Humanism Theory

Humanistic, humanism and humanist are terms in psychology relating to an approach

which studies the whole person, and the uniqueness of each individual. Essentially, these terms
refer the same approach in psychology.

The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what some

psychologists saw as the limitations of the behaviourist and psychodynamic psychology. The
humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and
Behaviorism (Maslow, 1968).

Humanism rejected the assumptions of the behaviourist perspective which is

characterized as deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behaviour and
heavily dependent on animal research.

Humanistic psychology also rejected the psychodynamic approach because it is also

deterministic, with unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and
behaviour. Both Behaviorism and psychoanalysis are regarded as dehumanizing by humanistic
psychologists.

Humanistic psychology expanded its influence throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. Its impact
can be understood in terms of three major areas:

1) It offered a new set of values for approaching an understanding of human nature and the
human condition.

2) It offered an expanded horizon of methods of inquiry in the study of human behaviour.

3) It offered a broader range of more effective methods in the professional practice

of psychotherapy.
Brief History

The early development of humanistic psychology was heavily influenced by the works of
a few key theorists, especially Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Other prominent humanist
thinkers included Rollo May and Erich Fromm.
 In 1943, Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human Motivation"
published in Psychological Review. Later during the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow, and other
psychologists held meetings to discuss developing a professional organization devoted to a more
humanist approach to psychology. They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity,
individuality, and related topics were the central themes of this new approach.

In 1951, Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, which described his

humanistic, client-directed approach to therapy. In 1961, Journal of Humanistic Psychology was
established.

It was in 1962 that the American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed and
by 1971, humanistic psychology become an APA division.

In 1962, Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described

humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were
behaviorism and psychoanalysis respectively.

Key Points (Abraham Maslow)

 As a leader of humanistic psychology, Abraham Maslow approached the study of

personality by focusing on subjective experiences, free will, and the innate drive
toward self-actualization .

 Maslow expanded the field of humanistic psychology to include an explanation of how

human needs change throughout an individual’s lifespan, and how these needs influence
the development of personality.

 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ranks human needs from the most basic physical needs to the
most advanced needs of self-actualization. A person must acquire and master each level of
need before proceeding to the next need.

 Maslow studied the personalities of self-actualizers and found they had many things in
common; he believed self-actualizers indicate a coherent personality syndrome and
represent optimal psychological health and functioning.
  Maslow’s ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific rigor, as well as their
Western cultural bias.

Key Terms

 transcendence: Superior excellence; supereminence.

 humanistic psychology: A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-
20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this approach
emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity.
 self-actualization: According to humanistic theory, the realizing of one’s full potential; can
include creative expression, quest for spiritual enlightenment, pursuit of knowledge, or the
desire to give to society.

Key Points (Carl Rogers)

 Carl Rogers was an influential humanistic psychologist who developed a personality

theory that emphasized the importance of the self-actualizing tendency in shaping human
personalities.

 Rogers believed that humans are constantly reacting to stimuli with their subjective reality
( phenomenal field ), which changes continuously. Over time, a person develops a self-
concept based on the feedback from this field of reality.

 In the development of self-concept, positive regard is key. Unconditional positive regard is

an environment that is free of preconceived notions of value. Conditional positive regard is
full of conditions of worth that must be achieved to be considered successful.

 Human beings develop an ideal self and a real self based on the conditional status of
positive regard. How closely one’s real self matches up with their ideal self is called
congruity.

 Rogers believed that fully functioning people could achieve “the good life,” in which they
constantly aim to fulfill their potential and allow their personalities to emanate from their
experiences.
  Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticized for their lack of empirical evidence in
research.

Key Terms

 holistic: Relating to the whole instead of a separation into parts.

 humanistic psychology: A psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-
20th century in response to psychoanalytic theory and behaviorism; this approach
emphasizes an individual’s inherent drive towards self-actualization and creativity.
 congruity: An instance or point of agreement or correspondence between the ideal self and
the real self in Rogers’ humanistic personality theory.
 phenomenal field: Our subjective reality, all that we are aware of, including objects and
people as well as our behaviors, thoughts, images, and ideas.
Here are some examples of humanistic perspective.

