Comprar § Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data | At the end of this study, the students should be able to: * — describe @. qualitative research designs b. varied forms of qualitative sampling c. the kinds of data collection d. analysis procedures; ~~ explain a. data analysis according to research design b. generic steps in data analysis; and apply imaginatively art/design principles to create art work CHAPTER 5: LESSON 1: Quaitatne Research Desins | 445 |e. Go Content Preview ad Lesson 1 Qualitative Research Designs e Introduction e How Flexibility Is Built Into the Research Design e@ Qualitative Research Designs Lesson 2 Sampling Procedures Introduction Qualitative Sampling Non-probability Sampling Sampling Purposive Diverse Strategies Used for Recruiting Research Participants Lesson 3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedure Introduction Primary Data Collection Techniques Interview Data Analysis Procedures Generic Steps in Data Analysis | 444 | Practica Research 1— CHAPTER: CONTENT PREVIEWeat hoosing carefully an appropriate qualitative research design aligned with the problem Inquiry or research questions can never be overemphasized. Braun and Clarke (2013) suggest the following questions as useful guides, as you think of a suitable research design. What do I want to know? Why do I want to know it? ero What assumptions am I making about research and knowledge (what are my theoretical and methodological positions)? 4, What types of data would best answer these questions? 5. What type of data will I use to tell me what I want to know? (The answer to this and to the previous question is not always the same.) 6. How much data will | need? 7. How will I collect my data? 8. If my research involves participants: a. Who will I need to collect data from? b. How will I access and recruit these participants? 9. How will | analyse my data in order to answer my questions? | 10. What particular ethical issues do I need to consider? . Are there any practical factors that I need to take into account? The section on Research Design, thus, presents a plan for the conduct of the study, demonstrates the researcher’s capability of conducting the research and preserves the design flexibility, How Flexibility Is Built Into the Research Design In answer to the question of Lincoln & Guba, 1985, as cited in Marshall and Rossman, 1995), to wit: “How do researchers maintain the needed flexibility of research design, so that the research can “unfold, cascade, roll and emerge” and yet present a plan that is logical, Concise, thorough, and meets the criterion of do-ability?” Marshall and Rossman say that the Tesearcher builds flexibility into the design by: 1. demonstrating the appropriateness and the logic of qualitative methods or the particular research question and2, devising a research plan that includes Many of the elements of traditional plans but "reserves the right to modify and change the initial plan during data collection Qualitative Research Designs anced in conducting qualitative research by expens for different goals or purposes, Leedy and Omrod (2001) recommend the following: Case studies, grounded theory ethnography, content analysis and phenomenological studies. , Cresswell (2003) shows how these Methods meet different needs. grounded theory, for example, explore processes, activities and events research analyses broad culture- sharing behavi well as phenomenology, can be used to study in Case studies and while ethnographic lors of individuals or groups. Case Studies, ag dividuals, 1. Case Study The case study studi es a ‘person, (Leedy and Omrod, 2001). Cresswell (1 be th Program or event in a defined time frame problem, the Context, the issues 998) says the structure of a case study shoulg and the lessons leamed. He adds that Sources, of data collection are direct or Participant observation, interviews, archival Tecords or documents, Physical artifacts and audiovisual materials. The researcher Spends time in the natural Setting of the people studied. The Teport includes lessons leamed or Patterns found that connect with theories, A case being investigated or studied may be that of an individual or a group of Persons. This kind of research is u: sed to gain deeper insight on a phenomenon, validate earlier findings or gather more deep-seated data. Examples are case studies of drug-rehabilitated teenagers, transgenders, gay marriages, success stories, among others 2. Ethnography Macmillan (1993) defines this type of research as interactive and which requires relatively extensive time in a site to systematically observe, interview and record Processes as they occur naturally at the selected location, Leedy and Omrod (200!) say that ethnography studies groups of people that share a common culture. Cresswell (2003) says that “ethnographies study an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational data, If the interviews are lengthy, the researcher gathers documentaries by usile audiotapes or videotaped media. The aspects included in ethnography are: the Justification for the study, description of the Group and method of study, the eer to support the researcher’s claims and the findings to the research questions. The repo! Provides evidence of the group’s shared culture that developed over time. 416 | Practica. Researcn 4One example of an ethnographic study on ethnic minority groups is the dissertation done by Dr. Liza Daoanis who did a study on the surviving cultural heritage of the Kankaneys of Dalipay, Batangas, Benguet. The Kankaneys are one of ethnolinguistic groups that have resisted change through the years and so, have preserved their cultural traditions and beliefs. The researcher stayed for a prolonged period of time in Benguet and did interviews, both structured and unstructured, did intensive and extensive observations, consumed many hours doing field notes, administered a questionnaire, the responses to which she subjected to further “scrutiny” during the interview of the research participants. This immersion in the natural setting of the respondents and the concomitant data gathering techniques enabled the researcher to achieve her research goal which was to identify prevailing cultural beliefs and practices of the Kankaneys of Dalipay, Batangas, Benguet, which served as a basis of a proposed program for cultural preservation and development. 