asscisted with their adjustment tothe new Clture In alton, the neighborhood into which the numigrant moves isin a chronic state of "social disorganization.” This presents the inn ‘gant with many additional problems, an there i almost no help ava able to solve any of them. Thus recent immigrants tend to ve a wide 2. Murs 7 78 ky, a Walk oe So ta, gee AE eae eeM45 Theoretical Criminology range of social problems, including delinquency among their youth, ‘These problems are resolved as recent immigrants acquire some of the resources necessary both to salve their ovm problems and to move into the better-establshed neighborhoods of Zone III, sith its natural processes of social contol POLICY IMPLICATIONS Because Sha elee that jveile dcingseny was generated by so cla dsorganzation tn inersttal ares, he did ot hehe that Wet Inet of nvidia dtingents wold hve nach cet reducing oer a delinquency ates. Rather, he thong tat the anver hal to be found inthe develope of programe which sok to ellot changes the conditions of i in specte lel communities and In whe see. tons ofthe ty! In Shae these roan cold onl con onpnzations of uelghborhood reskent otha the natu forces of Social control could take effet Thus in 1882 be lunched the Chicago ‘tea Projet high ested twenty-two neighorod centers ins ares of Chicago Control ofthese centers ested th commits a inal ese rater than withthe ental val ofthe projet and al residents were enplyed a af. “These centers ad primary functions, Fit thy weet coord nate such commit resaures ts churches, schools, Tabor anions, oes an tein aoa wg coma problems Seon, they were to sponsor a vary of actly po Including eereton, mime caning and sontingecies nde ‘orkshops,dcssion groups and commun projects Though these cvs the projet sgh to dew poste terest bythe ina items in their on wee, to exe deere His of ea zens who weld enable the whole commenty fo boone sare fy Problems and temp their sltion by common actin "The' Chicago Area Project operated continual for twenty-five ear, until Ss death n 157 ut fet on dlingaeny in thse tres was never pec eval A snr prj in Bast as 21 Suan Mao 9 4 2B Solon ey Thee At jes —A35 rs aan da fer Sey 9 ha Se tp 1 aia Sa. nN 2 oer ih pi eo Ser Ed eld onl on on fe 2 Mar, he Cin bp 8, ‘The Beology of Crime 49 careily erated by Walter B, Miler over three-year period Here {ta ound tht the projet was effective naclering ry irae fgnle, I establhed oe reatonshps with loa gang and organi their members it cbs Inresed thelr invohement in ereational tives, proved the wth aces to oscpional and edison ‘pportn tore hizen opinion se it acres ner ge cooperation in aesing commurity problems. “The ga ofa hes acts, however wast reduce the incdence of dlnguent behavior To asst the mat of the project onthe Be Ror of the youth, Miler analy the dally ld eps of he ot ‘each workers which incoded «description ofthe ates of each Youth, The Behaviors were then cssifed “nora” or “immoral Teer moral meant dspprval bythe commit ut not nee cs avilton of the law! anda loreal Te fond that the rato of moral to immoral behaviors remained rly eon stant thoughout the project, and that although the ttl number of gal act decreased shy drag te projet, the numberof mi Joroffenes by bos creed. Tn ation, data were compiled on the ttmber of eaurt appearances made by each youth before, during and afer contac with the project, and these data were compared wih the thimber of court appearances by «control group. There was most todiference in thete stasis Miller conlned tha the projet had iad a “heigl impact" on delinquency?” The fale ofthis and Cher sina projcts led dant cone that tw ih that “the Chicago” Aten Projet ako led to prevent javene deine cueney = RECENT THEORY AND RESEARCH ON NEIGHBORHOODS AS ‘CAUSES OF CRIME Despite the faire ofthe Chicago Area Project to prevent delinquency ‘criminologists have continued to argue tht neighbaeoods themselves te important as causes of erime and delinquency ane that they are "ppropriate targets for crime prevention programs. To a considerable extent, this contnning focus & the result of Shaw and McKay's dh tovery of resentiol succession, the fact that neighborhoods often re tain thelr high evime and delinquency rates despite total turnovers in population, co Tin Cty eee Cit Pc Sai150 Theoretical Criminology Bors and Webb ete his concept sing dt on Cho ih seth det compre taf Sw McKay Tey ed Teche en centbn anes tpt by dt fo {0 1060 omer aer 100 al ghd unersng cal ‘adne