5) How do you display the colour and grey levels using frame buffer in rastor terminals?

1. The display processing unit receives the graphics commands from CPU and it converts them into a
dot-by-dot representation, or raster images in a portion of memory called frame buffer. The picture
or image thus formed is due to group of dots or pixels. Size of dot corresponds to the resolution.
2. The display processor generates and stores the raster image in the frame buffer, it also reads the
contents of the buffer and casts the electron beams onto the display device reproducing the image
from the frame buffer.
3. The values of the pixels of a display screen that result from the scan-conversion process are stored
in an area or memory called frame buffer or bit map as shown in Fig.2.7. Each pixel value
determines its brightness (gray level) or most often its color on the screen. There is one-toone
correspondence between every cell in the bit map memory and every pixel on the screen. The
display processor maps every cell into its corresponding screen pixel brightness or color. In order to
maintain a flicker-free image on the screen, the screen must be refreshed at the rate of 30 or 60 Hz,
as in the case of refresh displays. The refresh process is performed by passing the pixel values in the
bit map to the display processor for every refresh cycle. There is no chance of flicker of image as in
case of refresh displays. Eight bits per pixel are usually needed to produce satisfactory continuous
shades of gray for monochrome displays.
Series of regularly spaced tones ranging from white to black through intermediate shades are
called gray scale
4. For color displays, 24 bits/pixel would be needed: 8 bits for each primary color red, blue and green.
This would provide 224 different colors, which are far more than needed in real applications. The
bit map memory is arranged conceptually as a series of planes, one for each bit in the pixel value.
Thus, an eightplane memory provides 8 bits/pixel, which provides 28 different gray levels or
different colors that can be displayed simultaneously in one image. The value of a pixel in the bit
map memory is translated to a gray level or a color through a lookup table. The pixel value is used
as an index for this lookup table to find the corresponding table entry value which is then used by
the display system to control the gray level or color. Raster displays are now a standard for all
CAD/CAM applications.
6 ) DESCRIBE the role of graphics package in CAD softwre.
 Graphic package is a software support between the user and the graphics terminal.
 It manages the graphic interactions. It serves as interface between the user and application software.
 It consists of input subroutines for accepting input commands from user and output subroutines for controlling
the display terminal and converts the application models into 2-D or 3-D graphics pictures.
An example of a standard graphics package (interface) also known as graphics standard is Graphics Kernel System
(GKS) developed by International standard organization (ISO) in 1982.
While using graphic elements, following aspects about construction process must be considered:
1. Before new element is added to model, user has to specify its size, position and orientation.
2. Both addition and subtraction of graphic elements is made possible.
3. Grouping of several elements together as a graphic cell or unit. This can be called any where in
the model.
Eg., A bolt formed as a unit or cell and added anywhere in the model.
Following are the main functions of graphics-package:
(a) Generate the graphics elements (primitives)
There are certain basic elements which are displayed by a graphics library. Some examples include: line, polygon,
text. In GKS, the polyline capability of set of connected line segments can be drawn as a whole is a default function
and thus the end points denoted by coordinates (x1,y1,z1),(x2,y2,z2),…. of the polyline formed are provided in sequence
in the following form:

This representation is very advantageous in drawing multiple lines.

Example: a line formed by the coordinates (2,3), (4,6) is denoted as

(b) Editing operations:

CAD system provides editing capabilities to make corrections and adjustments in the geometric model. Editing
includes-deleting, moving, copying and rotating the components of the model. Editing involves first selecting the
desired portion of the model (by segmenting process) and execute the appropriate command (by transformations). The
computer must indicate to the user which portion of the model is to be selected.
Following are common editing features:
MOVE item to another location
Duplicate an item
Rotate an item
Mirror an item (creating mirror image about a specified plane)
Delete an item

Remove an item from the display without deleting from database.

Trim a line or other component
Create a cell out of graphic elements
Scale an item (either entire model or in one or two directions)
Important editing operation is transformation. It includes: translation, rotation, scale or mirroring.
These transformations can be done in either 2-dimensions or 3-dimensions
Transformations
Most graphics libraries execute the transformations internally and graphics programmer needs to provide only the
amount of rotation and translation of each object.
Sometimes transformations are also called mapping from one coordinate frame to the other.
There are three basic transformations: (i) Translation, (ii) rotation and (iii) scaling.
(i) Translation
We can translate points in x-y plane to new positions by adding translation amounts to the coordinates of the points.
For each point P1(x1,y1) to be moved by distance dx units parallel to x and by dy units parallel to y-axis to new point
P2(x2,y2)
we can write: x2=x1 +dx and y2=y1 +dy
In vector form, P2=P1+D, where P2=x2 y2 , P1= x1 y1 and D=dx dy .

