DEITIES AND DEMONS to the objects and areas for which they stand. One in stance of an important personification for che entire pe tod of ancient Egyptian history is Maat, the goddess of ‘order inthe world and in life; Hap, god of floodwaters, ‘is another ‘The variety of themes is striking. Numerous objects and abstractions connected in the broadest sense to u- ‘man nourishment could be personified, and so owo beer jngs became Menquet and Tenemit, goddesses of beer ‘who were responsible for brewing. They were often de- picted in processions of people bearing offerings in the ‘Greco-Roman period. They were accompanied in these ‘processions by other personifications such as Neper, the god of grain, Agyt (bread), and Hiab (fishing and bird catching), c0 name afew. From this type of personific tion, it was only a small step to personifying the aeo- graphical areas that supplied different kinds of foods thus we find various denominations for fields, canals, and rivers personified inthe same processions. “There are also depictions of geographical processions, ‘which in terms of iconography and location (in the low= ‘est register in the temples) are hardly distinguishable from the processions of gfe bearers. They include long rows of personifications of the regions of Egypt, fre ‘quently divided into four main groups; they are shown in geographical order from south t0 north, offering products typical of their region co the temple or the ‘main god of the temple, Furthermore, individual topo- rayms could themselves become objects of veneration; examples include ehe two personifications of che region ‘on the western bank of the Nile at Thebes: Meresger {She Who Loves Silence) and Cheftethernzbes (She Who Faces Her Lord) (a reference to Karnak). An example from a later date is the personification of the Temple of Isis in Dendara, wha is shown being honored by he king, just like Hathor or Isis in a ritual scené on the ‘outer wall of both the pronaos and 1205 ofthe temple of Hathor there. Sl other personifcations are derived from the area ‘of religion othe raya palace, as when two whips or the king's beard ate portrayed as divine beings. A last im- portant group consists of personifications of abstract conceprs, such as the goddess Maat. Other important divinities in this category are Ho, the god of divine ut rerance, Sia, god of knowledge, and Heke, god of masic, who was venerated as a child-god in the Greco-Roman ‘era atthe remple in Esna. ‘CHR. Mesopotamia Deities, demons, and personified concepts cannot be as sessed without reference 0 the symbolic and social ‘wholes in which they function. The theoretical perspec tive cam be outlined as follows: religion projects an im age of purpose on whatever is beyond human control the cosmos isthe imaginary complement of boundless reality, which it models and explains; gods identify is lands of intent, peemanent cosmic consciences shaped after their mortal designees and therefore reassuringly ‘communicative; ritual gives form co shared beliefs and ‘commits the individual co the group; mych specifies che ‘essentially ambiguous eitual order and thus may adape traditional forms to a changing environment. Meso: potamian religion, deities and demons included, is nota monolithic whole, bat a social tool changing in step ‘with an increasingly more complex and hierarchical so- ery. From prehistory tothe end ofthe cuneiform tradi tion, six stages of development can be discerned, defined basically according to the religious justification of power relations and rulership, the variable factor: =, Prehistoric stage (ca, 4500-3500 ce). Society is organized into small agricularal villages with lite in- tema or regional stratification; day-to-day behavior is regulated by “rules of teadtion” (ste); decision making is structured by the Family focused on an ancestor cut. The myth of the marriage of (father) Heaven (An) and (mother) Earth (Ki) may belong to this early period and affords a mechanism for human and nonhuman fertility; ‘ pantheon of defled cosmic elements (Moon, Sun, Ve- ‘nus can he assumed, while certain animals were viewed as manifestations of the divine. The cosmos was thought tobe regulated by the same cype of traditional rules (48) as society; occasional mishap was imputed to the azag ‘demon (infsingement of a taboo}; and compromised pur rity was restored by magical means (ablation wich holy water) ‘2. Eridu stage (ca. 3500-2500 nex). The villages grow into cites, and leadership is no longer based solely on family relations. The gods of nature expand their power 10 become city gods, anthropomorphic heads of saté hholding cour with spouses and servants in the city’s main temple: Inanna (Lady of