were cancer gh dengue se exact hte SLingueney rast th change a and Web net ht Adagio of cy ably A i ne She oo Mckay roth aes tansion wee fund ea the ey {eas the pees of tenon fo othing eden rear wt geal Ths na proces oe opel mee teem ‘tan smeesntee flow nh op tere pops Sng wie tance any Backs wow toe migh Seed well bet lit ight nd tl x tues tees ine foc tans sal tations Sapp nin seed twee en ong he ew een oul hig dingy rcs stated wth sal dg {stom Barak and Web on ha te tn eoods a Eien thy dls ne natch itt ha weld Been gtd fmt pcp ding om ten wl seven aber est found hat egy es ere Inrening Aer Ameren merlin scr ogee edna hangs Dt wee dosing Ales neiorhoot that a Bn se se eprning wih an asumpton ab ede scents sted ta tbout iain hese hat sect th Iig me ls npn fhe pole wo ne hea a seer tots qustion fe preset oral hoy hy gad roosts !Thes thy poposton fue on fe srt SodPot tn nor enya people nso eh Fever) (nop ae ile money) sed ws wens Ina neat lint tne pa ence Qrpl grt move intel an ann th ete ad pt ha inp dames oe lint Sar angst aa ay, a == sual gation sh ar at mae ett ka apne le ona son Eigse meses en tata nny 1085 0 The Feology of Crime 181 smn residents, rove one portunities to commit rime increase ‘ofiatonst commit rime and decease nrmal surveillance By which re na commons bel in check Ava consequence ete prone people are trae to the meighborond, whl abiding poo leet ot they can This es high cre rasta fen 0 per Six ven when there ae complete tumover inthe people wh ive there. [ o Sina, Sampson revewed recent research onthe relation between seighborhoods and eine na atempé fo detrine how community Stactres and cues eres different crime rates Poor neighbor fds have higher eime rates, but Sampson fond ta poverty sls sor elated to rine. Rather poverty combined wth resdental mobi iy Le, quent ves residents) scr tbe asoiatd th higher levels viet eine, Neighhoriood vats offal esraption (ce rates snd rates of female-teaded houses) are tong and consi tently elated orules of violence, Neighborhoods wth high perent ‘ges of Aftean Americans hav higher ene rats, bt race tl tends todrop ot when funy disruption and poverty re ake int accom Fal nelghborioods with high population dens. many apartments and high concentrations of indus who donot live win fal Station tnd to have higher rts of rte and ilece Sunpon explained the pater of research finns with Shas com cept of anal dorgtiaton, Sampson defined socal dorian ts the nail of te commun to realizes common values. ne {ple work! be when community residents ope drag ase bu ane tot get eid ofthe dog dealers who hve taken ver nearby corer oF House fora drug marke, There may be avai of reasons that some commits cannot elie thr comin vas, toe eso the Tack of what Coleman alsa ait networks of elation ships amon ope that faite common action and ake possible the achicverent of common god In genera when here fe many sail eltonshipraongormmniy resents lt of eal np ital), there ler cries This Becanse noone wants cine in ht ‘um nigra andthe socal relationship alow peopl to ahi ther common goal of ding the crime ot 3. eter | Senn “he Comma. H-26 in ae QW Smite sta Sena Stat oe Wak pe SEM engl rane ere 3 je inal te Ge an ap ner ra So J152 Theoretical Criminology ‘Sampson then proposed a causal sequence that sal this research together in a way that resembles Shaw's ealer work Poverty, family disruption, and residential instability are community characteristics that result in anouymity and the lack of relationships among neighborhood residents and low participation in community organizations and In local activities, Because of this “ow social expt” neighbors are notable to ‘exer effective contzl over pubic or common areas, such a street and parks, and so they ate free to be taken aver by criminal, fn addition, Toca teenagers have considerable freedom because the anonymity of the neighborhood means that they and ther frends are unknown to adults eventhough they may be only «short distance from their homes, All ofthis ests in increased erkme and violence inthe neighborhood, Independent ofthe people who live there, The high ime and violence then promotes further disintegration of the community, as law-abiding residents withdraw from community hfe and try to move ont of the neighborhood ‘Atleast some ofthe concentration of eine amnong Asean Americans, according to Simpson, is eaused by differences in the neighborhoods in ‘hich they lve. About 38 percent of poor blacks live in extremely