Republic of the Philippines

EULOGIO “AMANG” RODRIGUEZ

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Cavite Campus
General Mariano Alvarez, Cavite

SKELETAL SYSTEM OF THE FROG

The skeleton is any hardened portion of the body which may be located externally, termed
exoskeleton or located internally, termed endoskeleton. The basic components of endoskeleton
are cartilages and bones. Cartilage is a soft, transparent or translucent while bone is hard and
opaque. According to formation, a bone is classified as either cartilage bone or membrane
bone. A cartilage bone starts as a cartilage through the process of chrondrificaiton then later
hardens into a bone through the process of ossification.

Functions of the skeletal system

1. protection, as in the case of skull and ribs

2. framework and support of the body, best exemplified by the vertebral column.
3. attachment of muscles
4. leverage for locomotion
5. prevention of loss of body fluids
6. production of red blood cells in the long bones of the body

Division of the endoskeleton according to the position of the body

A. Axial skeleton: all endoskeletal structures located at the center or axis of the body
1. skull
2. visceral skeleton
3. vertebral column and ribs
4. sternum

B. Appendicular endoskeleton: all endoskeletal structures located laterally or in the region of

the appendages
1. girdle
a. pectoral girdle
b. pelvic girdle
2. bones of the limbs
a. anterior limns or forelimbs
b. posterior limbs or hindlimbs
 The Skull

The skull is convex dorsally and concave vertically. It is also wider posteriorly narrower
anteriorly. It encloses the brain and lodges the sense organs.

Dorsal Aspect of the skull

1. Premaxillae
a. Small teeth-bearing bone on the anterior tip of the skull
2. Maxillae
a. Long teeth-bearing bones immediately posterior to the premaxillae and continue
postero-laterally
b. Serve as the upper jaw and are provide with teeth, the maxillary teeth
3. Quadratojugals
a. Shorter, dorsal bones situated immediately posterior to the maxillae
b. Not provided with teeth
4. Nasals
a. A pair of triangular bones immediately posterior to the premaxillae
b. Enclose dorsally the nasal or olfactory cavities
5. Spenethmoid
a. An unpaired, ring-like bone immediately posterior to the nasals
b. Extends to the ventral side of the skull
6. Fronto-parietals
a. Long, distinct bones which extend from the posterior end of the spenethmoid the
posterior region of the skull
b. Joined throughout their entire length by the median dorsal suture
c. Enclose the brain and also serve as the dorsal and lateral walls of the cranium
7. Prootics
a. A pair of dorsally-flattened bones on each side of the posterior end of the fronto-
parietals
b. Enclose the inner ear
8. Squamosals
a. Hammer-shaped bones attached to the lateral ends of the prootics and bases of the
quadratojugals
9. Orbits
a. Two large openings on the lateral sides of the fronto-parietals
b. Lodge the eyeballs
10. Foramen magnum
a. Large, median opening on the posterior end of the skull
b. Leads anteriorly into the cranial cavity
11. Occipitals
a. The collective name given to the bones that surround or border the foramen magnum
b. The lateral exoccipitals bear the occipital condyles, the paired ventro-lateral,
rounded projections that fit into the concavities of the most anterior bone of the
vertebral column, the atlas
 Ventral Aspect of the Skull

1. Vomers with vomerine teeth

a. Paired teeth-bearing bones immediately posterior to the premaxillae and ventral to the
nasals
2. Parasphenoid
a. Median ventral, dagger shaped bone situated immediately the posterior to the vomers
b. Serve as the ventral wall of the cranium
3. Palatines
a. Paired transverse, slender bones that originate from the anterior tips of the parasphenoid
to the maxillae
4. Pterygoids
a. a pair of three-rayed or tri-radiate bones located ventral to the squamosal and ventro-
lateral to the prootics
b. the rays are attached to the prootics, maxillae and squamosals.

The Visceral Skeleton

The endoskeletal structure derived from the gill arches is termed as the visceral skeleton,
and in the frog consists of:

a. the upper and lower jaws

b. hyoid apparatus
c. the cartilages that support the ventral wall of the larynx or voice box

Bones of the Lower Jaw

1. mento-meckelian
a. most anterior and smallest bone of the lower jaw
2. Dentary
a. Mush longer, dorsally-situated bone immediately postero-lateral to the mento-meckelian
b. The only membrane bone of the lower jaw
3. Angulo-splenial
a. The most posterior bone of the lower jaw but ventral to the dentary
b. Bears a prominent projection, the coronoid process

The Hyoid Apparatus

The hyoid apparatus is a flattened structure made up purely of cartilage except for the
posterior pair of cartilage bones, the thyroid processes. It functions for the support of the floor
of the mouth and the posterior part of the larynx. Identify the following:

1. Body of the hyoid

a. The flattened median region or part of the hyoid apparatus
2. Alary processes
a. Paired lateral expansions on the anterior side of the body of the hyoid apparatus
3. Anterior Cornua
a. Pair of longer, horn-like cartilages arising from the antero-medial border of the alary
processes
b. Arch literally and posteriorly, before attaching to the prootics.
4. Posterior Cornua
a. Paired pointed but shorter, horn-like cartilages that arise from the postero-lateral border
of the body of the hyoid.
 The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column consists of ten separate series of bones connected to each other by
ligaments and articulated by zygapophyses. The second to the eighth are called typical vertebrae
while the first (atlas), the ninth (sacral) and the tenth (urostyle) vertebrae are atypical. Typical
vertebrae possess all the parts of an ordinary vertebra.

Observe that atlas and the urostyle do not possess the paired prominent lateral
projections, the transverse processes . This is one of the reasons why they areatypical.
Look for small openings between vertebrae, on both sides of the vertebrae. These are the
intervertebral foramina, which serve as exit of the spinal nerves.

The vertebral column functions:

1. As the main axial endoskeletal support of the body; and

2. To enclose and protect the spinal cord.

The Typical and Atypical Vertebrae

Typical Vertebrae

1. Centrum
a. The base of the vertebra which is concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly, procoelus
type of vertebra.
a. Neural Canal
a. The vertebra’s large, the central opening where the spinal cord is lodged in the live frog.
3. Neural arch
a. The bone that dorsally roofs the neural canal
b. Has a median, posteriorly-directed spine, the neural spine
4. Zygapophyses
a. Two pairs of dorso-laterally situated processes
Prezygapophyses: anterior pair of articulating processes which are directed upward.
Postzygapophyses: posterior pair of articulating processes which are directed downward

Atypical Vertebrae

1. atlas
a. a ring-like bone with a pair of prominent anterior concavities which articulate with the
convex occipital condyles of the skull
2. Sacral Vertebra
a. The vertebra with prominent, broader transverse processes directed postero-laterally
b. Transverse processes articulate with the most dorsal bone of the pelvic girdle, the ilium.
3. Urostyle
a. a long bone with a median, dorsal elevation, the keel, which extends throughout its entire
length.

The Girdles

The pectoral and pelvic girdles function to support the anterior and posterior limbs
respectively. The pectoral girdle is not in any way attached to vertebral column but is embedded
in the muscles of the anterior trunk wall. Incorporated with the pectoral girdle is them is the
median, ventral sternum, which is also embedded in the muscles of the trunk wall. On the other
hand, the pelvic girdle is partly attached to the axial endoskeleton through the transverse process
of the sacral vertebra.
Pectoral girdle and sternum

The pectoral girdle consists of a set identical bones and cartilages, one set on the left and
the other on the right. Left and right halves of the bones are joined midventrally by the epicoracoid.

