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proximodistal principle
maturation
neurons
synapses
windows of opportunity
theory Knowledge of child development can help you
understand how to work with children who have very
schemata different personalities.
sensorimotor stage
preoperational stage quiet. You may even find that some children
concrete operations stage are easier to like.
to
ill be able To help all these children, you need
is c hapter, you w multiple intelligences to understand the sequence of their
dying th princip
les of development. Knowledge of the areas of
After stu eas and
ribe
v desc lopment.
the ar
y as rela
ted to S tudying and understanding child
child development is basic to guiding young
children. Linked to this is the understanding
Child dev e
ne wind
ow
v defi development.
s o f o p portunit growth and development are important
parts of teaching young children. No two
of healthy brain development.
Healthy brain development results from
in bout children are alike. Children differ in physical, healthy human contact. Positive stimuli
bra eories a tical
e how th used as prac cognitive, social, and emotional growth are a major factor in brain development.
Development deve
m a r iz
to early
care
e
v sum lopment can b and education.
eories o
f
patterns. Even identical twins, who have the
same genetic makeup, are not exactly alike.
These stimuli begin at birth. Therefore, it is
vital for children to have loving caregivers.
guides lo p m ental th ardner. They may differ in the way they respond to Young children need dependable, trusting
e
Principles and ast the
dev
v contrson, Piaget, Vyg
Erik
otsky, a
nd G play, affection, objects, and people in their
environment.
Think of the children you know. Each
relationships. They thrive in environments
that are predictable and nurturing.
Understanding theories about how
68
70 Part One The Children and You Chapter 4 Child Development Principles and Theories 71
not random. Changes in bone thickness, expression of feelings. Trust, fear, confidence,
Child Development vision, hearing, and muscle are all included.
Changes in size and weight are also part of lt d pride, friendship, and humor are all part
of social-emotional development. Other
Development refers to change or growth
that occurs in children. It starts with infancy
physical development. See 4-2. ae emotional traits include timidity, interest,
Physical skills, such as crawling, walking, and pleasure. See 4-3. Learning to express
and continues to adulthood. By studying
and writing, are the result of physical The emotions in appropriate ways begins early.
child development, you will form a profile
development. These skills fall into two main Human Need Caregivers promote this learning when they
of what children can do at various ages. For
categories: for Safety positively model these skills. A person’s self-
instance, you will learn that two-year-old
children like to run. This means you should
v Gross-motor development involves concept and self-esteem are also part of this
improvement of skills using the large According to psychologist Abraham area. As children have success with all skills,
provide space for them to move freely.
muscles in the legs and arms. Such Maslow, the human need for safety must confidence flourishes. This leads to a healthy
Likewise, you will learn that infants explore
activities as running, skipping, and bike be met before growth and development self-concept and sense of worth.
with their senses, often mouthing objects.
riding fall into this category. occurs in other areas. This is especially The physical, cognitive, and social-
Knowing this, you will need to make sure
v Fine-motor development involves the true for young children. What does this emotional areas of development are linked
that all toys for infants are clean and safe.
small muscles of the hands and fingers. mean for early childhood teachers? Be to one another. Development in one area
Different names are used to describe
Grasping, holding, cutting, and drawing alert to what causes children in your care can strongly influence another area. For
young children at different ages. From
are some activities that require fine- to feel unsafe or have fear. Some children instance, writing words requires fine-motor
birth through the first year, children are
motor development. may cling to you for security. Others may skills. It also requires cognitive development.
called infants. Toddlers are children from
act out by hitting or biting. Still others Language, a part of cognitive development,
age one up to the third birthday. (Because Environmental factors also affect what may react negatively to “strangers” in is needed to communicate with others. It
of an awkward style of walking, the name children can do physically. These factors the room. On a continuing basis, look for is also necessary for growing socially and
toddler describes this age group.) The term include proper nutrition and appropriate toys ways to keep children feeling secure. For emotionally.
preschooler is often used to describe children and activities. example, this may mean standing close Just as research has made known the
ages three to six years of age. Cognitive development, sometimes to a child who fears strangers when a areas of development, it also shows that
The basic patterns of child development called intellectual development, refers to new person is in the room. development follows key patterns, or
are a rather recent area of study. Researchers
principles. Think about how these principles
are constantly discovering new information
might influence how you care for children.
on how children grow, develop, and learn
about their world. Studying the basics of 4-2
child development is just the beginning
for you. Throughout your career, you will 4-3
need to update your knowledge of the latest
research and trends in this career field. processes people use to gain knowledge.