poor ‘neighborhoods, where th above processes are likely to oecur nd only 16 percent of poor black live in neighborhoods that are not poor. In ‘contrast, poor whites are much more widely dispersed in society. Only about 7 percent of poor whites live in extremely por neighborhoods, ‘wile around 70 percent of them live in neighborhoods that ae na poor at al. The “wort” urban contests in which whites reside, in terms of poverty and family disruption, are cosiderably better than the average turban contexts in which blacks reside" To the extent that neighbor. hoods themselves have a causal impact on erie, this would produce marked differences inthe erime rates ofthese two groups, ‘Sampson proposed a varity of policy recommendations that are fo- cased on “changing places, not people.” These include tageting "hot spots” in the comninity where there is frequent criminal activity tp ping the “spiral of decay” by cleaning up tash, graft, and so an ‘reasng the soil relationships between adlts and teenagers through ‘organized youth activities; reducing residential mobility by enabling ee iets to buy their homes or take over management of their apartment seatter public housing in broad range of neighborhoods rather than tance eee Nah el The Beology of Crime 155 concentrating it in poor neighborhoods; maintain and increase urban services, such as police, fie, and pubic heath series, especialy those sled at reducing child abuse a teen pregnancy; and geneelly in ‘reuse community power by promoting commanty organizations. He ‘oneeded that sueh program have had tinited success in the past, but fargued that smal successes ean produce cumulative changes that result {iva more stable community ithe long ran SITUATIONAL CONTENTS OF CRIME The term situation” refers to themed sting in which beavor tccut and “statoa ana refers fo he search or regres in ‘eto been babar and stations’ Neghborbde re te sitatioal content tat can nlunce the occurence of ere, Re Cent research bs bok at a uety of ther stata content oe plain beh tho tetbod that erimes wl occur snd he ele that Paria pople wl be tinted by them seni these theres ase at there are bays people around wi wl commit eine if gen chance s0 they do not ean the Intaton o commit cine. Rates, hey explain he seats and ie Cutan whch ota fenders find that they have theo nyt commit cre Therefore, thee tore sometimes re Sled "ppt Bcoriof ene For cpl, ning oie companies large asters sch a foots, earthvake, violent sors, wars nd ts Home owner aod store owner fe the dtr, kevig ther property npreteted. The police often are bsy wth more resting mater sich ar ving human Fees Many pope who normal would net commit crime take ava tag ofthe opportuni nth uation and tal heer hey think thy can getty ith “fhe pecding sample would bea theory fst selton in thc desrbes the peso stations tat motte fenders se Iet to conmitthirerits Tn gene, mated fenders comer tose of cost the gt the etiond of ing stereo exh. nd the epeted reward This perspective asus hat fenders are innly rata in thet decsow™maing proses, so i asiled ‘thao eee” explanations of erie Sain staal Rees Seceoy TONS oH, nen Anarene wa hace Pees on ting Spenser, New Yr, 10801st Theoretical Criminology Sign etd ee eg sae ers ime cee int any e's Sata sud svt sed Kes, aren pontine ea oe ete eink ok "Fgh nn i maf ena nano atae ey rea alg cee i sec cpa nel ak A ie pane a Sern Rn Ss a ceca Ge Senn ee oe ho et wy a oe rin pm ne it Siege saben et cnemca eet zen ators Sona cesatestetia {2 fst, Me ome Manin an Seon read ce = ian ‘sme tat Com a Cae oe, Mew Flea Crome on rye er fay Reathe O Ch adFten d ichr R atec ca ele int tes Sor tn Pf roe Fly {Sc tee datas ay htc is CF Se cect eae echoes The Eoology of Crime 155, ‘of motivated offenders or changes inthe strength of theie motivation, But Colien and Felson argue that changes inthe erime mites instead ‘may be explained in term of changes inthe valaility of targets and Inthe absence of capable guardians. This exactly what happens when looting fllows a dsater—there is no inereuse in criminal motivation, bout snddenly there are many available targets and no capable guardians ‘Cohen and Felson argue that there have heen a great increase in the ssallablity of targets and inthe absence of eapable guardians in the ‘modern word asa result of changes in “routine actites’—i., how normal people lve thei ives, inching actiities related to works, home Hf, child rearing, education, and leisure. When people are home, they