Polytechnic University of the Philippines

Sta. Mesa, Manila

NAME: PAT A. YALONG TESL 600 – LINGUISTIC FOUNDATIONS

PROGRAM: MAELT PROF. PACELLI S. EUGENIO
SEMESTER: SECOND (S.Y. 2019-2020) SATURDAY (11:00PM – 2:00PM)
BASIC AND MODERN THEORIES ABOUT LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGE TEACHING AND
LEARNING

Language acquisition is the process whereby children achieve a fluent control of their native
language. Children learn a language, not because they are subjected to a similar conditioning
process, but because they possess an inborn capacity which permits them to acquire a language as
a normal maturational process. This capacity is universal. (Varshney, 2003).

NATURE NURTURE

Our genetics determine our behavior. Our Our environment, upbringing, and life
personal traits and abilities are in our “nature” experiences determine our behavior. We are
“nurtured” to behave in certain ways.

The controversial between nature and nurture is explored by the ancient theories of language
acquisition, that is: whether language is innate and God-given or learned by environment.
The major questions are:

 to what extent is language hardwired into human brain (nature), and to what extent is it
learned through interaction with the environment (nurture)?
 do parents teach children language, or does language simply unfold according to a genetic
program?
NATIVISM:

 It is generally the idea that language acquisition is an innate ability of humans. Thus, the
approach is also known as “innatism”.
 Nativists/Innatists deeply believe that language acquisition is the result of the innate
knowledge of the language within an infant. Innate is something which is already there in
mind since birth. They also claim that the underlying principle of language is deeply
rooted in human brain. It is genetically coded among humans since birth unlike other
living species.
THEORIES
1. Universal Grammar Theory by Noam Chomsky – “Language is a basic instinct”
Who is Noam Chomsky?

 Avram Noam Chomsky

 Born on December 7, 1928 in Philadelphia
 Studied at University of Pennsylvannia – BA, MA and PhD
 American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician, political commentator and
activist
 Sometimes described as the “father of modern linguistics”
 Professor Emeritus of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
 Wrote over 100 books
Chomsky’s View on Language Acquisition:

 He argues that language acquisition is an innate structure, or function, of the human brain.
 Chomsky believes that there are structures of the brain that control the interpretation and
production of speech. Children do not need any kind of formal teaching to learn to speak.
 It is a theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain,
and manifest without being taught.
 This theory makes up the device in people’s mind which is needed to acquire language,
called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
 It also leads directly to what Chomsky referred to as “Generative Grammar” which is used
to describe a system of grammar in people’s heads, which ultimately enables them to
understand an indefinite number of sentences.
Factors that Chomsky used to support his theory:

 There is an optimal learning age. Between the ages 3 to 10 a child is the most likely to
learn a language in its entirety and grasp fluency.
 The child does not need a trigger to begin language acquisition, it happens on its
own. The parent does not need to coax the child to speak, if it around language
production, the child will work to produce that language on its own.
 It does not matter if a child is corrected, they still grasp the language in the same
manner and speak the same way. During one stage, a child will make things plural that
are already plural.
LIMITATION: The theory is hard to prove because it is not allowed to isolate somebody just to
do a research.
 2. Neurofunctional Theory by Lamendella
 It states that the acquisition of second and foreign languages are mainly the
product of brain-based processes.
 Additionally, this theory states that language functioning is dependent on brain
activity, particularly on the left hemisphere of the brain (Logical Dominant).
 The areas associated with language learning are identified as the Wernicke’s
Area and the Broca’s Area.