Seminars, courses, professional articles, and Language, thought, reasoning, and
conferences will help you in this goal. Keep imagination are all included. Identifying
in mind that growing as a professional is a colors and knowing the difference between
lifelong process. one and many are examples of cognitive tasks.
Language and thought are a result of
cognitive development. These two skills are
Areas of Development closely related. Both are needed for planning,
The study of child development is often remembering, and problem solving. As
divided into three main areas. These include children mature and gain experience with
physical, cognitive, and social-emotional their world, these skills develop.
development. Dividing development into The third area of development is called
these areas makes it easier to study. social-emotional development. These two
Physical development refers to physical areas are grouped together because they are
body changes. It occurs in a relatively so interrelated. Learning to relate to others is
Changes in height and weight are two of the most social development. Emotional development, Learning to trust and show affection for others is a part
stable, predictable sequence. It is orderly, obvious signs of physical development. of social-emotional development.
on the other hand, involves feelings and
72 Part One The Children and You Chapter 4 Child Development Principles and Theories 73
or idea that is proposed, researched, and teachers and parents play a powerful role in stage, toddlers use their new motor and
4-8 generally accepted as an explanation. recognizing each stage. By providing social mental skills. They want to be independent
Developmental theories provide insights opportunity and support, teachers and parents and do things for themselves. They are in
into how children grow and learn. Theories can help children overcome each crisis. Chart 4-9 the process of discovering their own bodies
are helpful for understanding and guiding contains the first four stages of Erikson’s theory. and practicing their developing locomotor
developmental processes. These stages occur during the early childhood (physical movement) and language skills.
Theories can be useful decision-making years. The paragraphs that follow give a brief The objective of this stage is to gain
tools. Since a variety of theories exists, overview of these early stages. self-control without a loss of self-esteem.
teachers need to understand these different Fostering independence in children is
approaches for working with children. Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust important. At this age, toddlers start to
Theories will help you form your personal become self-sufficient. They need to learn
values and beliefs about learning. They During the first eighteen months of to choose and decide for themselves. To
will also help you understand strategies for life, children learn to trust or mistrust their do this, toddlers need a loving, supportive
promoting children’s development. environment. To develop trust, they need environment. Positive opportunities for self-
Four major theories about how children to have warm, consistent, predictable, and feeding, toileting, dressing, and exploration
learn are discussed in this chapter. These attentive care. See 4-10. They need caregivers will result in autonomy, or independence.
include theories of mid-twentieth-century who will accurately read and respond to their On the other hand, overprotection or lack of
psychologists Erik Erikson, Jean Piaget, and Lev signals. When infants are distressed, they adequate activities results in self-doubt, poor
Vygotsky. The final theorist, Howard Gardner, need to be comforted. They also need loving achievement, and shame.
is a twenty-first-century developmental physical contact, nourishment, cleanliness,
psychologist. These theories are based on and warmth. Then they will develop a sense Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt
observation and experiences with children. of confidence and trust that the world is safe
Blocks of different shapes, sizes, and colors can help Think about the children you know as you read and dependable. Mistrust will occur if an Between three and five years of age, the
promote brain connections related to math and logic. about theories that helped form today’s ideas infant experiences an unpredictable world third stage occurs. According to Erikson,
about working with young children. and is handled harshly. it emerges as a result of the many skills
children have developed. Now children
Motor Development: Prenatal to
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame have the capacity and are ready to learn
Eight years Erikson’s Psychosocial constructive ways of dealing with people
and Doubt
and things. They are learning how to take
Motor development requires complex Theory This second stage occurs between eighteen initiative without being hurtful to others.
brain networking. The window of
Erik Erikson proposed a theory of months and three years of age. During this They are also busy discovering how the
opportunity begins before children are even
born. The window lasts for the first eight psychosocial development. He believed
years. During this time, stable, long-lasting development occurs throughout the life
structures can be created. Young children span. His theory provided new insights into 4-9
need a variety of gross- and fine-motor the formation of a healthy personality. It
activities to support motor development. emphasizes the social and emotional aspects Erikson’s Stages of Development During Early Childhood
of growth. Children’s personalities develop in
Stage Approximate Age Psychosocial Crisis
response to their social environment. The same
is true of their skills for social interaction.