3. Content Analysis This research design calls for “a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular body of materials for the purpose of identifying pattems, themes or biases (Leedy and Ormod 2001). This method identifies specific characteristics of the content of human communication. This kind of research examines choice and use of words from which concepts or images are vividly derived. It looks at the relationship between words and their meanings, stressing the system of relations between words as a source of meaning. Primary data collection strategy is recorded dialogue (text based, or audio/video recorded). Examples can be an examination of word choice and use of words in the State of the Nation Addresses of Philippine presidents, or speeches in political conventions like U.S. President Barrack Obama’s speech endorsing Hillary Clinton’s bid for the presidency during the convention of Democrats in August 2016. Other examples are analysing the content of pictures and video materials that carry footages of disasters like typhoons, a day in the life of a person with disability, etc. Data collection follows two steps: First, the researcher analyzes the materials and puts them in a frequency table as each characteristic or quality is mentioned. Second, the researcher conducts a statistical analysis so that the results are reported in a quantitative format. The research report has 5 sections: * the descriptions of the materials studied * the characteristics and qualities studied * a description of the methodology ‘CHAPTER 5: LESSON 1: Qualitative Research Designs [ 4477the statistical analysis showing the f . equency table + the conclusions drawn about the patterns, themes, or biases found in thy human communications and data collection. 4. Phenomenological Study Cresswell (1998) points out that the essence of this study is the search for “th central underlying meaning of the research participant's experience”. Leedy and Omg (2001) stress that the purpose of the study is “to understand an experience from the research participant’s point of view. Thus, focus on the research participant is more pronounced in this kind of qualitative research. After the researcher has obtained data from observations, videos lengthy interviews, images and others, the critical question is asked: What does the experience mean to the research participant himself/herself? How will s/he describe this lived experience of being at the center of the research process? What are his/her significant remarks? One example of a phenomenological study could be that of comfort women during WWII. Another could be that of rehabilitated drug dependents or rescued trafficked women. Still another could be a study of college graduates who opt to do community outreach with the poor sectors of society, instead of practicing their professions immediately after graduation, Cresswell (1998) suggests the following procedural research format: + Writing the research questions that explore the meaning of the experience * Conducting the interviews + Analyzing the data to find the clusters of meanings * Writing a report that makes the readers understand more clearly the essential structure of the experience Data collected lead to identifying common themes in people’s perceptions of their experiences. . Grounded Theory In this kind of approach, the theory or general pattern of understanding will emerge as it begins with initial codes, develops into broad themes or domains and redounds into a grounded theory or broad interpretation. Grounded Theory is an attempt to extract a general abstract theory of a process, Of interaction grounded in views of research participants. This process uses multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information In this research design, data are constantly compared with emerging categories theoretical sampling of different groups is done in order to concretize similarities and the differences of information.The purpose of grounded theory is to build a theory that is faithful to the evidence euman, 2007), It is Titerally grounded on, or built on data collected. It is a method of giscovering new theory. The researcher sees micro-level events as the foundation for a more acro-level explanation. Grounded Theory shares several goals with more positivist-oriented theory It seeks theory that is comparable with the evidence that is precise and rigorous, capable of replication and generalizable. The researcher of a qualitative study builds theory by making comparisons. For example, when @ researcher observes an event, like a polici officer confronting a speeding driver, she or he immediately ponders questions and looks for similarities and differences. When watching lice officer stop a speeding driver, a quali ive researcher asks: Does the police officer always radio in the car’s license number before pro ding? After radioing the car’s location, does the officer ask the driver to get out of the car or others, casually walk up to the car aod talk 10 the seated driver? When data collection and theorizing are likened, theoretical questions arise that suggest future observations, so new data are tailored to answer theoretical questions that came from thinking about previous data: What, then, is the best research design? Yin (1984, as cited in Marshall and Rossman, 1995) proposes three questions, in answer to the above question: 1, What is the form of the research question-Is it exploratory? Does it seck to describe the incidence or distribution of some phenomenon or does it try to explain social phenomenon? 