Cobalt and Nickel Production
nickel production from sulfide ores. Nickel briquettes
Nickel is 24th in order of abundance of elements in the
earth’s crust. The annual world mine production of
nickel is approximately 1.1 Mt, of which 35% is
produced from sulfide ores and the balance from
laterite (oxide) ores. The relatively more simple pro-
cessing of sulfide ores is becoming more prevalent
when the ore is available. Cobalt—a byproduct of
nickel extraction—has an annual world mine pro-
duction of approximately 0.028 Mt. Similar ionic radii
of nickel and cobalt allow their coexistence in ore
crystal lattices. Though the ratio of Ni:Co in the oxide
ores is 10:1, loss of cobalt occurs during nickel
extraction. The mining of nickel ores and their
mineralogy have been described (Burkin 1987). The
first large-scale nickel production was made by Inco ’s
Orford process in the early 1900s. Hydro, pyro, and
electrometallurgical processes are employed in the
extraction and refining of nickel and cobalt in addition
to the mineral beneficiation steps required upfront to
concentrate the ore. Nickel and cobalt sell at approxi-
mately 2$ lbV" and 22$ lbV", respectively. These high
prices can be attributed to the low grade of ores
(sulfide and oxide ores contain typically 1% and
1.5–3% of nickel, respectively) and the high energy-
intensive processing costs. Saleable nickel forms in-
clude the converter matte, granular nickel oxide (70%
Ni), nickel oxide sinter (75% Ni), refined nickel oxide
(77% Ni), ferronickel, nickel pellets, powder,
briquettes, rondelles, shots (92% Ni), and electrolytic
nickel (99.96% Ni).
1. Sources and Commercial Methods
The extractable sulfide minerals are pentlandite
((Ni,Fe) S ) which contains a small amount of cobalt,
and the* most
) partial roasting of nickel ore concentrate, it is mainly
abundant pyrrhotite ((FenV1Sn) or
(Ni,Fe) S ). Chalcopyrite is another major mineral for
( )
nickel sulfide ores that must be considered when
choosing extractive processes. Major nickel sulfide
deposits are found in Canada, Russia, South Africa,
and Australia. Oxide deposits are typically found
stratified with a top layer of iron overburden. Below
the iron is a limonite (hydrated iron oxide) which also
contains 1–1.5% nickel, 40–50% iron, and 0.2%
cobalt and other impurities. Below that lies a silicate
or ‘‘ garnierite ’’ layer usually high in nickel (1.5–3%)
along with a gangue rich in MgO and SiO , but with a
10–30% iron content (Tyroler and Landolt # 1988).
Processing of laterites is more energy-intensive since it
contains 40% moisture that must be dried. Copper,
cobalt, platinum group metals, gold, silver, and iron
exist in sulfides, whereas cobalt and iron are the only
significant secondary constituents in laterites. Energy
requirements and sulfur abatement are key factors in
the selection of processes.
The Inco process, the Outokumpu Oy process, and
the Sheritt Gordon process are primary methods for
and nickel powder by sulfuric acid leaching, ferro-
nickel pigs by direct reduction, nickel rondelles from
matte and nickel oxide sinter by reductive roast and
ammoniacal leaching are primary processing schemes
for oxide ores. Ocean-based nickel extraction from
manganese nodules is also technically viable, using
proven extraction methods, with as much as 98%
recovery of nickel.
2. Extractive Metallurgy
Due to the intimate association of nickel oxide with
the gangue, mineral processing is not useful for
laterites. Sulfide ores are concentrated, however, by
mineral processing techniques. Typical steps include
crushing in jaw or gyratory crushers, wet-grinding in
rod or ball mills, and classification in a cyclone or a
mechanical classifier. These steps are followed by
magnetic separation or flotation of the fines to separate
the valuable minerals from the gangue. The final
dewatering is accomplished in thickeners or cyclones
by continuous vacuum filtration. The mineral pro-
cessing flowsheet and variations on processes have
been comprehensibly described (Boldt 1967).
2.1 Pyrometallurgical Extraction
Roasting, smelting, and converting are pyrometallur-
gical process steps that are based on the relative
affinities of metals for sulfur and oxygen. A typical
process flowsheet is shown in Fig. 1. Iron sulfide is
primarily converted to oxide in roasting. When only
about half the iron is oxidized during roasting, less
nickel and copper sulfides are oxidized. In the case of
the pyrrhotite mineral, (Ni,Fe) S that is oxidized:
( )
3Fe S j38O 7Fe O j24SO
( ) # $ % #
Almost all the nickel minerals produced from the
roaster are sulfides. The reaction is exothermic so it
can proceed with almost no additional fuel needs as
virtually autogenous roasting.
The aim of smelting is to segregate the desired
components in a high-grade converter matte and the
undesired components in a slag. Some sulfur is
retained in the smelter matte product for the same
reason that coke and silica sand are used during
smelting—the matte liquidus temperature is lower in
the presence of sulfur, carbon, and silicon. Silicate flux
is added to override the miscibility of iron oxide and
nickel sulfide. A top layer of slag is formed over the
matte. Addition of lime increases the activity co-
efficient of NiO, i.e., decreases the nickel solubility. A
small amount of lime and alumina lowers the slag
melting temperature to " 1400 mC in a high magnesia