Heaven) (Venus) in Uruk tutu (Sun) in Larsa, Nanna (Fieavenly Lord) (Moon) in Us, Enlil (Lord Ether) in Nippur, Nishursag (Lady of the ‘Wooded Hills) (Mother-goddess) in Kish, to mention the most important. Enki (Lord of the Earth the god of ‘water and white magic, is seated in Fridu, which has be- ‘come a “national” religious center, the touchstone of ‘correct bahavior (st), and probably the authority be- hind the complementary assignment of gods to cities. ‘The actual human riller derives his right to rule feom his relation to the city god: in Uruk he is “married” 10 Tanna, and as her husband be supervises her domin- fons, the city, and its inhabitant; elsewhere the ruler is the deity’s som or chief tenant (ens) 5. Nippur stage (ca. 2500-2500 8ce). The religious and political regimen developed in the south (Sumer) al lows only city-states, while in che cribal north (Akkad) ‘an inheritable regional kingship prevails with wider as- pirations. Halfway chrough the 3rd millennium a north- crn king, Emenbaragesi of Kish, gives Nippur a privi Teged national position by calling his neve Enlil remple there Urunanam (le Is Indeed the City), and by the ‘Akkad period (2534-2154 8CE) Nippus i correspondingly the seat or che divine council, 3 cosmic capital from where Enlil appoints one ofthe city gods, who in hs turn appoints aking to rule the nation (dynasties OF Akad, Ur, sin, Larsa, and Babylon). Concomitantly 3 new concept of eosmie order takes shape, in which the unchangeable “rules of tradition” can be overruled by athe “decisions” (Nanak) of Enlil, 2 reconfiguration of ‘cosmic power that reflcrs the growing ambitions of the ‘ational king. During this period che original Sumerian ‘names ofthe gods are replaced by their Akkadian coun ‘erparts: Inanna by Isat, urv by Shamash, Nanna by ‘Suen (later Sin), Ninhursag by Mami, Enki by Ea. Gods (such as Enlil} without counterparts in the Akkadian pantheon retain chit ancient names, +4 Babylonian sage (ea. 1y00~2000 act). During its Fist Dynasty, Babylon becomes she uncontested capital ‘of the nation. The prevailing political situation has its theological foundation in «reworked creation myth, the Enems Else, which makes Babylon's city god Marduk independent of the decisions of Enlil and uncontested ruler of the universe. The remoteness and inscrutability ‘of divine rule leave a spiritual vacuum in which alter tive fooms of religion give humanity guidance; magic and divination areon the rise and their practitioners are the sages who compose the wisdom literature, 5. Asshur stage and second Babylonian stage (ca. +000 nce}, Like the Assyrian and Babylonian kings, the head of the pantheon (Marduk =" Assyrian Assur) claims universal power over humankind and natute, ‘irtual monotheism tha is limited only bythe pressure ‘of tradition and the local cuts ofthe ancient city gods ‘The official pantheon consists of x handful of deities, who in learned texts may be represented as aspects of the supreme deity. ‘The main trend in the development of the panthoon is a shift from many deifed phenomena to a few divine rulers over the same phenomena and a concomitant shife in the way that divine power is manifested. The ‘most primitive (and longest lasting) notion is that of an aweinspiring sheen that radiates from a phenomenon MESOPOTAMIA linderseal oF the Ab dian peiodporryi gods fichting among rhemeles, Maropoiie Misco of rt Grae and reveals i as divine. Related concepts ate those of the day on which the god reveals himself and moe *hropomorphically based, of his throne, his weapon, or his words most of these ean be personified and function 4s minor gods in the dety’s court: virers, messengers, ‘executioners. Wise gods such as Ea and Mardak may tse their knowledge of spells to operate the universe. ‘Gur major sources of information about the pan theon are lists of gos, the earliest of which date 0 the second half of che 3rd millenniam. Some of these are scholarly products others are related tothe cu (itanies ‘or records of offerings). Mos ofthe myths, hymns, and prayers are related to cult as well, but are hard to date fr situate because of their literary transmission, which divorces them from any certain context, Royal inscrip- sions may cite any number of gods and have the advan tage of being firmly dated, but have the disadvantage of being biased in favor of centralistc views. The impres- sion of confusion that prevails in che sources is duc ‘mainly to their covering along time scale, theit haph ard updating, and an unknown degree of inexplii rei teepretation, Cosmic orden Explanation in Mesopotamia is not logical deduction from principles, but historical deriva- tion from origins; cosmogony accordingly isthe