2. Does the research require control over behaviour, or does it seek to describe naturally occurring events? 3, Is the phenomenon under study contemporary or historical? ‘Answers to these suggest the choice of one research strategy (design) over another. The strategy is a road map, an over-all plan for undertaking a systematic exploration of the phenomenon of interest; the methods are the specific tools for conducting that exploration. (CHAPTER 5: LESSON 1: Qualtative Research Designs [449 | }Research Design (Marshall and Rossman, 19 s should match the strategy Rost Research Question ) [Purpose of the Study Research Question Research Strategy Examples of > Data Collection Techniques EXPLORATORY What is happening —_| Case Study Participant to investigate in this social Field Study observation: inde th little-understood program? What are interviewing elite i phenomena; to the salient themes, intervi iewing ’ identify/discover patterns, categories important variables; to | in participants’ generate hypotheses | meaning structures? for further research How are these patterns linked with one another? EXPLORATORY mt What events, beliefs, Multisite case study Participant to explain the attitudes, policies history observation; forces causing the are shaping this Field study in-depth phenomenon in phenomenon? How Ethnography interviewing; question; to identify do these forces survey, plausible causal interact to result in the questionnaire, Networks shaping the | phenomenon? documents, analysis phenomenon | DESCRIPTIVE What are the salient Field study Participant to document the behaviors, events, Case study observation; phenomenon of beliefs, attitudes, Ethnography In-depth interviewing; interest structures, processes Documents analysis; ‘occurring in this Unobtrusive phenomenon? measures; Survey; questionnaire 120 Pracrica RESEARCH 4SAMPLING PROCEDURES (INTRODUCTION Y ——— [: qualitative research, a sample is a smaller set of cases a researcher selects from a large group and generalizes to the population. Three things must be clear to the researcher: how much data s/he needs @ how s/he will select the sample © how s/he will get participants if human participants are needed is appropriate to the research question Experts say that the researcher needs a sample that f data to fully and the theoretical aims of the study, and that provides an adequate amount 0! analyse the topic and answer the research questions. Qualitative Sampling The primary goal of sampling is to get a representative units or cases from a much larger collection or population, the smaller group and produce accurate generalizations abo 2007). Qualitative researchers focus on how the si activities illuminates key features of social life. events, or actions that clarify and deepen understanding. Wise decisions on sampling procedures contribute to the research study’s soundness. Such decisions develop alongside decisions about specific data collection methods to be used. Sampling methodologies or procedures can be classified under two general categories: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. (www fairfoxcountry. gov/demograph/pdf/ samplingprocedurespdf) Non-probability Sampling The three common types of non-probabil sampling and judgemental sampling. These are most e sample, or a small collection of such that the researcher can study ut the larger groups. (Neuman, ample or small collection of cases, units, or The purpose of sampling is to collect cases, ity samples are convenience sampling, quota tly used in qualitative research. “A. Convenience Sampling convenience sampling involves choosing respondents at the les of convenience samples include people-in-the-street fh the researcher has easy access / such as a class of As the name implies, convenience of the researcher. Examp! interviews-the sampling of people to whicl (CHAPTER S: LESSON 2: Sanping Procues | 4.041 studies that use people who have volunteered to be questioned as a result Of ay sand S| : student ee ‘or another type of promotion. ertise! , ae alling or friendship pyramiding are parts of convenience sampling. This \j In nased on an analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes larger ot yp is a 7 as i a wet snow and picks up additional snow. Snowball sampling is a multistage techigy rolle a Ir begins with one oF a few people or cases and spreads out on the basis of links to the init vases. The sample is built up through the linkages lal snowba B. Quota Sampling This type samples a population that has been subdivided into classes or categories, | differs from stratified and cluster sampling in that the classes in both are mutually exclutin and are isolated prior to sampling. Thus, the probability of being selected is known, . members of the population selected to be sampled are not arbitrarily disqualified from bein included in the results. An example of quota sample would be a survey in which the researcher desires to obtain a certain number of respondents from various income categories. C. Judgemental Sampling In this kind of sampling, the researcher uses