 A person feels like his or her life is bland and boring. A humanistic perspective would
encourage the person to do some soul-searching and determine what is missing - a hobby?
Friendships? A relationship? Whatever it takes for the person to feel fully self-actualized is
what should be sought as treatment.
 The humanistic perspective encourages gestalt therapy, a special type of therapy that
encourages an individual not to allow the past to affect the present, and focuses on the here
and now rather than anything else.
 Family therapy is another example of the humanistic perspective. This type of therapy
allows families to talk about their relationships with one another in order to encourage and
strengthen those relationships, especially when families are going through difficult times
such as periods of substance abuse or divorce.
 Another example of the humanistic perspective is for a person to focus on their strengths
rather than their faults. The individual is encouraged not look past his or her flaws as he or
she works toward a more satisfied, more complete life.
 In the humanistic perspective, it is generally regarded that all people have similar needs
throughout the world, emphasizing the similarities between all members of the human race
 rather than the many differences. It is an approach that believes human relationships and
interactions are of paramount importance.
 Cultural differences are not viewed in the humanistic perspective as being a result of the
differences in human nature; rather, they are viewed as valid alternative ways of
approaching life. This allows the humanistic perspective to underscore the value of all
humans.
 The humanistic perspective includes the idea of self-help - that a person can be responsible
for their own happiness, and that an unhappy or dissatisfied person can make changes to his
or her whole life that will result in their eventual happiness and self-actualization.
 Sensitivity training at a place of employment is an example of the humanistic perspective,
where individuals are taught to view those with whom they work as having the same needs
and desires as themselves. It is a way of downplaying differences in physicality, culture, skin
color, and belief, among other things.
 Instead of a medicine- or research-centered approach to therapy, the humanistic perspective
encourages an approach that focuses on the individual person, and their individual needs and
wants.
 The humanistic perspective believes that people seek value, meaning, and creativity in all
they do. It understands that people have goals, and that reaching these goals is very
important. It also understands that individuals are able to make choices that affect them and
others, and so those choices carry with them a sense of responsibility.

Systems Theory

Human behavior is often confusing and inexplicable to observers. The media bombards
us with references to post-traumatic stress disorder, psychotic behavior, and even the assurance
that an individual is 'just crazy.' Psychologists use some of these terms, but they use them in a
precise manner. The modern science of psychology is the result of a long process of
experimental observation and theory crafting.

Originally, psychologists had sought to quantify human behavior with ideals developed
from the physical sciences. Behavior came to be viewed in terms that would be applied with
equal validity to machines. For instance, there was a great deal of emphasis on provoking a
desired response by means of a proper input, thus engineering behavior. Some psychologists and
other social scientists felt that these terms dehumanized subjects.

Systems theory in psychology was a reaction to these practices; one of its central tenets is
that the human mind is more than the mere sum of its parts. According to systems theorists, the
human mind is a complex weave of physiological, chemical, and mental processes, and thus
human beings should be treated as systems in themselves.

DEVELOPMENT OF SYSTEMS THEORY

Systems theory finds some of its roots within the biological sciences, as some of the
founders of its core concepts, including Ludwig Bertalanffy and Humberto Maturana, were
biologists. One of the main perspectives of systems theory is viewing an individual or group
as its own ecosystem with many moving parts that affect each other. Principles of systems
theory have been applied to the field of psychology to explore and explain behavioral
patterns. This approach was spearheaded by several individuals, including Gregory
Bateson, Murray Bowen, Anatol Rapoport, W. Ross Ashby, and Margaret Mead.
CONCEPTS OF SYSTEMS THEORY
A system is characterized by a group of parts that interact to form a coherent whole.
Systems have distinct boundary separating them from external elements and distinguishing
between inputs, or factors that impact the system, and outputs, or effects and products of the
system. Systems may also have feedback loops, which occur when outputs of a system
return as inputs, forming a circuit. Changes in one component of a system will affect other
components as well as the overall entity. This dynamic makes it possible to predict what
might happen when a system experiences a known change.

Systems theory has been applied in the field of psychology, where it is called
systems psychology. People who view psychology through the lens of systems theory see
individuals as seeking homeostasis within their systems or groups. To create a system that
works for all members, the expectations, needs, desires, and behaviors of each person within
it must be considered. When issues arise, these are attributed to breakdowns in systemic
interactions rather than deficiency of one person.
SYSTEMS THEORY AND FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY
In the late 1960s, Dr. Murray Bowen applied systems thinking to the family unit and
developed family systems theory. This theory views the family as an emotional unit and
assumes individuals cannot be fully understood in isolation. Instead, Bowen theorized,
individuals must be viewed as part of their family of origin. Bowen’s concept later
developed into an effective and widely popular form of treatment, called family systems
therapy.
In family systems therapy, familial relationships, patterns, communication, and
behaviors are examined within and beyond the therapy session, allowing the therapist and
other family members to observe how certain behaviors could be impacting the family.
Once these behaviors are recognized and understood, family members can learn new
behaviors that have benefits for themselves and the rest of their family.

SYSTEMS THEORY AND SYSTEMIC PSYCHOTHERAPY

The efficacy of family systems therapy has motivated researchers and mental health
experts to apply its primary principles to other groups of people. This new approach, called
systemic psychotherapy or systemic therapy, helps groups gain insight into how each
member’s role within a group may affect its functionality. It can be applied to organizations,
communities, or businesses. Systemic psychotherapy has expanded into a nondirective,
multifaceted treatment method currently applied in a variety of circumstances. Systemic
psychotherapy has been found effective in addressing issues including:
 Anxiety
 Body image issues
 Eating issues
 Depression
 Substance abuse
 Relationship issues
A notable dynamic of systemic psychotherapy is its emphasis that a family or community
plays a vital role in its own recovery and psychological health. As a result,
families, couples, or members of an organization are directly involved in their
own therapy to resolve an issue, and individual participants can begin transforming their
own behaviors to be more adaptive and productive.
 Systemic psychotherapy helps members of a group attain positive relationships,
secure interrelationships, and overall well-being. Effective communication is a key tool in
this treatment approach. Dialogue is constructed to build knowledge, strength, and support
for an entire entity. It is important to note that the close relationship between systemic
psychotherapy and family systems therapy has led many people to use these terms
interchangeably.
Who uses it?

