MATERIALS AND PROCESSES FOR NDT TECHNOLOGY ASNT Continuing Education Testing The American Society for Nondestructive Testing‘Materials and Processes for NDT Technology was edited by: Harry D. Moore Publication and review of this text was under the direction of the Personnel Training and Certification Committee of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing: George Wheeler, Chair (1976-80) Allen Whiting (1976-1979) Frank Satter, Vice Chair (1976-79) Robert Brostrom (1978-81) Robert Anderson, Secretary (1976-79) ‘Ward Rummel (1978-81) EC. Berry (1976-78) John Weiler (1978-81) Chet Robards (1976-79) Robert Baker (untenured) Carl Shaw (1976-82) EN. Moschini (untenured) Kermit Skeie (1976-79) Ed Briggs (1979-82) Robert Spinetti (1976-80) Jack Spanner (1979-82) Contributors: Donald R. Kibby Dr. Robert C. McMaster Dr. Veron L. Stokes ASNT Production Staff: Robert Anderson, Technical Director Goorge Phetigo, Director of Education Diana Nelson, Coordinator of Education Services Published by ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 1981 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recom- rmendation of ASNT. IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level II] Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing, ISBN-13: 978-0-931403-06-4 ISBN-10: 0-931403-06-5 Printed in the United States of America ‘ist printing 1981 second printing 12/87 ‘hird printing 05/88 fourth printing 10°89 fifth panting 1291 sinth printing 01/95 seventh printing 0496 rinting 08.98 printing 11°00 10th priTable of Contents CHAPTER Page 1 RELATION OF NDT TO MANUFACTURING 1 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING: NDT Defini- tion. REQUIREMENTS FOR NDT SUPER- VISORY PERSONNEL. QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF NDT LEVEL IIT TESTING PERSONNEL: Sources of Technical Information Available to NDT Personnel. MANUFACTURING: MATERIALS AND PROCESSES: Material Failures. Purpose for Use of NDT. NDT IN FRACTURE CON- TROL. INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 9 History. INDUSTRIAL RELATIONSHIPS: Competition in Industry. Personnel. Nomencla- ture. SUBJECT MATTER: Materials. Pro- cesses. Economics. Order. PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 16 INTRODUCTION: Classes of Properties. Sig- nificance of Properties of Design. LOADING SYSTEMS AND MATERIAL FAILURE: Loading Systems. TESTING: The Tensile Test. ‘True Stress-True Strain. Compression Testing. ‘Transverse Rupture Testing. Shear Testing. Fa- tigue Testing. Creep Testing. Notched Bar Testing. Bend Testing. Hardness Testing. Fac- tor of Safety.‘THE NATURE OF MATERIALS AND SOLID STATE CHANGESINMETALS 31 ‘The Effect of Energy on the Atom. Metallic Structure. Solidification. Grain Size. SOLID STATE CHANGES IN METALS: Work Har- dening. Plastic Deformation. Cold Work. RE- CRYSTALLIZATION: Recovery. Recrystalli- zation, Grain Growth. AGE HARDENING. ALLOTROPIC CHANGES. HEAT TREAT- MENT OF STEEL: Approximate Equilibrium Heat-Treatment Processes. Austenitization. Annealing. Normalizing. Spheroidizing. Har- dening of Steel. Tempering. CORROSION: rect Chemical Action. Electrolytic (Electro- chemical) Reaction. Corrosion Rate Dependent ‘on Several Factors. Types of Corrosion. Corro- sion Protection. FERROUS METALS 45 Choosing Metals and Alloys. Ferrous Raw Ma- terials. CAST IRONS. STEEL: Wrought Iron, ‘Steel Making. Plain Carbon Steel. Alloy Steels. Low Alloy Structural Steels. Low Alloy AISI Steels. Stainless Steels. Tool and Die Steels. Cast Steels. MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS. NONFERROUS METALS AND PLASTICS 57 ALUMINUM ALLOYS: General Properties. Wrought Aluminum Alloys. Property Changes. Cast Aluminum Alloys. COPPER ALLOYS: General Properties. Brasses and Bronzes, NICKEL ALLOYS. MAGNESIUM ALLOYS. ZINC ALLOYS. SPECIAL GROUPS OF NONFERROUS ALLOYS: Heat- and Corro- sion-Resistant Alloys. Other Nonferrous Metals. NON-METALS: Plastics. Plastic Ma- terials. Types of Plastics. Characteristics of Plastics. ‘THE NATURE OF MANUFACTURING 73 MODERN MANUFACTURING: Markets. De- sign. Processing. States of Matter. Shape- ‘Changing Processes. Summary. ‘THE CASTING PROCESS 79 The Process. SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS: Solidification. Shrinkage. POUR- ING AND FEEDING CASTINGS: Casting