function as “guardans” for thee own property: But the routine actist- ties of moder life have le tothe “dispersion of activities aay from fay and household." This mean that many households no longer have capable guardians for extended and fury predictable periods of time, In alton, there has been large increase in gods that are portable tnd therefore suitable ava target for thieves. Por example, Cohen and Felson calculate that, in 1975, $2644 in motor vehicles and parts were stolen foreach $100 of these goods that were consumed. In compart son, $682 worth of electronic appliances were stolen for every $100, consumed, and 12¢ worth of farsiture and nonelectronic household ‘durables, The vast differences in these amounts is due to the sutal- tty ofthese sms as targets for thet Cohen and Felon then demon strated that changes in exime rates inthe United States from 1947 to 1974 could be explained lagly by these trends. That is, in 1947, peo- ple were home move ofthe time and more of what they owned was ike Tarte, while by 1974 people were sway from home more ofthe time tnd more of what they ned was like ears and eletronie appliancs So despite large increases in crime over that time period, there may be ‘changes in offender motivations atl ‘The routine actities approach offers an alternative to Durkheim's thoony of modemniziton a explanation for changes erie rates a rations undergo cconomie development. As discussed in the preceding chapter, Durkheim explained these changes primarily in terms of the breakdown of traditional values and beliefs. Neuman and Berge re viewed seventeen studies that compared Durkheims and the routine factisities approaches, ad found only weak support for either one. Bennett alto compared the two, using data from Rito nations rom Nop al tee nc uty a2 35 2156 Theoretical Criminology 1960 to 1984: In general, he found that neither approach cond ae count for changes in homicide rates, since homicide was not affected ster by development ee the rat of goth Bat the cae theft rates were consistent withthe routine activities Inore development was asoiated with more theft independent of the rate of goth at which the development was occurring, He also found “threshold” point at avery high level of development a which fur- ther economic development di not seem to be asocated with more theft Bennett suggested that this was probably due toa variety of "adap tive social mechanism” that began to become effective at that point, such at “theft target hardening (eg, better lock, higher fences, bur saralarms), development of community watches increasing survellance lover goods, and more effective police states and tats (eg, com> ‘muntyoriented policing)" CONCLUSIONS ‘The Chicago School of Human Ecology canbe deseribed as. ago mine ‘hat continnes to enrich criminology today. The indivi case sthes remain classic porrajals of delinquents and their socal world, the nr ban researeh methods have led to a wide variety of empirical studies, and the soil disorganization theory forms the bass for several other ‘heores in contemponty eiminolog. Despite the richness of this histore legacy, the ecological approach to evime was somewhat stagnant for many years Recently, however, there has been a vertable explosion of new theory and research that has ecological theory ait foundation. ‘The hase point of this new the cory and research is that crime eannot be understod without aso an derstanding the context in which it acct The immediate contexts are the neighborhoods in which people Ine and the situations that ther Iiestyes frequently place thom in, while the broadest context i formed. by the routine activities found in the entre society ‘Uhimately al thse ties implicitly rely on a view of society as has- {ng an organi unity that includes symbiotic relaionshipe among all ts ‘various pars. Crime is par ofthat symbiotic unity and sot ean only be ‘understood inthe contest of its relation to the acities inthe rest of the organism. As Meier and Micthe state, this whole line of research suggests that there i a “symbiotic relationship between conventional snd legal activities” in such a way that "vitims and offenders ane in ‘jfebet 1 Ban ‘Botpn ad Cmte Soa at 30-05 ‘The Ecology of Crime 1st cextricably linkedin an ecology of ere Thus, criminologists rst Took to the social context to nnvderstnd the parallel processes by which tins come to experience the nak of crime and offenders come to be ‘motivated to commit crime.