his/her own “expert” judgement. An example of this type of sample would be a study of potential users of a new recreational facility that is limited to those persons who live within the vicinity. Probability Sampling The four basic types of probability samples, are mostly used in quantitative research: A. Simple Random Sampling B. Stratified Sampling C. Cluster Sampling D. Systematic Sampling Simple Random Sampling To conduct this kind of sampling procedure, the researcher must have a list of all members of the population of interest. From this list, the sample is drawn so that each person has an equal chance of being drawn. To avoid researcher bias, computerized sampling programs or random number tables may be used. Reducing bias enables the researcher to estimate sampling errors derived through statistical calculations. Stratified Random Sampling This involves categorizing the members of the population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An example would be determining the average income eamed by vendors in a city. To obtain more precise estimates, the researcher may stratify the samples by barangays. = XK =Cluster Sampling uel sa Wonder to maintany the hetennys ge PRESSOR Samples of the population as a whel amok random sample of the chaste a whole After the chisters ate He mae san TN ws drawn and the members at the - ses Sea NEE Sample night be used by a researcher oe OF Persons resting ina given locality ee OF the popuation Clusters established, a chosen clusters attempting to measure the aye Systematic Sampling The — selec every nth member atter randomly selecting the first, through nth gement as SGUTINE Point, For example, if the researcher decides to sample every 20" member af the OP 3 5 pervent sample, the starting point for the sample is randomly. selected fom the first 2 members of the sampling tame This kind of sampling may spread the members selected for measurement more evenly across the entire population, For example, a sevey of tounsis entering a top founst destination in a country could be conducted by sampling even 1 visitor. Onher Spevitic Kinds of Samples Critenon sampling — selection is based on specific characteristics, For example, students who have dyslexia or those who are left-handed, Homogeneous Sampling — selection of participants who have similar experienc attitudes or outlook, for example, working students, children of OCW’s, commercial models, student leaders, scholars or grantees, Pokemon enthusiasts, and others. Maximum Variation Sampling — the objective of the selection is to attain more in- depth views from a big number of participants. In this type of sampling, common themes or pattems are more palpable. 4. Intensity Sampling - the objective of the selection is to sample the same characteristics repetitively. This is particularly useful in the phenomenological research design. Deviant Case Sampling — A researcher uses deviant case sampling (also called extreme s that differ from the dominant pattern or case sampling) when he or she seeks from the predominant characteristics of other cases. Deviant case sampling differs from purposive sampling in that the goal is to locate a collection of unusual, different, or peculiar cases that are not representative of the whole. The deviant cases are selected because they are unusual, and a researcher hopes to leam more about ‘be social life by considering cases that fall outside the general pattern or including what is beyond the main flow of events. For example, a researcher is interested in studying high school dropouts. Let us say that previous research suggested that a majority of dropouts come from families that have low income, are single parent or unstable, have been geographically mobile. and are racial minorities, The family environment is one in which parents and/ or siblings have low education are themselves dropouts. In addition, dropouts are often engaged in illegal behaviour and — CHAPTER 5: LESSON 2: Sanping Procetues. | 43 |criminal record prior to dropping out. A researcher using deviant case sampling would a majority group dropouts who have no record of illegal activities and who are from Stable wee parents, upper-middie-income families, who are geographically stable and well-educated Purposive Sampling The primary factor in qualitative research data collection is purposive sampling which can be done while in the process of collecting data or while doing the interpretation or data analysis. Depending upon the research design used, samples can be big or small. The Grounded Theory design, for example, may require a big sample while the narrative research design can call for only small samples. Aside from the size of the sample, it is important that the researcher has set criteria of how research participants are chosen- age, sex, socio-economic status, specific attributes or experiences, etc. Neuman (2007) says that purposive sampling is appropriate in three situations: First, a researcher uses it to select unique cases that are especially informative. For example, a researcher wants to use content analysis to study magazines to find cultural themes, He or she selects a specific popular women’s magazine to study because it is trend setting. Second, a researcher may use purposive sampling to select members of a difficult-to reach specialized population. For example, the researcher wants to study prostitutes, It is impossible to list all prostitutes and sample randomly from the list. Instead, he or she uses subjective information (e.g. locations where prostitutes solicit, social groups with whom prostitutes associate, etc.) and experts (e.g. police who work on vice units, other prostitutes, etc.) to