proper ‘method to set out the divine order imposed on the ut verse Besides the myth of the marriage of heaven and ‘arth, Mesopotamia produced two subsequent cosmog- ‘nies, the second a thoroughly reworked version of the firs. Inthe earlier cosmogony the fist principle isa prime val ocean, Namnam (Creattxh the "mother who gave birth to funseparated} Heaven Earth.” Inside Heaven- Earth a latent cosmas comes into being, the Enki and Ninki (Lords and Ladies Fart), who produce the (lord and lady) Dukug (Holy Mound), fom whieh, subse- quently, Enlil s born. By his very narare Enlil {Lord Ether) separates Heaven and Barth and establishes the known cosmos; at the same time, the frayed edge around the lowlands comes into being in the form of 397DEITIES AND DEMONS ‘Winged female with bird sons, pechaps the goddess naan, the undee word aspect of shear, or perhaps the demoness Lita (Cilth). Babylonian 1800-1750 Be British Museum, The Art ArchictEee Teed Els sser snd wile the Lady of the Wooded Hill (Ninhursg). The only stoasle that eles place isthe one that extablishes Enlil rele fnamtar) over the mex hanical cosmos ofthe a represented by Enis ances tor Enmeshar [Lord ofall sn. “The basic source for this mythological scheme is « (variable) list of fathers and mothers of Eni” that functioned in an ancestor rite fr the godin the month Duin (Akkadian Tanke begoning]). A close variant is the Egyptian cosmogony with & primeval ocean CNavwoavy Nun), = primeval mound (Geib), aed Separation of Heaven and Fach by Ai (Sh. “he later cosmogon is given form in a highly re tarded mythological poem, Enns Elsh The ist le trent ia cosmic ocean fonmaining female salwater (Tiamat [Sea}}, male sweetwater (Apsu), and a creative principle Kumnt Alter a serie of generations the co ink gods are horn: Ana (Fleaven), his son Ea, and his fon Mardak. The older gods (ics the latent sleeping Universe) object ro the nose liveliness) of the youre fs and ty to destroy them, Marduk, the champion af ‘he younge gods, defeats Tiamat ina conic bat and is rewarded by his pees with everlasting cosmic ruler Ship. He separates Heaven. and Earth by spliing Tiamat’ body, then insals the heavenly bodies and fixes their functions. In accordance with the general ‘rend, the cosmos in this view does not came into being by the birth of che gods that represent the phenomena, Dut is Brought into being by the conscious act of a ere” ator whose power extends over the phenomena, “After the cosmos is finished, che “dead” or “bound” ‘gods of the latent protocosmos cesain as divine but in active elements of the contemporary world (Tiamat, salewatery Apsu, sweetwater; and Enmeshara, Lord of all sz); this scheme is current also in Egypt and Anatolia, Remarkably, Mesopotamian cosmogony lacks sn underworld of the dnd. Ereshkigal (Queen ofthe Big Earth) and her son Ninazu (Lord Healer) belong to 2 ‘group of chthonic gods concemed with growth and de- cays the “big earch” cha they rue is the ground under foot, where dead bodies decompose, At least in one view, the souls of the dead travel through the desert to a cosmic river in the west, opposite of which lies theit final destination, the Big City, ruled by Nergal (Lord of ‘the Big City). In the 2nd millennium, Ereshkigal be- ‘comes Nerga’s wife, while theie domain was an under world of the dead (this reformulation may be due to western influence, Since the cosmogonies depend on sexual reproduc- tion, the resulting cosmos is one big family, the relative ‘importance of is parts being decermined by family rela ‘tionships. In practice, the political importance of a deity ‘may interfere with his or her cosmological relevance, so thar the actual genealogies are highly variable. ‘4 human's spiritual being is a composite whole, As- pects of personality are represented by deified external souls, someone's agaressiveness by the male wig. his cepeivity by the female damai: te¥ (Akkadian baitu {shame}) denotes one’s social presence. The same super ‘natural qualities are ascribed to buildings (temples) and even to the nation. The contribution of someone's DDINGIR (Akkadian de) is essential a divine life force "har emanates as health, prosperity, and offspring and as such guarantes the continuity of che family, After death part ofthe soul turns into a 2ombielike ghost. A family cult rakes care ofits domand for food, water, and being, remembered. In accordance with the general tend, the external souls, especially the it, develop into personal gads who. ‘monitor the moral conduet of their private subject and if necessary abandon him or her. Since without personal ods life is virtually impossible, the threat of abandon- ‘ment keeps the individual on he track of righteous