We can translate the entire object by using above relation to every point on the object. By translating only the end
points in a line and drawing a new line between translated end points completes a line translation.
(ii) Rotation
A point P1 (x1,y1) rotated through an angle  about it perpendicular axis (z-axis) with respect to origin or
other points is shown in Fig.3.3. Let it takes new position P2 (x2,y2).
A rotation defined about the z-axis (Fig.3.3) results in new coordinates of P2 as follows:
x2=x1 cos - y1 sin ,
y2=x1 sin  + y1 cos 
(c) Display control and windowing functions
Graphics software defines some terms related to graphics pipeline. World coordinate system is reference
coordinate system used to describe the objects as it is. A window defines a region in space that will be
projected onto the display monitor. A view port is the area to which viewing volume defined by the
window is mapped. Mapping will involve translation and scaling to take deviation of view port center from
monitor center. Viewing volume depends on the type of projection and can yield a complicated image
when projected as it includes unnecessary objects far from or near the viewer. User should view the image
from desired angle and at the desired magnification. In 2-D, a window on 2-D world and a view port on 2D
view surface are specified. Conceptually objects in world are clipped against the window and are then
transformed into the view port for display. The extra complexity of 3-D viewing is caused in part by the
added dimension and in part by the fact that the display devices are only 2-D. The solution is accomplished
by introducing projections which transform 3-D objects onto a 2-D projection plane. In 3-D viewing, objects
in 3-D world are clipped against 3-D view volume and are then projected. The contents of view volume
onto the projection plane (window) are then transformed or mapped into the view port for display.

(d) Segmenting functions: Segmentation is the process of converting the grey-scale image into a `black and
white' form by determining the object or background for each pixel in the image. Output primitives,
attributes and certain control elements can be grouped in segments. Such segments can be created,
deleted, renamed and copied. Segments have also a number of attributes which can be changed
dynamically. These include: segment transformations and visibility. There are certain methods of finding
segments in a graphics picture.
These are: (1) Placing a mark on the segment
(2) Marking the segment brighter than the rest of the image.
(3) Making the segment to blink.
7) Give the importance of geometric transformations.
8) Explain different types of geometric modelling types.

Types of geometric modelling systems

(i) Wire frame Modeling Systems
Wire frame systems represent a shape by its characteristic lines and end-points. These systems use these
lines and points to display three dimensional shapes and allow manipulation of the shapes by modifying
the lines and points. The mathematical description of visual model is the list of curve equations,
coordinates of the points and connectivity information for the shape’s curves and points. These systems
were popular at time of introducing the geometric models. These require simple user inputs to create a
shape however, a visual model composed of lines is sometimes ambiguous as shown in Fig.4.2.

The corresponding mathematical description does not include information about the inside and outside
boundary surfaces of the object being modelled. Without this information, even it is in 3- dimensional
shape, it is not possible to calculate the mass properties, or derive the tool paths to machine the surfaces
or generate its finite element meshes for analysis. As these are essential in design, wireframe modelling
systems have now been replaced by surface and solid models.
(ii) Surface Modelling Systems
In surface modelling, the mathematical description relating to visual model includes: surface information in
addition to the information about the characteristic lines and their end-points contained in the wireframe
descriptions. Thus list of surface equations, curve equations, and coordinate information are employed for
manipulating the object on the graphics screen. The visual model may appear to be same as that in a
wireframe model, when the surfaces are not coloured or shaded. The mathematical description also
includes the information about surface connectivity, which is very helpful in some applications like
generating tool path as in NC machines.
Fig.4.3 shows the difference between the wireframe and surface models.
(iii) Solid Modeling Systems
These systems are used to model a shape having a closed volume (solid) as shown in Fig.4.4. Here a simple
set of surfaces or set of lines is not allowed. Mathematical description of a shape created in a solid
modelling system contains information relating to volume of the solid. The application programs can be
written to generate finite elements of solid type automatically from a solid model or automatic tool path
generation program for machining.

Creating the model as a whole requires a large amount of input data in proportion to the amount of data
stored in the mathematical description. This is complicated process on the user. Hence today solid
modelling systems have simple and natural modelling functions so that user can manipulate the shape of a
solid as they do for a physical model without having to consider the details of the mathematical
description. Simple inputs are enough from users to model the functions such as primitive creation,
Boolean operations, lifting, sweeping, swinging, rounding etc.

1. Primitive creation functions are used to create a simple shape by retrieving a solid by adjusting its size.
2. Boolean operations like union, intersection and difference are the functions used to add or subtract a
solid from another solid by defining the relative locations and orientations.
3. Sweeping and swinging functions are used to create a solid by moving a surface. The modelling functions
like rounding or blending are used to modify an existing shape. Some other group of functions are used to
manipulate the lower level entities of solid like edges and faces. These are known as boundary modelling
functions.
4. Last group of functions are known as feature based modelling functions, where the designer can model a
solid by using familiar shapes like hole, rib etc on a component. Here with information on the existence,
size and location of manufacturing features, an automatic processplan can be generated directly from a
solid model. Today’s solid modelling tool permit user defined features as per the applications. Also the
shapes can be modelled by using geometric constraints like symmetry, tangency and perpendicularity
along with dimensional relations on their elements instead of directly modifying the shape elements. Such
a modelling is called parametric solid modelling approach. Thus geometric modelling
+constraints=Parametric modelling.