identify a “sample” of prostitutes for inclusion in the research project. Third, a researcher wants to identify particular types of cases for in-depth investigation. The purpose is less to generalize to a larger population than it is to gain a deeper understanding of types. For example, (Gamson, 1992 as cited in Neuma, 2007) used purposive sampling in a focus group study of what working-class people think about politics. Gamson took a total of 188 working-class people to participate in one of 37 focus groups. He sought respondents who had not completed college but who were diverse in terms of age, ethnicity, religion, interest in politics, and type of occupation. He recruited people from 35 neighborhoods in the Boston area by going to festivals, picnics, fairs and flea markets and posting notices on many public bulletin boards. In addition to explaining the study, he paid the respondents well so as to attract people who would not traditionally participate in a study. PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1— | | Diverse Strategies Used for Recruiting Research Participants Putting notices in Public spaces, Using university participant pools. Emailing notices of Studies to various listservs and email groups. a flyers in locations where those who fit your criteria are likely to see them such as around university campus. (e.g. in bridal stores if you want to recruit recruiting through Specific places like dos Mosques/synagogues/temples, Identifying key people who can recruit for you, connected with potential Participants. e Going somewhere potential Participants are likely to be, and presenting verbal or written information about your research-including big events like LGBTQ pride or weddings fairs, where you might be able to get a stall to promote the research. People about to get married) and ctors surgeries, gyms, churches/ such as an individual well- e Approaching organizations to recruit through them (e.g. on-campus clubs/ societies, charities, youth groups, support groups, sporting clubs), which involve speaking at a meeting, or putting notices in the organization's newsletters or on their websites. e Using internet, such as posting notices on different web fora or creating pages in social media sites like Facebook. «Press releases or advertisements. Always check if it's okay before you advertise or try to recruit in these ways, and don't expect you will get everything for free. If using charities, for instance, you may want to volunteer some of your time to say thanks. You should also offer to provide a summary of your project or a copy of your report. Brawn, V. & Clarke, V. (2013). (CHAPTER §; LESSON 2: Sampling Procedures 125DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE INTRODUCTION y NT ualitative researchers have several techniques for data collection at their disposal, the interview-structured, semi-structured or unstructured, focus group techniques, observations, reflexive field notes, pictures, Public and official documents, personal documents, historical items, in addition to images in the media and literature fields, data from observations, particularly participant observation where researchers become members of a culture, group, of setting, and adopt roles to conform to that setting. In doing so, the researchers gain insight into the deeper culture practices, motivations and emotions, of research participants. Primary Data Collection Techniques + Interview * Participant Observation * Focused Group Interview * Observational Evaluation * Biography’ Autobiography * Questionnaire Interview In this method, research participants are prodded to talk about their experiences, feelings, beliefs, outlooks, etc. The interview can take the form of informal conversations, open-ended, interviews or in- depth discussions. Interviews can be one-time interviews, multiple interviews with the same participants, muluple interviews with various participants, or group interviews. They can also be structured, unstructured and semi-structured, in accordance to the research design used. Structured interviews use a set of questions prepared by the researcher. During the course of the interview, the researcher or interviewer codes the responses. Unstructured Interviews use open-ended questions which the interviewee or research participant answers freely. Semi-structured Interviews-use both closed and open-ended questions. When interviewing face to face, the researcher and participant engage in @ conversation, which is usually audio-recorded and the recording is transformed into 4 wnitten text, ready for analysis, through a process of transcription. {426 | Practica. Reseancn 1The same basic procedure applies tor telephone interviews, virtual interviews via skype have also been explored, or via instant messaging or chat Interviews are ideally suited for experience type of research questions. (Braun and Clarke, 2013). Examples would be expertences of OCW's, miners, college drop-outs, inventors, entrepreneurs, and the like. Participant Observation — In this method, the researcher immerses himselt herself in the natural setting of the res arch participant. This can be a home, an office, an institution, etc. The researcher's immersion in the natural setting of research participants enables hinvher to see. hear, feel, and experience the research participant's daily life. The participant observes and participates fully in the activities of the group. the members of which are aware that the participant observer is a res her Focus Group Interview — 6 to 8 persons participate in the interview. The advantage of this is that critical issues or sensitive ones can be more freely discussed with a