Design. Pouring. The Gating System. Risers. Chills. FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY. SAND MOLDING: Green Sand. Patterns. Flasks. Sand Compaction. Cores. Green Sand Advan- tages and Limitations. Dry Sand Molds. Floor and Pit Molds. Shell Molds. METAL MOLD AND SPECIAL PROCESSES: Permanent Mold Casting. Die Casting. Investment Cast: ing, Plaster Mold Casting. Centrifugal Cast ings. Continuous Casting, MELTING EQUIP 10 a 2 13 4 MENT: Cupola. Crucible Furnaces. Pot Fur naces. Reverberatory Furnaces. Electric Arc Furnaces. Induction Furnaces. FOUNDRY MECHANIZATION. THE WELDING PROCESS 95 BONDS: Nature of Bonding. Fusion Bonding. Pressure Bonding. Flow Bonding. Cold Bond- ing. WELDING METALLURGY: Composi- tion Efects. Effects on Grain Size and Struc- ture, Effects of Welding on Properties. DIS- ‘TORTIONS AND STRESSES. WELDING PROCESSES AND DESIGN 105 HEAT FOR WELDING: Chemical Reactions. ‘The Electric Arc. Welding Equipment and Pro- cedures. Are Welding Electrodes. Modification of Arc Welding for Special Purposes. Automa- tic Welding. Electric Resistance Heating. SPECIAL WELDING PROCESSES: Elec- ‘tron-Beam Welding. Plasma Arc. Ultrasonic Welding. Friction Welding. Electroslag Welding. Explosion Welding. Diffusion Weld- ing. WELDING DESIGN: Joints. Design Con- siderations. Weldability. WELD DEFECTS: Fusion Welding. Dimensional Defects. Struc- tural Discontinuities. Weld Metal and Base Metal Properties. Basic Symbols for NDT. PLASTIC FLOW 121 EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION: Work Har- dening and Recrystallization. Effects of Flow Rete, Direction Effects. Temperature and Load- ing Systems Effects. Grain Size. RELATIVE EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING: ‘Mechanical Properties. Finish and Accuracy. Process Requirements. MILLWORK, FORGING, AND POWDER METALLURGY 127 MILLWORK: Hot Rolling. Cold Finishing. ‘Tube and Pipe Making. Extrusion. FORGING AND ALLIED OPERATIONS: NDT of Forg- ings. Open Die Forging. Closed Die Forging. Forging with Progressive Application of Pres- sure. Powder Metallurgy. Pressing. Sintering. Sizing and Postsintering Treatments. Applica- tion for Powdered Metal Products. PRESSWORKING OF SHEETMETAL 141 Shearing. Bending. Drawing. New Develop- ments in Sheet Metal Forming. MACHINING FUNDAMENTALS M7 ‘The Machining Process. Chip Formation. Cut- ting Tool Materials. Abrasives. MACHID TOOLS: Machinability. Finish. NUMERICAL CONTROL.15 16 7 Index MISCELLANEOUS PROCESSES 157 PLASTIC PROCESSING: Compression Mold- ing. Closed Die Molding. Casting. Extrusion. Reinforced Plastic Molding. Postforming. De- sign Considerations. ADHESIVE BONDING. COMPOSITES: Laminates. Mixtures. METAL, REMOVAL PROCESSES: Electrical Dis- charge Machining. Electrochemical Machining. Other Possible Material Removal Methods, DE- POSITION PROCESSES: Electroforming. GROSS SEPARATION PROCESSES: Torch Cutting, Friction Sawing. SURFACE FINISHING 171 CASE HARDENING OF STEELS: Carburiz- ing. Flame Hardening. CLEANING: Choice of Cleaning Method. Liquid and Vapor Baths Blasting. ABRASIVE BARREL FINISHING: Wire Brushing. Polishing. Buffing. Electropol- ishing. COATINGS: Preparation for Coatings. Paints, Varnishes, and Enamels. Lacquers. Or- ganic Coating Application. Vitreous Enamels, ‘Metallizing. Vacuum Metallizing. Hot Dip Plat- ing. Electroplating. CHEMICAL CONVER- SIONS: Anodizing. Chromate Coatings. Phos- phate Coatings. Chemical Oxide Coatings. INSPECTION 183 INSPECTION PROCEDURES: Organization of Inspection. Quantity of Inspection. Process Control Charts. PRINCIPLES OF MEA. SUREMENT: Dimensional References. Toler- ‘ances. Sources of Measurement. Variation. Basis for Measurement. INSPECTION EQUIPMENT: Micrometer Caliper. Other Ad- justable Tools. Indicating Gages and Compara- tors. Fixed Gages. Surface Finish. Surface Fin- ish Measurement. Surface Specification. 