be- havior and integrates him or hee with the religious and politcal regimen. The cental divine government oper- ates ina similar way: it may emanate minor gods (an- sels) to implement is decisions and punish misconduct, or it may simply leave the nation eo its fate, Humans havea choice, but they must suffer the consequences. ‘Not all suffering isthe consequence of human mis- conduct and lawful divine retaliation. The protocosmos and the mountain, the periphery where divine rule is in ddoubs, produce the nameless evil udig, lawless bastardgods without cuts, who may overrun the nation, in hich they have no stake. The baby-killing demoness Lamashtu can be called cheie sister, she is thrown out of heaven because of her evil intentions. In che Iron Age {and in Jewish magie) the baby-killing demoness is con- founded with Ardat Lil (or Lieu), the Maiden of the ‘Wind (later understood as She of che Night), a saceubus ho seduces mortal men; to become such a ghost is the fate of women who die before fulflling their destiny of love and childbirts. The presumed wicked intentions of unidentified others are personified in the quasidemonic Evil Eye, Enemy, and Witch, ‘ini: |. Boteéco, Mesoporamiae Writing, Reatoning, and the Gods (University of Chicago Press, 1992 [ong.1987))T. Thcobsen, The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Meso- Dotamian Religion (Yale University Pres, 1976), FA.MW. Syria-Canaan ‘The deities of Syria-Canaan appear t0 have originated as manifestations of nature; however, Bronze and Tron, ‘Age texts and inscriptions in the egion present utban- ized adaptations of the divine ealm. Although the ony Trory carving ofa goddess, perhaps an Aegean goddess of wild beasts, 140h- 1h century nce. Found nese Ras Shames (Usar) Syria. Louvee Reon des Mie NatonoalAre Rerun, Nowe York SYRIA-CANAAN extensive natrative mythology comes from Ugarit, the Greek essay On the Syrian Goddess (ascribed to Lucian), fragments of Philo of Byblos incorporated into the Prep aration for the Gospel by Eusebius, and the Hebrew Bible provide secondary material, Mesopotamian inl fence on the pantheon is clear throughout the region; Egyptian influence is most marked along the Mediterra- ‘ean, The rural and agricultural origins of most deities «eflect communities dependent on the fertility of plants ‘and animals; urban populaces conceive of these deities ‘on a toyal model with a famiial-bureaucratic notion of the governance af the cosmos, In representations, these deities were portrayed as human, sometimes with suc symbols of divinity as Bovine horns of astral images. In mythology, a divine pair reigned in heaven over both divine and human realms. For some Syro Canaanites this couple was El and Asherab, responsible for establishing and maintaining order theotgh a hierar- ‘chy understood to extend through all levels of divine and human social stracrures. Immediately under them, 4 very active level of deities vied for power among them- selves and for the favor of their parents, Beneath these squabbling gods and goddesses were deities who were very gifted in highly specialized areas, but who lacked the leeway allowed their su periors. Atthe bottom of the divine realm were the messenger-gods, essentially slaves on the divine level. Demons and deities appear often to have been one and the same, dependent ‘upon whether one was on their good or bad side. Chthonic deities such as Mot, Molech, and Resheph were considered demonic forces of death and disease, but also could be worshiped as useful deities: for example, Resheph as warrior and ‘metallucgist. Amulets and incantations reflect fear of demons’ activities in human and animal illnesses, childbire, warfare, ‘and general bad luck or evil, ‘The pantheons of the various peoples living in Syria-Canaan shared many dei- ties, but maintained local identities as well, Gods of minor importance in most pantheons could be major, or even pa- tron, deities in odhers; Chemosh was pa- tron of Moab, but was peripheral lse- where. Fights among peoples, seasons, ‘weather, and abnormal occurrences of all kinds were described as conflicts among the various doites. Eland Asherah, who had thie separate residences, provided the final venue of ap- peal for deities and humans. El did not actively participate in the direct gover- nance of the world, but would intervene ifthe second tier of gods let order cal lapse. Asherah selected her children for 399DEITIES AND DEMONS was Memphis. She is usually shown wit the head of lion and isthe goddess of disease, which she can Doth spread through her messengers and cure Seth. Son of Geb and Nut and a member of the ennead ‘of Heliopolis, Seth murders his brother, Osiris, bur is later