group. Because of the variety and depth of opinions, views. perspectives expressed, this type of interview is a very rich source of data, Needh or researcher must be skilled in facilitating such group discussion, and stay focused on the goal and topic of said interview. to the moderator Observational Evaluation — Here, the researcher may or may not participate in activities of the group being observed. But mostly, observes and records. both the verbal and non-verbal behavior of a person or group of persons Some researchers use especially designed evaluation instruments to collect observational data. Biography / Autobiography — Personal biographies offer a rich source of data or evidence that can shed light or provide tentative answers to research questions Perhaps even diaries can be added here, just like the Diary of Ann Frank that offered much information or evidence on Nazi atrocities. Another example is Victor Frankl’s “Man’s Search For Meaning,” which also provided much insight on the horrors of the Nazi death camps where the author, Dr. Frankl, spent years as a prisoner in Auschwitz and other concentration camps. Basic Types of Data Collection Cresswell (2003) cites four basic types of data collection procedures in qualitative research: Observations: The researcher takes field notes on the behavior and activities of research participants at the research site or in their natural setting. S/he records, in an unstructured or semi-structured (using prior questions that the researcher wants to know) way activities at the research site. The qualitative observer (researcher) may take the role of a non-participant observer or complete participant. . Interviews: Here, the researcher may: CHAPTER: LESSON 1: Data Coleton and Anas Poceeve [497a, conduct face-to-face interviews with participants; b. do telephone interviews of participants or c. engage in focus group interviews, with 6 or 8 interv jew ’ ees The above interviews involve unstructured and ‘ generally open-cy that are few in number and are intended to elicit views Pen-ended questions participants. S and opinions from the + Documents: These take the form of , 1 public documents meetings, official reports) or private documents Cente minutes of emails) which are all collected during the research proces: Jeumals, diaries, let + Audio a ‘als: . . ind Visual Materials: May take the form of hh videotapes, or any forms of sound, OF Photographs, art objects, ers, Cresswell (2003) adds that the intervi e / ; € interviewer (researcher) m quip himself/herself with an : ust i interview Protocol, so that interview will remain focused. eith ae a , either face-to-face, or focused group iew protocol A The interview locol may include the following component ; owing ponents: Instruction to the interviewer, such as opening statements The key research questions * Probes to follow key questions Transition messages for the interviewer Space for recording the interviewee’s comments, and space in which the researcher records reflective notes. Data Analysis Procedures There are a number of procedures in data analysis: * Coding Jn this procedure, the research analyst reads the data, and marks segments within the data; this may be done at different times throughout the process. Each segment is labeled with a “code” — usually a word or short phrase that suggests how the associated data segments inform the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares reports via a mix of summarizing the prevalence of codes, discussing similarities and differences in related codes across distinct original ae context, or comparing the relationship between one or more codes. (http://www.aree org/?page=typesqualresearch) IS Some highly structured qualitative data, which are, close-ended responses from coe or tightly defined interview questions, are typically coded without Se ea ae of the content. In these cases, codes are often applied as a layer on top of the data. re ; struct most common form of coding is open-ended coding; the other form is a more technique called axial coding or integration (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). 128 Practica RESEARCH 1 a} - | Shifting symptoms, having inconsistent days | Interpreting images of self given by others | Avoiding disclosure Predicting re Ct | Keeping others unaware Seeing symptoms as connected Examples of line-by-line coding | Ifyou have lupus, | mean one day it's my | liver, one day it's my joints; one day it's my head and It's like people really think you're a hypochondriac if you keep complaining about different ailments. it's like you don’t want to say ‘anything because people are going to start thinking, you know, God, don't go near her... And | think that's why | never say anything because | feel like everything | have is relat- ed one way or another to the lupus.... Anticipating disbelief Controlling others’ views Avoiding stigma Assessing potential losses and risks of disclosing But most of the people don't know | have lupus, and even those that do are not going to believe that ten different ailments are the same thing. And | don't want anybody saying, you know (that) they don't want to come around me because | complain. Source: Charmza 1995, as cited in Braun and Clarke, 2013. Recursive Abstraction Some qualitative data sets are analyzed without coding; instead, recursive abstractions are used. In this kind of analysis, datasets are summarized. Then further summarized, and so on. The end result is a more compact summary that would have been difficult to accurately discern without the preceding steps of distillation. Content or Discourse Analysis In this kind of data analysis, the most basic technique is counting of words, phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data. Other similar techniques are the analyses of phrases and exchanges in conversational analyses. Content analyses is frequently used in Sociology to explore relationships, such as change in perceptions of race over time (Morning, 2008) or the lifestyle of temporal contractors (Evans, et al. 2004). Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software This has replaced the detailed hand coding and labeling of the past decades. These Programs enhance the analyst’s efficiency at data storage/retrieval and at applying the CCHAPTER 5: LESSON 3: Data Collection and Analysis Procedure | 4 96codes to the data, Many programs offer efficiencies in editin; ig. Tevising and which allow for work sharing, peer review and recursive examin: A odin, ‘ation of data, : Common qualitative data analysis software includes: MAXQDA QDA MINE ti, Dedoose (mixed methods) and NVivo. NER, ATLAS (http: www.qrea.org/page=typesqualresearch) Linking Data Analysis with Research Design Generic Steps in Data Analysis Cresswell (1998) also Suggests generic steps to follow in data analysis The generic steps summarized by Cresswell (1998 * Organize and prepare the data optically scanning material, ) involve the following: for analysis. This involves transcribing interviews, typing up field notes, or Sorting and arranging the da ; y > s ta into different types, depending on the sources of information. Read through all the data, Obtain a general sense of the information and reflect on its over-all meaning: What general ideas are Participants saying? What is the tone of the ideas? At times, the qualitative researcher writes marginal notes or starts recording general thoughts about the data at this stage. Begin detailed analysis with coding process. Rossman and Rollis (1998) define coding as the process of organizing material into “chunks” before bringing meaning to those “chunks”. It involves taking text data or pictures, segmenting sentences (or paragraphs) or images into categories, and labeling those categories with a term, often a term based on the actual language of the participant (called an invivo term). Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as categories or themes for analysis. Description involves a detailed rendering of information about people, places or events in a setting. This analysis is useful in designing detailed descriptions for case studies, ethnographies, and narrative ae projects. Then, use the coding to generate a small number of themes or categories: about five to seven categories. These themes are the ones that appear as ae findings in qualitative studies and are stated under separate headings in the findings section of the study. , Decide how the description and themes will be represented. One nae is to use a narrative passage to convey the finding of the me detailed discussion of themes and sub-themes or ear si The following are used by qualitative researchers pata on a i a visuals, fi tables. They present a pri a eowing ‘ofthe speci fesse site (as in ethnography) or they convey desert" ; s in case si ographies): information about each participant in a table (as in case studies and ethnograp! , > what i ir ion of data, that is. * + A final step in data analysis involves making an interpretation of Lincoln and Guba (1985) call “lessons learned) (430 \ Praca, Reseanen 1These lessons could be: * the researcher's personal interpretations, expressed in the individual understanding that the researcher brings to the study from his/her own culture history and experiences. * a meaning derived from a comparison of the findings with information gleaned from the literature or extant theories. * suggestions for new questions that need to be asked- questions the researcher had not foreseen earlier in the study. Thus, interpretation in qualitative research can take many forms, be adapted for different types of designs, and be flexible to convey personal, research-based and action meanings. Data Analysis According to Research Design Cresswell (1998) says that analysis/interpretation must be closely linked to the research design chosen. Grounded Theory for example, has systematic steps to follow according to Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998): © generating categories of information (open coding) © selecting one of the categories and positioning it within a theoretical model (axial coding) explicating a story from the interconnection of these categories (selective coding) ¢ in ideal cases, initial codes and broad themes coalesce into a grounded theory Case Study and Ethnographic Research involve a detailed description of the setting or individuals, followed by analysis of the data for themes or issues (Stake, 1995). Phenomenological Research uses the analysis of * significant statements * the generalization of meaning units and «development of an “essence” description (Moustakas, 1994) Narrative Research employs restorying the participants’ stories, using structural elements such as plot, setting, activities, climax and denouement (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000). HAPTER S: LESSON 3: Data Colecton and rays Prckse | 434In this chapter, the following qualitative research designs were described: + Case Study — the study of an individual or @ group of persons during a specific period of time, in order to gain deeper insight on a Phenomenon, validate earlier findings, or gather more deep-seated | data. + Ethnography — an interactive stud and researcher who stays in the natural setting of the former over an extensive period of time to systematically observe, interview and record Processes, as