199Preface ‘This book has been compiled asa reference and source of general information concerning manufacturing for ‘use by personnel involved in designing, using, or evalu- ating nondestructive testing of products and struc- ‘tures. The text material has been kept as general as pos- sible to still retain technical value but broad enough to, include all phases of manufacturing industry and most. of the materials used. The depth of treatment has inten- tionally been kept low in order that NDT personnel without a great amount of formal education might gain, an interest and develop understanding of the material. However, the techniques of NDT are not included in the coverage. Itis intended that persons using t be already informed regarding that subject or acquire the necessary knowledge from other more specialized sources. Wherever practical, though, throughout the book mention is made of certain NDT methods that might be suitable for the kinds of defects under consid- eration. Some of the limitations of the methods are also indicated in some applications. One of the essential needs for satisfactory use of NDT is recognition of its limitations; knowledge of the source of defects and the materials in which they are found is an aid in determin- ing the validity of any test and its evaluation. Appreciation is hereby expressed: to Grid Incorporated for giving permission to use large portions of Manufacturing: Materials and Pro- cesses by Harry D. Moore and Donald R. Kibbey, 1975, to Vernon L. Stokes for providing many of the illustra- tions used and copy which served as a guide for some of the text material, ‘to Robert T. Anderson, Technical Director, ASNT, and George L. Pherigo, Director of Education, ASNT, for their invaluable assistance in selecting and or ganizing the material and for supplying the majori- ty of the NDT tie-ins scattered throughout the text, and to Diana Nelson, Coordinator of Educational Services, ASNT, for her aid in editing the text material. H. Don Moore 1973Relationof NDTto 1 Manufacturing NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Nondestructive testing is a fundamental and essen- tial tool for control of quality of engineering materials, manufacturing processes, reliability of products in ser- vices, and maintenance of systems whose premature failure could be costly or disastrous. NDT DEFINITION Like most complex procedures, NDT is not definable by a few simple words. Nondestructive testing is nor- ‘ally interpreted to mean the use of physical methods for testing materials and products without harm to ‘those materials and products. Many inspection proce- dures such as dimensional measurements, visual exam- ination for completeness, functional tests, and others, although required in a manufacturing process, are not normally considered part of a NDT program. Nondestructive Tests Are Always Indirect. It is frequently important to know a property or character- istic of a material or product which, if tested directly, would be destructive. Therefore it becomes necessary to perform a nondestructive test on some property oF characteristic which can be related to that about which knowledge is desired. The test may be very simple in some cases, but in others may be complex and difficult. However, in every case, reliable correlation must be es- tablished between the desired property and the mea- sured property (or properties). Correlation May Be Costly And Difficult. Analysis to provide accurate knowlege of the relation between a testable quality and one which cannot be tested direct ly without destruction is likely to require a great amount of knowledge, skill, and background experi- ence together with good judgement which, in a broad sense, can be described as an instinctive knowledge of the laws of statistical probability.2 Materials and Processes for NDT Technology Decisions to accept or reject following a test result ‘must be based on a thorough knowledge of materials ‘and the properties, processes and their effect on pro- erties, test techniques, design requirements, product applications, service conditions, and suitable life ex- pectancy. Clearly this much knowledge is seldom lo- cated in a single individual, and group decisions or con- sultations may be necessary. NDT correlation may require the cooperation be- tween test supervisors, designers, metallurgists, man- uufacturing personnel, customer personnel, and test personnel, REQUIREMENTS FOR NDT SUPERVISORY PERSONNEL From the above it can be seen that supervisory per- sonnel in charge of nondestructive testing operations must have adequate background knowledge for resolu- tion of complex problems in establishing tests and in- terpreting results. Background Knowledge. It is important that a NDT supervisor