Theories of Erikson’s theory includes eight stages. At
I Birth–18 months Trust versus mistrust
development promote cognitive development. happened through exploration with hands- In the middle are the tasks children cannot
Babies’ physical actions, such as sucking, 4-13 on activities. Vygotsky, on the other hand, accomplish alone. These are achieved with
grasping, and hitting, help them learn about believed that children learn through social and help from another knowledgeable peer or
their surroundings. Movements are random cultural experiences. Interactions with peers adult. The term used for this assistance is
at first. Gradually they become intentional and adults help children in this process. While scaffolding. Just as a painter needs a structure
as behaviors are repeated. Children begin interacting with others, children learn the on which to stand and paint a building,
to learn that objects still exist even when customs, values, beliefs, and language of their scaffolding provides the structure for
they are out of sight. This is known as culture. For this reason, families and teachers learning to occur. For example, a teacher
object permanence. Through exploration and should provide plenty of social interaction for could scaffold a child’s learning while
exposure to new experiences, new concepts young children. See 4-14. constructing a puzzle. The teacher might
are learned. Vygotsky believed language is an demonstrate how a piece fits or provide clues
The preoperational stage takes place important tool for thought and plays a key regarding color, shape, or size. The “zone”
between ages two and seven. Children role in cognitive development. He introduced is constantly changing. In contrast to Piaget,
during this stage are very egocentric. This the term private speech, or self-talk. This Vygotsky believed that learning was not
means that they assume others see the world refers to when children “think out loud.” limited by stage or maturation. Children
the same way they do. Children do not After learning language, children engage in move forward in their cognitive development
yet have the ability to see others’ points of this self-talk to help guide their activity and with the right social interaction and guided
view. During this time, representation skills develop their thinking. Generally, self-talk learning, 4-15.
are learned. These skills include language, continues until children reach school age.
symbolic play, and drawing. See 4-13. One of Vygotsky’s most important
Children learn to use symbols and internal contributions was the zone of proximal Gardner’s Multiple
images, but their thinking is illogical. It is development (ZPD). This concept presents Intelligences Theory
very different from that of adults. Children learning as a scale. One end of the scale or
begin to understand that changing the “zone” includes the tasks that are within the Howard Gardner has helped teachers
physical appearance of something does child’s current developmental level. The other rethink how they work with young children.
not change the amount of it. They are able end of the scale includes tasks too difficult Traditional intelligence tests mainly focus on
to recognize the difference between size for children to accomplish, even with help. language and math/logic skills. In contrast,
and volume. For example, a ball of clay can
be stretched into a long rope. Even if the
physical appearance changes, the amount of
4-15
This child is at the preoperational stage of Piaget’s
4-14
the object does not change. This skill is called
cognitive development. She is using her finger to
conservation. At this stage, children can also represent a baby bottle.
classify groups of objects and put objects in a
series in order.
During the ages of seven to eleven years, (the age range you are in right now).
concrete operations begin. Children develop According to Piaget, young people develop
the capacity to think systematically, but only the capacity to think in purely abstract ways.
when they can refer to actual objects and They no longer need concrete examples.
use hands-on activities. Then they begin Problem solving and reasoning are key skills
to internalize some tasks. This means they developed during this stage.
no longer need to depend on what is seen.
They become capable of reversing operations.
For example, they understand that 3 + 1 is Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
the same as 1 + 3. When real situations are Theory
presented, they are beginning to understand
others’ points of view. Both Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
Vygotsky believed it is important to support language
The fourth stage, formal operations, takes believed that children build knowledge According to Vygotsky, children learn the rules of social development. During storytelling, the teacher extends
place from eleven years of age to adulthood through experiences. Piaget believed this interaction through play. the experience by asking questions.
82 Part One The Children and You Chapter 4 Child Development Principles and Theories 83
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences The multiple intelligence theory allows intelligence typically enjoy sports, dance, by moving to recorded music. Use different
emphasizes that there are different kinds teachers to see the positive attributes of all or creative drama. They are able to express instruments and instruments from other
of intelligences used by the human brain. children. Teachers also view Gardner’s theory themselves with their entire bodies. Children cultures to add variety.
Gardner believes intelligence is the result as a meaningful guide for making curriculum will benefit from creative-movement
of complex interactions between children’s decisions. It gives them a chance to assess experiences and role-playing. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
heredity and experiences. This theory focuses children’s learning strengths. From this data, Children with this type of intelligence
on how cultures shape human potential. teachers can plan a wide variety of learning process knowledge through sensation. They Logical-mathematical intelligence is more
Gardner claims that children learn and experiences. Chart 4-16 lists Gardner’s eight enjoy touch and creating with their hands. than just the ability to use math. It is the ability
express themselves in many different ways. intelligences. The paragraphs that follow Therefore, daily opportunities should be to use logic and reason to solve problems.
In the process, they are using several types explain these intelligences in detail. provided for hands-on activities. Clay, Math experts have this form of intelligence.
of intelligence. Each intelligence functions sand, dough, feely boxes, and other sensory Scientists and composers may also have it.
separately, but all are closely linked. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence activities help them develop fine-motor skills. This intelligence involves the ability to explore
According to Gardner, a potential intelligence Movement is also needed for gross-motor categories, patterns, and other relationships.
will not develop unless it is nurtured. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence involves skills and coordination. It is important for It includes applying the principle of cause
Learning can best be achieved by using a the ability to control body movements. caregivers and teachers to provide activities and effect. It also involves the skill to make
child’s strongest intelligence. Gardner claims, This includes using parts of the body involving physical challenges. These may predictions about patterns, 4-17.
however, that all children need opportunities to solve problems, handle objects, and include playing kickball, jumping rope, and Children with this type of intelligence
to develop all areas of intelligence. express emotions. People with this type of moving to music. take pleasure in finding patterns and
relationships. They enjoy discovering
Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence similarities and differences. Manipulatives
4-16 for matching, measuring, and counting
Musical-rhythmic intelligence involves the should be provided. Blocks can encourage
Gardner’s Eight Intelligences ability to recognize musical patterns. It also the children’s problem-solving and reasoning
Bodily-kinesthetic v Ability to control one’s own body movements and manipulate objects includes the ability to produce and appreciate skills. Storybooks that show a sequence of
v Use of fingers, hands, arms, and legs to solve problems, express music. Since music evokes emotion, this is events hold appeal for this type of intelligence.
ideas, construct, and repair one of the earliest intelligences to emerge. Water and sand activities with different-size
Musical-rhythmic v Ability to recognize, create, and appreciate pitch, rhythm, tone quality Composers and musicians are examples of containers help teach the concept of volume.
v Ability to use different forms of musical expression people with this type of intelligence.
Logical-mathematical v Ability to use logic, reason, mathematics to solve problems Children with this type of intelligence love
v listening to music. They are drawn to the art
Ability to apply principles of cause-and-effect and prediction 4-17
v Appreciation of patterns as well as relationships of sound and appreciate all forms of musical
Verbal-linguistic v Ability to use well-developed language skills to express self and expression. They have a well-developed
understand others auditory sense and can discriminate tone,
v Sensitivity to sounds, rhythm, and meaning of words pitch, and rhythmic patterns. As a result, they
Interpersonal v Ability to understand feelings, behaviors, and motives of others often cannot get songs out of their minds.
v Ability to work effectively with others You will hear them repeatedly singing or
humming. This helps them understand
Intrapersonal v Ability to understand personal strengths, weaknesses, talents, and
interests concepts and remember information.
v Knowledge of skills, limitations, emotions, desires, and motivations Activities to support musical intelligence
can be included throughout the day.
Visual-spatial v Ability to form mental images
v Ability to visualize the relationship of objects in space Offer opportunities for sound exploration
through listening and singing. Use songs for
Naturalistic v Ability to distinguish between living things such as plants and animals
directions and moving children from one
activity to another. Play background music
during self-selected play. Include songs
during large and small group activities.