they occur naturally in the site. Content Analysis - a detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a body of materials — choice and use of words, the Telationships of words and their Meanings- from which concepts, images, patterns or themes are drawn. Phenomenological Study - a Study focused on understanding the underlying meaning of the experience of the research participant from his/her own viewpoint and perspective. Grounded Theory — in this research design, the researcher aims to 5 glean a general abstract theory of a Process, or interaction grounded in views of research participants. To arrive at this theory, data are constantly compared with emerging categories and theoretical sampling of different groups is done in order to concretize similarities and the differences of information. ly between research Participants This chapter likewise discussed the different kinds of sampling: * Criterion Sampling - selection is based on specific characteristics like students who have dyslexia or those who are left-handed. * Purposeful Random — selection of participants who have been purposively selected but are too many to include in the study. ; * Convenience Sampling - selection is based on availability and willingness of participants to participate in the research. , * Homogeneous Sampling - selection is based on the participants similarity in experiences, attitudes or outlook, like working students, winners of Landbank Entrepreneurial awards, barrio teachers, ethnic groups, digital natives, Ramon Magsaysay Awardees, and the like. ; * Maximum Variation Sampling — selection is intended to attain more in- depth views from a big number of participants. 432 | Practica. Research 1 — CHAPTER: SUMMARYUMMARY ... (Cont'd) * Intensity Sampling — selection is intended to sample the same characteristics over and over again. | Methods of data collection were likewise discussed in this chapter. | M — depending on the research design used, an interview ee ae (using open-ended questions), structured (using close-ended questions), semi-structured (using both open-ended and close-ended questions), one-time interviews, multiple interviews with the same participants, or simply informal conversations, all of which prod the research participants to talk about their experiences, feelings, beliefs, outlooks, and the like. Participant Observation - data are collected through the researcher's immersion in the natural setting of esearch Participants for the researcher to see, hear, feel and experience the participants’ daily life. . . Focus Group Interviews — six to eight persons participate in the interview and because of the variety and depth of opinions, views and perspectives shared, this type of interview is a very rich source of data. Observational Evaluation - in this method of data collection, the researcher observes and records both the verbal and non-verbal behavior of a person or group of persons. Participation, on the part of the researcher, is optional. Questionnaire - a more formal way of gathering facts, data, opinions, through well-constructed instruments with very clear purpose, directions and print. Actual data collection and analysis procedures highlighted this chapter which presented four basic types of data collection procedures: Observations - observing while at the same time, taking field notes on the behavior and activities of research participants at the research site. Interviews — conducting face to face, telephone or focus group interviews, using open-ended questions that are intended to elicit views and opinions from the research participants. ‘CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY 133 JSUMMARY ... (Cont'd) Documents — poring over and recording notes on public documents (newspapers, minutes of meetings, official reports) or private documents (personal journals, diaries, letters, emails). Audio and Visual materials- studying photographs, art objects, videotapes or any forms of sound for relevant themes, similarities, differences, among others. Data Analysis and Procedures clinched this chapter. The research analyst does the following steps for each of the following procedures: Coding — reads the data, marks segments within the data, each one of which is labelled with a “code’-a word or a phrase that suggests how the associated data segments address the research objectives. When coding is complete, the analyst prepares a report summarizing codes that consistently surface, discussing similarities and differences, or showing the relationship between one or more codes. Recursive Abstraction - summarizes the sets of data, then, further summarizes them, and so on, resulting in a compact, distilled, easily understood analysis. Content or Discourse Analysis - counts words or phrases, or coincidences of tokens within the data, analyses phrases and exchanges in conversations. Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software - uses programs in editing, revising, and coding which allow for work sharing, peer reviews and recursive examination of data through any of the following qualitative data analysis software: MAXQDA, QDA, MINER, NVIVO. There are also generic steps to follow in data analysis procedures: Organize and prepare the data for analysis. Read through all the data. Begin detailed analysis with coding process. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people, as well as categories or themes for analysis. Decide how the description and themes will be represented. Make an interpretation of data-lessons, meanings, suggestions for new questions that need to be asked. (134 Practical RESEARCH 1 — CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY