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1. A ring A is called a Boolean ring if x2 = x for all x ∈ A.

(a) Let E be a set and 2E its power set. Show that a Boolean ring structure is defined
on 2E by setting AB = A ∩ B, and A + B = (A ∩ B c ) ∪ (B ∩ Ac ) (superscript c
denotes complementation).
Solution: Easy.
(b) Prove that every Boolean ring is commutative and such that x + x = 0 for all
x ∈ A. (Hint. First consider (x + x)2 and then (x + y)2 .)
Solution: (x+x) = (x+x)2 = x2 +xx+xx+x2 = x+x+x+x = (x+x)+(x+x).
Hence, x + x = 0 for all x ∈ A.
Now, (x + y) = (x + y)2 = x2 + xy + yx + y 2 = x + y + xy + yx. This implies that
xy + yx = 0. But, yx = −yx from what we just proved. Therefore, xy − yx = 0
and hence xy = yx for all x, y ∈ A.
(c) Prove that every Boolean ring is commutative and such that x + x = 0 for all
x ∈ A. (Hint. First consider (x + x)2 and then (x + y)2 .)
Solution: (x+x) = (x+x)2 = x2 +xx+xx+x2 = x+x+x+x = (x+x)+(x+x).
Hence, x + x = 0 for all x ∈ A.
Now, (x + y) = (x + y)2 = x2 + xy + yx + y 2 = x + y + xy + yx. This implies that
xy + yx = 0. But, yx = −yx from what we just proved. Therefore, xy − yx = 0
and hence xy = yx for all x, y ∈ A.
(d) Prove that if a Boolean ring contains no divisors of 0 it is either {0} or is iso-
morphic to Z/(2) (show that xy(x + y) = 0 for all x, y ∈ A). Deduce that in a
Boolean ring every prime ideal is maximal.
Solution: Since, A is Boolean it is commutative and x + x = 0 for all x ∈ A. Let
x, y ∈ A be non-zero. Now, xy(x + y) = x2 y + xy 2 = xy + xy = 0.
Hence, either A has a divisor of zero or x + y = 0 for every non-zero x, y ∈ A. In
the latter case, x = −y = y and A can have only one non-zero element. Hence,
A∼ = Z/(2).
If P 6= A is a prime ideal. Then, A/P is also a Boolean ring with no zero divisors
(because P is prime). But then, A/P ∼ = Z/(2) which is a field and hence P must
be maximal.
(e) Prove that in a Boolean ring every ideal I 6= A is the intersection of the prime
ideals containing I.
Solution: Since x2 = x for every x ∈ A, we have that xn = x for all n > 0.
Hence, every ideal I of A is equal to its radical. Now apply the result of the
previous problem.

2. Let A be a ring such that x3 = x for all x ∈ A. The goal is to prove that A is
commutative.

(a) Show that 6A = {0} and that 2A and 3A are two-sided ideals such that 2A+3A =
A and 2A ∩ 3A = {0}. Deduce that it can be assumed that either 2A = {0} or

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3A = {0} (for the purpose of this problem).

Solution: We have that (x + x) = (x + x)3 = x3 + 3x2 x + 3xx2 + x3 = 8x. Hence,
6x = 0 for all x ∈ A.
It is very easy to show that 2A and 3A are two-sided ideals. To show that
2A + 3A = A, consider any element x ∈ A. Now, 6x = 0. Hence, x = −5x =
5(−x) = 2(−x) + 3(−x).
To show that 2A ∩ 3A = {0}, consider any element x ∈ 2A ∩ 3A. Then, there
exists a, b ∈ A such that x = 2a = 3b. But, then 3x = 6a = 2x = 6b = 0. Hence,
x = 3x − 2x = 0.
In order to show that A is commutative we have to show that xy = yx for all
x, y ∈ A. Suppose that x ∈ 2A, y ∈ 3A. Since, 2A, 3A are two-sided ideals
xy, yx ∈ 2A ∩ 3A and hence both equal to 0. Therefore, we need only to consider
products of the form xy with x, y ∈ 2A or x, y ∈ 3A. But, 2A is a sub-ring with
x3 = x for all x ∈ 2A and such that 3(2A) = 0. Similarly, 3A is a sub-ring with
x3 = x for all x ∈ 3A and such that 2(3A) = 0. Thus, if we prove commutativity
of all rings with x3 = x and 2A = 0 and the same with 3A = 0 then we are done.
(b) If 2A = 0, calculate (1 + x)3 to deduce that x2 = x for all x ∈ A and conclude by
means of the previous problem.
Solution: (1 − x) = (1 − x)3 = 1 − 3x + 3x2 − x3 = 1 + (x + 2x) − (x2 + 2x2 ) − x.
From which we get that, x − x2 = 0 or x = x2 . Now apply the result of the
previous problem.
(c) If 3A = {0}, calculate (x + y)3 and (x − y)3 to show that x2 y + xyx + yx2 = 0.
Now left multiply by x to deduce that xy − yx = 0.
Solution:
(x + y) = (x + y)3 = (x + y)(x2 + xy + yx + y 2 ) =
x3 + x2 y + xyx + xy 2 + yx2 + yxy + y 2 x + y 3 .
Thus, x2 y + xyx + xy 2 + yx2 + yxy + y 2 x = 0.
Similarly,
(x − y) = (x − y)3 = (x − y)(x2 − xy − yx + y 2 ) =
x3 − x2 y − xyx + xy 2 − yx2 + yxy + y 2 x − y 3 ,
from which we get that, −x2 y − xyx + xy 2 − yx2 + yxy + y 2 x = 0.
Subtracting second from the first equation, we get 2(x2 y + xyx + yx2 ) = 0.
Hence, x2 y + xyx + yx2 = 3(x2 y + xyx + yx2 ) − 2(x2 y + xyx + yx2 ) = 0. Left
multiplying by x we have that, x3 y + x2 yx + xyx2 = xy + (x2 y + xyx)x = 0. Now,
x2 y + xyx = −yx2 . Substituting back we get that, xy − yx2 x == xy − yx = 0.