Systemic therapy is used by psychotherapists and counselors.

Why would someone use it?

Systemic therapy focuses on understanding and recognizing unhealthy patterns in

relationship dynamics so that they can be altered within existing systems, rather than examining
the origins of those patterns.

This therapy is not directive; rather individuals learn how to recognize patterns for
themselves, with the support of the therapist.

Systemic therapy is used to explore a range of issues, including depression, substance

abuse, anxiety disorders, panic disorders, PTSD, eating disorders, body-image issues,
relationship issues and low self-esteem.

Strengths of the approach:

Systemic therapy can be used as a short- or long-term treatment, the length of which may
be discussed with the therapist.

Limitations:

Systemic therapy does not look at issues from the past. If this need to be explored further,
other therapies that include the role of past experiences may be more suitable for you - see
Integrative, Interpersonal, Psychodynamic, Psychoanalytic, Transactional, and Trauma Training.
 Constructivism Theory

Definition

Constructivism in psychology is a method of therapy that focuses on both the internal and
external systems of meaning-making. Constructivism is an approach that also combines other
forms of psychotherapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy, an action-oriented form of
therapy that encourages clients to change maladaptive thinking patterns that lead to maladaptive
behaviors and negative emotions, and psychoanalysis, a branch of psychotherapy based on
theories about the relationship between the conscious and unconscious minds.

Constructivism Theory and Applications

Constructivism theory is based on the idea that everyone's sense of knowing is more than
a passive expression of the world around us, but instead is a result of our constructions, or our
beliefs and emotions about experiences in our lives. In this context, 'construction' simply refers
to the ways we build our own understanding of the world around us and how we fit into it.

Jean Piaget is considered one of the first constructivism theorists. Constructivism theory
is a broad concept that encompasses many disciplines, including sociology and education. It's
generally based on Piaget's notion that we are active participants in the construction of our
reality.

Clinical psychologist George Kelly was the first to develop a theory of psychotherapy
along constructivist lines while working with farmers who were suffering from the effects of the
Great Depression and the Dust Bowl during the 1920s and '30s. Kelly designed a procedure
where clients were coached to enact fictional identities they created themselves. Clients acted out
the roles with a therapist, allowing the two to discuss the ways the client has built his or her
understanding of the world and how that understanding can change. By acting as a different part
of themselves, the client sees how they can live differently by acting differently. This procedure
of Kelly's came to be known as fixed-role therapy.

In another application, a client might report life experiences and the therapist will pay
close attention to how these experiences are being used to create meaning in the present. The
therapist then might create an 'action-thought-reaction' scenario, to reveal the impacts of the
reactions on the client's life that could continue to have an impact in the future.

Narrative therapy, based on the work of Michael White, is a newer application of

constructivism, where clients tell stories about their lives and examine those stories for a clearer
understanding of how they've assigned meaning to their experiences.

Solution Focused Brief Therapy (SFBT) is a form of brief therapy that has been used
with all kinds of people, families, and problems. The emphasis, as with many constructivist
therapies, is on the client's strengths and solutions that may already be available to them. The
focus on what is already working, as opposed to a focus on what is wrong, yields more solutions
as a result.

Emotionally Focused Therapy (EFT) is used primarily with couples to deepen, enrich and
save relationships. While EFT falls under the constructive umbrella, it also is an approach that is
largely based on attachment theory, which emphasizes the importance of a safe and secure
emotional bond with another.

Important themes in constructivism include order, sense of self, and active agency.

 People, out of a need for order, find patterns and create meanings to organize the world
in an easily understandable way.

 One's relationship with the self is important, but fluid, as it is impacted by personal
experience and interactions with other people.

 People are active agents in their own lives. Though some things are beyond a person's
control, it is up to each person to increase personal understanding of the world and,
ultimately, make choices beneficial to well-being.

WHAT ISSUES CAN CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACHES ADDRESS?

Therapies that are influenced by constructivism can be beneficial in the treatment
of a wide range of issues. Constructivist methodologies can be particularly helpful in the
treatment of grief, as the reconstruction of meaning is often integral to the process of
grieving. A person who has experienced loss is often faced with the challenge
of reorganizing and reconstructing reality in the absence of the person they have lost. This
may involve the development of new routines and relationships and may lead some to adopt
a new form of identity in the process.
People who are finding it difficult to make sense of trauma they have experienced
may also find constructivist approaches helpful, as many individuals who have concerns
and/or questions related to their own sense of identity. Constructivist approaches can also
help some people better understand existential concepts and questions.

CONCERNS AND LIMITATIONS

The theory of constructivism has been criticized for the idea that there is no one truth
because all truths are equally valid. Constructivism has been considered to be somewhat at
odds with the concept of the self as it is typically understood in psychology. Traditionally,
psychology has focused on the individual, often minimizing the role of context and culture,
but constructivism looks at the context in which the self exists and considers the self to be
fluid and changing.