defeated by Horas, the son and legitimate suc- cessor of Osiris. In addition Seth plays a positive ole as the god of war in the New Kingdom. In the under- ‘world he defeats Apopis, the serpent-shaped oppo- nent of the sun-god. Thoth. Moon-god. Thoth’s two sacred animals ace the ibis and the baboon. He was the god of wisclom and ‘writing, who also fnctioned as the messenger of the ‘gods, The Greeks therefore identified him with Hler~ ines, His chief center of worship was Hermopolis in Middle Eaypr. ‘Ax (Akkadian Anum). Heaven, the god who presides, ‘in name, over the divine assembly, An was at home in Uruk, but was nor it city god Assur, Gicy god of Assbur, in origin nothing more than the deified rock on which his city was built, To give Assur the status he deserved as god of a mighty city, tho Assyrians idencfed him a fist with Enlil and Jater with Marduk, Enki (Akkadian Fa). Lord of the Earth (Akkadian “the Living One") Enki presided over an underground domain called azn (Akkadian aps) the source of ‘eet waters and the home of supernatural beings such as labanu ("the Hairy One”). In the earliest ‘cosmogony his mother Namma represents the prime- val cosmic waters from which everything came forch; in zse-millennium cosmogony she is replaced by Tiamat (Sea). Enlil, Lord Ether, the god who organized the world ter creation and in fact dominated the divine assem ‘ly that met in his city, Nippur. Enis son Ninurta (Lord of che Arable Earth) colonized the land and fred i from the forces of evil. In Girsu, Ninurta’s ame is Ningirsu (Lord of Girsu) Ereshkigal. Lady ofthe Big Earth and mistress of the city ofthe dead inthe netherworld. Freshkiga’s hus- bandis the death- and war-god Nergal. Inaysna (Akkadian Ishtar). Venus, the morning and eve- hing sta, Daughter of the moon-god and sister of the ‘sun-god, Inapna was responsible for love and war. Ishiur (Akkadian Ada). Storm-god. shlur’s wife is the naked goddess Shai. Marduk. City god of Babylon, importanc only after the rige of his city to political power. As creator and cos- ‘ic rule, Marduk replaced Enlil and Ninuta inthe mythology ofthe 1st millennium. ‘Nanna (Akkadian Sin). Moon-god, son of Enlil, and ke sponsible forthe division of time. Nanna was at ome in Ur. 438 ‘Ninazu. Lord Healer, a chthonic snake-god responsible forthe death and regeneration of plant life. Ninaza is athome in Eshnunna. Ninbuosag. Lady ofthe Hills, sister of Enlil, and, in early sources, also his wife. Ninhursag isthe mother- oddess, who, together with Enki, created human- kind. In Akkadian she is known as Belee ii (Mistress of the Gods) and as Marni (Mama). [Ninisina. Lady of Isn, goddess of healing, and at home atlsin. crv (Akkadian Shamsh). Sun-god and son of Nanna {the moon-god). UTU was the god of justice and at home in two cities, Larsa and Sippar SYRIA-CANAAN Anat, Goddess of war in Ugarit and Eaypr. Anat is ‘daughter of Eland Asherah, as well as sstericonsort of Beal (Hadad) in the Ugaritc myths. Asherab. Ruling goddess found throughout Syria- ‘Canaan. Asherah isthe mother of the deities and consort of Elin the Usaritic myths, where she plays an active roe in sustaining order in the world Baal. See Hadad. (Chemosh. Patron deity of Moab. Alchough 2 deity from carly times inthe pantheons in Syria, Chemosh’s function is debated, usually between a god of mill tary victory and one ofthe underworld, Dagar. Widely worshiped god of grain, Dagan was the ppatron deity of humans, but appears throughout the Syrian and Canaanite cult. EI, West Semitic word for “god” and the ultimate ob- ject of appeal. Consort of Asherah inthe Ugaritic myths, Elis presented as a willful and manipulable father of the deities Hadad, Storm-god and patcon deity of Aram and ‘Ugart. Known in many West Semitic pantheons sim- ply as Baal (Lord), Hadad was centeal and poplar character in the Ugaritic myths, where he appears as a boastlul, virile, and somewhat thickheaded deity Horon. Demon or deity associated with curses and ser- ‘ent cures, Horon appears to have had authority ‘over lesser demons, as petitions to him seek aid in fending off misfortune. ‘Mor. God of death. The personification of death is pre- ‘sented inthe Ugartic narratives as rule ofthe neth- exword, insatiably consuming the living, and asa fa- vorite of his father EL -Reshepb. Highly popular god of the netherworld. ‘Throughout Syria, Canaan, and Egypt, Resheph was honored and feared as guardian ofthe underworld, ‘warrior in battle, and bringer of disease. Shemiezb. San-god, in Ugart appearing as the goddess Shapshu. The sun serves in Uparitic myths as both messenger for the deity Eland as deliverer of divine judgment, Yaram. God {ox demon) of the sea In Ugaritic mythol-