3. Let A be a commutative ring. Recall that A is a local ring if it has a unique maximal
ideal. Prove that the following is an alternative definition. A is local iff for every
element a ∈ A either a or 1 + a is invertible.
Solution: Let A be a local ring and let M be its unique maximal ideal. We first show

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that x ∈ A is invertible iff x 6∈ M . Let x ∈ M . If ax = 1 for some a ∈ A, it would

imply that 1 ∈ M and thus M = A. This is impossible and hence x is not invertible.
If x ∈ A \ M . We claim that in this case (x) = A and hence x is invertible. Suppose
not. Consider the set S of ideals containing x but not equal to A partially ordered by
inclusion. Then, S is non-empty and every chain has a maximal element. Then S has
a maximal element by Zorn’s lemma. This maximal element is a maximal ideal and
by uniqueness has to be M . but then x ∈ M , a contradiction.
Finally note that for any element a ∈ A, either a 6∈ M and hence is invertible. Else,
a ∈ M but in this case 1 + a 6∈ M because otherwise 1 ∈ M . So in this case 1 + a is
invertible.
Now, let A be a commutative ring with the property that for every element a ∈ A
either a or 1 + a is invertible. Let M be the subset of A consisting of all non-invertible
elements. We claim that M is the unique maximal ideal and hence A is local. We
first check that M is an ideal. If a, b ∈ M , then we claim a + b is also non-invertible.
Assume otherwise, Then, there must exist c ∈ A such that (a + b)c = 1 and hence
ac = 1 − bc. But, b and hence −bc is non-invertible. Therefore 1 − bc must be invertible
which would make a invertible - a contradiction.
It is clear that M is the unique maximal ideal since for any other ideal N and x ∈ N ,
x 6∈ M would imply that x is invertible and hence N = (1) = A.

4. Let k be a field and k[[x]] denote the ring of formal power series in x with coefficients
in k. Show that k[[x]] is a local ring. What is its unique maximal ideal ? (Hint. Use
the result proved in the previous problem).
Solution: The invertible elements of k[[x]] are exactly those with constant terms not
equal to 0. Hence, its clear that for every element a ∈ A either a or 1 + a is invertible,
making k[[x]] a local ring.
The unique maximal ideal of k[[x]] consists of all the non-invertible elements, namely
the elements with constant term 0.

5. Consider the following commutative diagram of A-modules and homomorphisms such

that each row is exact.
M 1 → M 2 → M 3 → M4 → M 5
a↓ b↓ c↓ d↓ e↓
N 1 → N 2 → N 3 → N 4 → N5

Prove (by diagram chasing) that if a, b, d, e are isomorphisms then so is c.

Solution:
Let φi (resp. ψi ) for 1 ≤ i ≤ 4 be the horizontal homomorphisms Mi → Mi+1 (resp.
Ni → Ni+1 ).
We first show that c is injective. Let c(x3 ) = 0 for some x3 ∈ M3 . Then dφ(x3 ) = 0 ⇒
φ3 (x3 ) =, because d is an isomorphism. Hence, x3 ∈ ker(φ3 ) = Im(φ2 ). Let x2 ∈ M2

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be such that x3 = φ2 (x2 ). But then, ψ2 b(x2 ) = 0 ⇒ b(x2 ) ∈ ker(ψ2 ) = Im(ψ1 ). Let
y1 ∈ N1 be such that ψ1 (y1 ) = b(x2 ). Since a is an isomorphism there exists x1 ∈ M1
such that y1 = a(x1 ) and ψ1 a(x1 ) = b(x2 ) = bφ1 (x1 ). Since b is an isomorphism this
implies that x2 = φ1 (x1 ), and thus x3 = φ2 φ1 (x1 ) = 0.
Next we show that c is surjective. Let y3 ∈ N3 . Since d is surjective there exists
x4 ∈ M4 such that ψ3 (y3 ) = d(x4 ). Now, ψ4 ψ3 (y3 ) = 0 = eφ4 (x4 ). Since e is injective
this implies that x4 ∈ ker(φ4 ) = Im(φ3 ). Let x3 ∈ M3 be such that x4 = φ3 (x3 ). Then,
dφ3 (x3 ) = ψ3 c(x3 ) = ψ3 (y3 ). Hence, c(x3 ) − y3 ∈ ker(ψ3 ) = Im(ψ2 ). Let y2 ∈ N2 be
such that ψ2 (y2 ) = c(x3 ) − y3 . There exists x2 ∈ M2 such that ψ2 b(x2 ) = c(x3 ) − y3 =
cφ2 (x2 ). But then, c(x3 − φ2 (x2 )) = y3 showing that c is surjective.

6. Let k be a field. The ring k[x, y] can be viewed as a k-module, as a k[x]-module, as a

k[y]-module, or as a k[x, y]-module. Illustrate the differences between these structures
by providing non-trivial examples of maps from k[x, y] to itself which are:

(a) k-module homomorphism but not a k[x], k[y], k[x, y]-module homomorphisms;
Solution: Example: the homomorphism that sends f (x, y) to the polynomial
f (y, x) is an example of such a homomorphism.
(b) a k[x]-module homomorphism but not a k[y], k[x, y]-module homomorphisms;
Solution: Example: the homomorphism that send f (x, y) to the polynomial
f (x, y 2 ).
(c) a ring homomorphism but not a k[x, y]-module homomorphism.
Solution: The example in part (a).

7. Let A be a commutative ring and let X = SpecA. Recall that for each subset E of A,
V (E) = {p ∈ X|E ⊂ p}. For each f ∈ A, let Xf be the complement of V (f ) in X.
The sets Xf are open in the Zariski topology. Show that,

(a) the sets Xf form a basis of open sets for the Zariski topology (that is every open
set is a union of some of the sets Xf );
Solution: An open set U is the complement of a closed set V (E). Now, V (E) =
∩f ∈E Vf . Hence, U = ∪f ∈E Xf .
(b) Xf ∩ Xg = Xf g ;
Solution: By definition, Xf = {p ∈ SpecA|f 6∈ p} and Xg = {p ∈ SpecA|g 6∈ p}.
Thus, Xf ∩ Xg = {p ∈ SpecA|f 6∈ p, g 6∈ p}. Also, Xf g = {p ∈ SpecA|f g 6∈ p}.
Now, for prime ideals p, f g =6∈ p if and only if f 6∈ p, g 6∈ p. Hence, Xf ∩Xg = Xf g .
(c) Xf = ∅ iff f is nilpotent;
Solution: Xf = ∅ implies that f ∈ p for every p ∈ SpecA. This, implies that
f ∈ ∩p∈SpecA = nilradical(A). Hence, f is nilpotent. Converesely, if f is nilpotent
then it is contained in every prime ideal of A and hence Xf is empty.
(d) Xf = X iff f is a unit;
Solution: Xf = X implies that f is not contained in any prime ideal of f . But,

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then (f ) = (1), otherwise the maximal ideal containing (f ) would be proper,

prime and would contain f . Conversely, if (f ) = (1) then f cannot be contained
in any prime ideal as otherwise that prime ideal would have to contain 1.
p p
(e) Xf = Xg iff (f ) = (g); p
Solution: Suppose Xf = Xg . Now, (f ) ispthe intersection of all prime ideals
containing (f ) and equals ∩p∈Vf p. Similarly, (g) is the intersection of all prime
ideals containing
p p(g) and equals ∩p∈Vg p . But Xf = Xg implies that Vf = Vg and
hence, (f ) = (g).
p p
Conversely, suppose thatp (f ) p = (g). If p ∈ Xf then f 6∈ p. Suppose that
g ∈ p. Then, p contains (g) = (f ), and hence, f ∈ p, a contradiction. Hence,
g 6∈ p and hence, p ∈ Xg . Thus, Xf ⊂ Xg and hence Xf = Xg .
(f) X is quasi-compact (that is every open covering of X has a finite subcovering).
Solution: By part (a) it suffices to consider open covers using sets of the form
Xf . Suppose that X = ∪α∈A Xfα . Consider the ideal I generated by (fα )α∈A .
Now, if I 6= (1) then there would exist a proper maximal ideal p containing I,
and p would be prime. But, then fα ∈ p for every α ∈ A, and hence, p 6∈ Xfα
for every α ∈ A,
P Thus, p 6∈ ∪α∈A Xfα , which is a contradiction. Thus, I = (1).
Therefore, 1 = i∈I fi gi , for some finite subset I ⊂ A.
We claim that X = ∪i∈I Xfi . Let p be a prime ideal. Suppose fi ∈ p for every
i ∈ I. Then, 1 ∈ p a contradiction. Hence, p 6∈ fi for some i ∈ I, and p ∈ Xfi .
This shows that indeed X = ∪i∈I Xfi .