1. Clavicle
a. Slender, transverse bone on the antero-lateral side of the epicoracoid
b. The only membrane bone of the pectoral girdle
2. Coranoid
a. A broader, transverse bone on the postero-lateral side of the epicoracoid
Note: Observe that both clavicle and coracoid are ventrally located, except that the clavicle is
anterior to the coracoid.
3. Fenestra
a. A space found between the clavicle and the coracoid but in the live frog is covered by a
cartilage
4. Scapula
a. The most dorsal bone of the pectoral girdle that is attached to the clavicle and coracoid
dorsally.
5. Suprascapula
a. A whitish, flat cartilage attached dorsally to the scapula.
6. Glenoid Fossa
a. A cup-shaped depression on the postero-lateral side of the pectoral girdle that serves to
receive the head of the humerus.
b. The clavicle, coracoid and scapula contribute to its formation

The sternum is attached to the median, anterior and posterior ventral ends of the pectoral girdle.
Identify the following parts:

1. Omosternum
a. A bone, shaped like an inverted “Y”, attached to the anterior edges of the clavicles
2. Episternum
a. Rounded cartilage attached to the anterior end of the omosternum
3. Mesosternum
a. A rod-like bone on the posterior ends of the episoracoid and coracoids
4. Xiphisternum
a. A much larger, rounded cartilage attached to the posterior end of mesosternum.

Pelvic Girdle

Study a detached pelvic girdle. Like the pectoral girdle, it consists of two identical halves
one-half of which is called an innominate bone. Identify the parts of an innominate bones to a
whole endoskeletal mount of the frog. Identify the following:

1. Ilium
a. The most dorsal and anterior long bone of the pelvic girdle
b. Its most anterior end is attached to the transverse process of the sacralvertebra
2. Pubis
a. A small, triangular bone immediately posterior but ventral to the ilium
3. Ischium
a. A large bone on the most posterior end of the pelvic girdle
4. Acetabulum
a. A large, rounded depression on the lateral side of the pelvic girdle
b. Ilium, pubis and ischium contribute to its formation
c. Function; serves to receive the head of the femur
 The Bones of the Limbs

Bones of the forelimb

1. Humerus
a. The most proximal bone of the forelimb (upper arm)
b. Its proximal end is provided with a convex head which fits into the concave of the glenoid
fossa
c. With a distinct crest or elevation, the deltoid ridge, which is found on its inner or medial
side
d. Function of the deltoid ridge: for muscle attachment

2. Radio-ulna
a. A fused bone of the forearm, immediately distal to the humerus, the point of union being
marked by a longitudinal groove
b. Consists of an inner radius and an outer ulna

3. Carpals
a. A group of six, rounded bones of the wrist or carpus, and arranged in two rows:
b. A proximal row of specialized bones, namely the
 Radiale, immediately distal to the radius
 Ulnare, immediately distance to the ulna
 Centrale, situated between the radiale and ulnare

4. Metacarpals
a. Consists of four slender bones of the palm to which the phalanges or smaller bones of the
digits of fingers are attached
b. Count from inner to outer, the number of phalanges attached to each of the metacarpals.
This is known as the phalangal or digital formula (2,2, 3,3)

Bones of the Hindlimbs

1. Femur
a. The most proximal bone of the hindlimb (thigh) and corresponds to the humerus of the
upper arm of the forelimb.
b. Its proximal end is provided with a convex head which fits into the acetabulum of the pelvic
girdle.
2. Tibio-fibula
a. A longer, fused bone of the shank or leg, immediately distal to the femur
b. The point of union of the tibia and fibula is marked by a longitudinal groove
c. Consists of an inner tibia and an outer fibula
3. Tarsals
a. Bones of the ankle, consisting of two rows of bones:
b. A proximal row of two distinctly separated bones
c. The more curved astralagus or tibiale, which is immediately distal to the tibia
d. The more straight calcaneum or fibulare, which is immediately distal to the fibula
4. Metatarsals
a. Consists of five, long bones of the sole to which the phalanges, or a smaller bones of the
digits are attached.
b. Count from the inner to outer the number of phalanges attached to each of the metatarsals.
This is called the phalangal or digital formula (2,2,3,4,3).