Broca’s Area is responsible for the precise
control of the mouth and the larynx muscles
and also to the seat of grammar, comprehension
and production.
It controls the movements of the lips, tongue,
jaw, and vocal cords.
Damage to this area results in the slow and
labored speech but does not affect
comprehension. (Broca’s Aphasia – loss of the
control of speech)
Wenicke’s Area is the home of meaning
This area partially surrounds the auditory
cortex.
Damage to this area results in speech that is
fluent but also meaningless, and it also
affects comprehension of language.
(Wernicke’s Aphasia)

3. Fodor’s Modular Approach

 Jerry Fodor views that the mind is composed of a set of central modules
(different pieces of mind by which they work together) which handle general
operations such as attention and these central systems are supported by input
modules which act autonomously and process sensory information such as
language.
 The input systems are modular and have the following characteristics:
o Domain Specific – language perception modules only operate on the
linguistic structures, not with visual or social information
o Informationally encapsulated – modules do not need to refer to other
psychological systems in order to operate because modules have an innate
basis (structured for the development of language).
o Fast – that is the processes are highly automatic.
o Shallow Outputs – the output of modules is very simple.
o Limited accessibility – it is almost impossible to have access to the input
modules.
4. Krashen’s Monitor Model
 There are two independent ways to develop our linguistic skills: acquisition and
learning.
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis – It explains the difference between
acquisition and learning.
Acquisition – informal (environment) & subconscious
Learning – formal (school) & conscious
 2. The Monitor Hypothesis – It explains the relationship between acquisition
and learning.
It claims that the learners who use the ‘monitor’ all the time are over-users,
often producing stilted language, whereas under-users will often speak
quickly but with a lot of errors. Learners who use the monitor appropriately
are considered optimal-users.
According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three
conditions must be met: (encourage them to correct themselves)
o Time
o Focus on form
o Know the rule
3. Input Hypothesis – Only concerned with the acquisition and not the learning
4. Natural Order Hypothesis – The acquisition of grammatical structures
follows a “natural order” which is predxictable. (listen, speak, read, write)
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis – Learner’s feelings or attitude as an
adjustable filter that freely fairs, impress, or block input necessary to
acquisition. (support, motivate, encourage them)
3 Kinds of Variables that affect the filter: motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety

5. Cognitive Theory
 This theory claims that children cannot acquire language about concepts they do
not understand yet.
o The development of cognition matches language acquisition.
o The thought and language develop parallelly.
 Another significant aspect in cognitive studies is the interaction. Children
comprehend the social role of language for communication and their desire to
communicate becomes an intensive motivational factor for language acquisition.
Learning is due to: Social interaction + cognitive development

 Focus on conscious thinking.

 Emphasis on individual’s active construction of understanding.
 Learning results from internal mental activity and not from externally imposed
stimuli (Osgood, 1957).

6. Active Construction of Grammar Theory

 Grammar theory holds that children actually invent the rules of grammar
themselves.
 The theory assumes that the ability to develop rules is innate, but that the actual
rules are based on the speech children hear around them. This is their input or data
for analysis.
  Within this framework, children’s mistakes are expected to occur and to follow non-
random pattern. This is because the child is forming utterances according to
grammatical rules even though the rules are often different from those that adults
use.
 It is important to note also that active reinforcement by adults about a child’s
mistakes isn't enough to help the child discover what is wrong with his or her own
utterances. The child must make up the connection in his or her own time.

EMPIRICISM:

 Empiricists believe that children learn the language by extracting all the linguistic
information from the environment.
 To then language acquisition is all about habit formation and the outcome of nurture.
Hence, this approach is also known as “behaviorism”.
 This approach is also an ancient one, going back (at least) to Aristotle, but in modern
times it is closely associated with the psychologist B.F. Skinner who is the well-known
proponents of behaviorism/empiricism.

THEORIES
1. Behaviorist Theory of B.F. Skinner
Who is Burrhus Fredric (B.F.) Skinner?

 An American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.

 Began working on ideas of human behavior after earning his doctorate from Harvard.
 He explored behaviorism in relation to society in later books, including Beyond Freedom
and Human Dignity (1971).
 Skinner died in Massachusetts in 1990.
Skinner’s View on Language Acquisition:

 Skinner also viewed language acquisition as a cognitive behavior.

 Skinner viewed babies as ‘empty vessels’ which language had to be ‘put in to’.
 They claim that child language acquisition is governed by habit forming and
reinforcement by imitation, repetition, and analogy.
 Operant conditioning - child goes through trial-and-error in other words they try and
fails to use correct language until it succeeds; with reinforcement and shaping provided by
the parent’s gestures (smiles, attention and approval) which are pleasant to the child.
 Skinner in Verbal Behavior (1957) differentiated between two types of verbal responses that
a child makes:
- Verbal behavior that is reinforced by the child receiving something it wants.
- Verbal behavior caused by imitating others.
LIMITATIONS:

 Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says especially if the adult utterance
contains a structure the child has not yet started to use.
 Observational studies of parent-child conversations (Brown and Hanlon, 1970) show that
parents rarely reinforce correct grammar in a child’s speech, but instead tend to focus on
the truthfulness or accuracy of statements.

2. Interactionist Theory by Lev Vygotsky

 The social interaction theory assumes that language acquisition is influenced by the
interaction of a number of factors:
o Physical
o Linguistic
o Cognitive
o Social
 Vygotsky created a model of human development that called the sociocultural model. He
believed that all cultural development in children is visible in two stages:
1. The child observes the interaction between other people and then the behavior
develops inside the child.
2. The child learns best when interacting with those around him to solve a problem.
Key Concepts of Sociocultural Model:

 Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in
which they act and interact in shared experiences. According to him, humans use tools
that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social
environments.
 The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO): The MKO refers to anyone who has a better
understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular
task, process, or concept. (e.g., teacher, & coach)
 The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that learning occurred within. The ZPD is
the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or
with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently.

3. Acculturation Model (adopt the culture)

 Acculturation means the process by which a human being acquires the culture of a
particular society from infancy.
 This theory is designed by John H. Schumann in 1978 which maintains that certain
social and psychological variables cluster into a single variable. Learners will acquire
the target language to the degree they acculturate to the target language group.
 Two types of Acculturation:
 o Learners are socially integrated with the TL group and develop sufficient
contacts with the TL speakers to enable them to acquire the target language.
o Learners consciously and unconsciously desire to adopt the life style and values
of the TL group.

4. Identity Theory
 Identity is how a person understands his/her relationship to the world.
 Norton in the case of language demonstrates identity as motivation either
instrumental or integrative.
 Language learners can choose under what circumstances they will interact with
members of the target language community.
o Instrumental Motivation – the desire to learn a L2 for utilitarian reasons
o Integrative Motivation – the desire to learn a L2 to successfully fit in with the
target language community.
 Norton also introduces the term, investment to signal the socially and historically
constructed relationship of learners to the target language.

5. The Connectionist Model

 The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of
behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between
stimuli and responses.
 Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws:
o Law of Effect – responses to a situation which are followed by a rewarding
state of affairs will be strengthened and become habitual responses to that
situation.
o Law of Readiness – implies the degree of preparedness and eagerness to
learn.
o Law of Exercise – connections become strengthened with practice and
weakened when practice is discontinued

6. Piaget’s Theory of Language and Thought

 Piaget linked the development of language in a child to the child’s cognitive
development.
 He believed that a child must have the understanding of a concept before he can
verbalize it.
 Piaget regarded cognitive development in a child as a pre-requisite for language
acquisition.
 Children develop language through a combination of schemas (concepts for how to
act and respond to the world).
 As these schemas gradually develop and become more complex in the mid,
language and vocabulary progress in order for the child to handle the new schemas.
7. Bruner’s Discovery Learning Theory
 Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes
place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past
experience and existing knowledge to discover facts, and relationships and new
truths to be learned.
 Bruner believes that learners, whether they are adults or children, learn best when
they discover knowledge for themselves.
 He believes that students retain knowledge best when it is something they have
discovered on their own.
 He argues that an adult and an infant have conversations despite the child being
unable to speak. The interaction between the two, such as games and non-verbal
communication, build the structure of language long before the child is able to
communicate verbally (Peter, 1983).