be well versed in all the available NDT methods, their applications and limitations, In addition, the reliability of the methods and their corre- lation with desired material and product characteris- ties are very important. Knowledge of the product design, purpose, and fune- tion together with process details may enhance appli- cation of test methods by supplying information re- garding the importance of the test interpretations and possible sources of discontinuities, faults, and/or de fects that could cause product failure. Familiarity with all policies, local, industry-wide, governmental, or safety and environmental agencies may affect the inspection methods chosen. Although ‘these policies may be seemingly unimportant at times, they can have very strong implications and influences. Ability To Communicate Is Always Important. ‘The ability to communicate in both written and oral manner ‘cannot be overemphasized in consideration of success- fal job accomplishment, particularly in supervisory positions. It is necessary for a NDT supervisor to direct, in- struct, and manage the personnel of that group. It is essential that cooperation be maintained with other manufacturing or working personnel with whom the projects are associated. ‘There is need for concise accurate reports to higher management. These reports, by the way, particularly when written, are the principal evidence by which repu- tation and advancement are developed. In addition, NDT supervisory personnel are often called upon to interface with customer personnel in solving problems and interpreting test results. QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION OF NDT LEVEL II TESTING PERSONNEL ‘The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, in its Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A entitled “Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondes- tructive Testing” indicated the responsibilities and capabilities of Level III nondestructive test personnel in the following words:* “An NDT Level III individual should be capable of establishing techniques and procedures; interpreting codes, standards, specifications, and procedures; and designating the particular test methods, techniques, ‘and procedures to be used. The NDT Level III should bbe responsible for the NDT operations for which qu: fied and to which assigned, and should be capable of in- terpreting and evaluating results in terms of existing codes, standards, and specifications. The NDT Level IIT should have sufficient practical background in ap- plicable materials, fabrication, and product technology to establish techniques and to assist in establishing ac- ‘ceptance criteria where none are otherwise available. ‘The NDT Level III should have general familiarity with other appropriate NDT methods, and should be ‘qualified to train and examine NDT Level I and Level II personnel for certification.” SOURCES OF TECHNICAL INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO NDT PERSONNEL Regardless of the sources of technical knowledge by which NDT personnel obtain their positions, perpetual updating and extension of that knowledge is essential. Continual Improvement of Entire Knowledge Base Needed. Additional knowledge of NDT techniques, par- ticularly new developments, is very important. Accom- panying this, however, should be broadening of know!- edge, as well as keeping up with new developments, in the field where the NDT techniques are applied. Greater familarity with engineering materials, manu- facturing processes, changing designs and service re- quirements, management policies, government re quirements, environmental impacts, personal safety and other areas can be vital to successful application of NDT. ‘Many Sources of NDT Information Available. Per- sonal ambition and expenditure of time permit informa- tion to be gained in a variety of ways. Activity (not simply attendance) in suitable technical societies can be a good source of new methods and ap- plications of both testing and manufacturing tech- niques. ‘The statement of NDT Level III raquiromentsis taken from the June 1980 Beition af ASNT Recommended Practice No. SNTTC-1A, 4s ilustrative of general requirements. Note that fucare changes fay occur in SNT-TC-A, and the current decument should 32 {erred to inal cases.