The relationship between multiple intelligences is the foundation of Gardner’s the
theory
h ory .
he
Record the children creating their own music Children with logical-mathematical intelligence enjoy
while singing or chanting. Explore rhythm discovering similarities and differences.
84 Part One The Children and You Chapter 4 Child Development Principles and Theories 85
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence They can share experiences and provide the To build on this intelligence, provide
children with chances for verbal interaction. 4-18 cooking activities and nature walks. These
Verbal-linguistic intelligence involves the Books focusing on emotions can be acted out. help develop use of the senses to gather
ability to use language for expression. People information. Planting and growing a garden
with this type of intelligence have well- Intrapersonal Intelligence helps the children observe cycles. Rocks,
developed language skills. They demonstrate seashells, flowers, leaves, seeds, and coins
sensitivity to the meaning, sound, and Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability can also be collected. In the classroom, they
rhythm of words. Lawyers, poets, public to understand the inner self. This is also can be sorted and classified. Post picture
speakers, and language translators have this known as self-awareness. It involves knowing collections and share books about natural
type of intelligence. your skills, limits, and feelings. It includes events.
Young children with this intelligence understanding your desires and motives.
learn best by talking, listening, reading, and The ability to organize groups of people is
writing. These children quickly learn the part of this strength. Communicating needs
words to new stories, songs, and finger plays. clearly is another aspect. Psychologists, social Making the Pieces Fit
They enjoy talking to other people and are workers, religious leaders, and counselors
are examples of people with this type of You might be thinking, “How will
able to speak in an interesting and engaging
intelligence. knowing about the areas and principles of
manner. They are also able to learn a second
How can you foster this type of development, the brain, and theories help me
language with ease.
intelligence? In the classroom, share emotions in my career in working with children?” The
This intelligence can be nurtured by
that all children experience. These include answer is both simple and complex. It’s much
environments rich with language opportunities.
joy, sadness, regret, and disappointment. like fitting together the pieces of a puzzle.
Children learn language in settings where it
Classroom examples should be shared as In order to become a nurturing, responsive
is used. Teachers need to follow the children’s
well as storybooks that contain emotional teacher, you must have insight into how
interests. They can then use these interests to
concepts. children grow and develop.
engage children in meaningful conversations.
The brain affects all aspects of growth
Children’s storybooks, songs, poetry, chants,
Visual-Spatial Intelligence and development. The areas and principles
and rhymes can serve as means for learning Visual-spatial intelligence can be promoted through
toys such as blocks and puzzles. of development are similar for all children.
new vocabulary words. Listening to and telling
Visual-spatial intelligence allows people to Development generally progresses in a
stories can also promote language development.
use their vision to develop mental images. similar way for all children. Although each
People who have this type of intelligence
Naturalistic Intelligence theory looks at development from a different
Interpersonal Intelligence
show a preference for pictures and images. Naturalistic intelligence is developed from angle, each offers a wealth of insight into
People with interpersonal intelligence Photographers and artists are some examples. the need to survive. This is the ability to how children develop. On what do the
display excellent communication and Architects, engineers, and surgeons also need classify objects in nature such as animals theorists agree? Children learn best in a
social skills. These people have a gift for this ability. They use it to see the relationship and plants. It depends on a type of pattern caring environment rich with opportunity for
understanding the feelings, behaviors, of objects in space. recognition. This strength also includes learning. In addition, caregivers help build
moods, and motives of others. They make Teachers can foster this intelligence the ability to distinguish among types and the self-confidence and self-worth children
friends easily. They use language to develop by providing children with unstructured brands of objects. Sailors, gardeners, chefs, need to safely explore the world.
trust and bonds with others. They are also materials. Building blocks and puzzles and farmers are people who have this
skilled in supporting others and empathizing strengthen this type of intelligence, 4-18. intelligence.
with them. These skills are important for Make and use visual aids wherever possible.
teachers, politicians, salespeople, and people For example, classroom schedules, recipes,
working in the service industry. and stories can all be displayed on charts.
These skills are nurtured in young Shelving units can be labeled with pictures
children when caring behaviors are modeled cut from equipment catalogs.
for them. Teachers should keep this in mind.
86 Part One The Children and You Chapter 4 Child Development Principles and Theories 87