Where ω = 2π T0 is the intrinsic frequency of the oscillator and
µ, g, h are parameters of the oscillator that depend on mi-
Entrainment properties and waves patterns in
a generic nonlinear oscillator
Samuele Mercan, Francesco Terenzi
EPFL, sciences et technologies du vivant
BA5
Introduction
Humans and many other organisms living on Earth physi-
ological behavior is strongly induced by chemical and neu-
ronal signals expressed by Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) lo-
cated in the hypothalamus.
It has been recently shown that these circadian (from latin
”about a day”) rhythms naturally follow a 24.1 h period, sim-
ilar but not actually equal to the day-night cycle occurring by
Earth rotation. This case is defined as ”free running”, mean-
ing that no external influence is interfering with the endoge-
nous cycle.
This small difference could comport an enormous and
cyclic phase shift in the organism behavior with respect to
natural cycles that would result in a deficiency in competi-
tiveness evolutionary speaking. As an example it would have
been difficult for earlier human beings to find food or culti-
vate aliments at night since we are not able to see in the dark.
The fact that we are still on this planet and is empirically
evident that our sleep-awake phase is consistent with Earth
rotation even though our circadian clock is not in phase with
the Earth rotation phase suggest that there is a way to actu-
ally control those rhythms.
Studying the anatomy of the SCN, it has been proved
that this region is connected to the optic nerve making it
able to have inputs derived from external light. Moreover,
it has been shown that precisely light-dark phases influ-
ences the most the endogenous circadian clock synchro-
nizing it with the Earth phase in a process called ”entrain-
ment”. Even thought light is the strongest external influence
there are other endogenous chemical signals that can change
the phase of the circadian clock, those agents are known as
”Zeitgeber”.
Being able to use those ”Zeitgebers” in our favor could
allow us to interfere with the circadian clock in order to
treat medical conditions such as sleep disorders or annoy-
ing problems like jet lag, where our circadian clock is not
yet synchronized with the local day-night phase.
A good approach to tackle this problem is to model it with
mathematical equations which helps us describe in an ana-
lytic way our situation. We will represent those cycles with
the equation of a supercritical Hopf oscillator.
2
ż = (µ + iω)z − (g + ih)z |z| (1)
croscopic details (i.e. we assume they are fixed and we will
only study in which conditions we will have an intrinsic os-
cillating system). Assuming that this model well represents
what occurs in nature a detailed analysis will permit us to
predict how the circadian clock behave in different condi-
tions. To study the effect of a ”Zeitgeber” we need to add
to this model an external force, to represent this force that
could be light that has an oscillatory behavior we need to
implement it in function of time and with an intrinsic phase.
We will modify the supercritical Hopf oscilltor accordingly
considering g = 1 and h=0:
2
ż = (µ + iω)z − z |z| + F eiωt (2)
Where F is a positive number representing the force module
and ω = 2πT is the external frequency. Using this model we
will be able to analyze which combinations of the module of
the external force and its frequency will bring our system to
synchronization.
Background
Quantitative science is a powerful tool that allows us to bet-
ter understand the world they living in. Really complex sit-
uations in life (physical phenomena, biochemical reactions
and so on) could be represented and resumed by choosing
a simplified and realistic model of the situation. Moreover,
people can deeply know the causes and the consequences of
these phenomena by analyzing the appropriate model that
they have build to represents the situation.
In this study, we will try to understand the syn-
chronization between two oscillators with different ini-
tial frequencies using the Hopf model. This analysis
will be done studying the phase portrait of our model.
A phase portrait is a mathematical and visual representation
of the system of interest that resumes all the information re-
quired to better understand it. In particular, we will focus on
the analysis of the stable fixed points and spirals which rep-
resent the synchronization between the two oscillators and
the limit cycles. A limit cycle is an isolated closed trajec-
tory of the system; in this case, we will demonstrate that the
system oscillates with proper frequency even with the ab-
sence of a extrinsic periodic force. Moreover, if it is slightly
perturbed, the system always returns to the standard cycle;
nevertheless, if the amplitude of the external periodic force
is strong enough, the system can loose its proper frequency
and it can start adopting the frequency of the other oscillator
by synchronization. Here, we are interested on quantifying
this synchronization by looking at the intensity of this ex-
trinsic force and, on the other hand, by studying how the
difference between the two oscillator phases will influence
this interaction.
Results
Supercritical Hopf oscillator
In order to better understand the behavior of the free-running
Hopf oscillator of equation (2), we consider it without a ex-
ternal force (F ) (equation (1). Considering now this simpli-
fied model, we explicit z as a complex function with its real
(x = Re(z)) and imaginary part (y = Im(z)):
z = x + iy
Moreover, we can rewrite equation (1) in cartesian coordi-
nates like a system of equation in which x and y represent
respectively the real part and the imaginary part of z :
−gx3 + hyx2 + x + hy 3 − gxy 2 − y
   
ẋ
= (3)
ẏ −hx3 − gyx2 + x − gy 3 − hxy 2 + y
However, this representation is not very intuitive and there-
fore changing to polar coordinates could by far make the
analysis of the model easier: we introduce here two new
variables ϕ and R which are related to z by the equation:
z(t) = R(t)eiϕ(t)
After substitution in equation (3) we get:
R(µ − R2 g)
   
Ṙ
= (4)
ϕ̇ ω − R2 h
The variable R is always greater or equals to zero because
is the distance between the origin and any point in the
spacep (x1 , y1 ); R is the module of the complex function z:
R = x2 + y 2 = |z|. The variable ϕ represents the phase
of the system that corresponds to the intrinsic frequency of
the oscillator in this first simplification without a extrinsic
force.
The polar representation helps us to analyze the model
and to study the conditions for the presence of limit cycle in
the phase portrait. Considering a limit cycle like a trajectory
characterized by a fixed radius Ṙ = 0 and a radial velocity
ϕ̇, we are able to understand the oscillating behavior of the
Hopf system by finding the stability of the fixed points (R∗ ).
From fig. 1 we can see that for ω = π/2 , g = 1, h = 0.4 and
µ = 0.7 the model shows three fixed points, even though just
∗
√ is stable (because R > 0); this stable fixed point R =
one
µ for g = 1 will be the radius of the limit cycle (fig. 3) and
thus the amplitude of the oscillation. The nature of the fixed
point was assessed computing the trace and the determinant
of the jacobian matrix evaluated in the fixed point, in this
case the origin. The solution of the equation Ṙ = 0 does
not exist for µ < 0 and therefore no limit cycle is noticeable
with these parameters (fig. 5).
Now that we have depicted the different phase portraits
with µ = −0.2 and µ = 0.7, we can take a step back
and look again at the nature of the fixed point at the ori-
gin R∗ = 0 . Indeed, with the same previous parameters h,
g and ω the nature of this fixed point changes from stable to
unstable when µ varies between −3 and 3: this phenomenon
is called bifurcation. More precisely, for µ < 0 the origin is
a stable point (fig. 4) whereas for µ > 0 (fig.2) R∗ becomes
unstable (fig. 1). Moreover, we can now find out the critical
value of µ for which the fixed point at the origin changes
its nature: the critical value µc is equal to zero. Recalling
that R is the radius of the limit cycle, we would now try to
understand the impact of the bifurcation on the stability of
the limit cycle. Indeed, for µ < 0 with our parameters the
conditions of the Poincar-Bendixon theorem (see Appendix)
are not satisfied and the limit cycle disappears. To resume,
this first study of the supercritical Hopf oscillator explained
the phenomenon of bifurcation in the context of free-running
oscillators as our circadian clock. However, for a complete
understanding of this model, further studies could be done
in order to determine the bifurcation plot for parameters µ
and g and in a second time the different nature of the fixed
point at the origin changing µ and ω.
Subcritical Hopf oscillator
Let’s now consider the subcritical Hopf oscillator model:
z = (µ + iω)z + z|z|2 − z|z|4 (5)
Again, we will use the polar coordinates in order to have
a more intuitive interpretation of the model. Like showed
above, we substitute z(t) = R(t)eiϕ(t) and we get:
  
Ṙ R(µ + R2 − R3 )

= (6)
ϕ̇ ω
The model shows the bifurcation phenomenon like in the
supercritcal oscillator: the nature of the fixed point at the
origin changes for µ ranging from −0.25 to ∞. Namely, fig.
6 elucidates the existence of two fundamental regions: µ > 0
and −0.25 < µq< 0. In the first region the radius of limit
√
1+ 1+4µ
∗
cycle is R+ = 2 ; however, in the second region
for a given µ there are two different radii:
q √
 1+ 1+4µ f or µ > 0
R∗ = q √2 (7)
 1− 1+4µ f or − 0.25 < µ < 0
2
This fact suggests the existence of two different limit cycles
for a µ between -0.25 and 0. The plot of the phase portrait
fig. 7 confirmed this hypothesis. However, we can see from
the phase portrait that one of the limit cycle is unstable be-
cause any trajectories starting on it, will converge toward the
center where the model presents a stable spiral. Neverthe-
less, the graph shows another important propriety of the sys-
tem: the hysteresis. Hysteresis is a behavior of a system that
presents different stable points (spiral or fixed point) toward
which any trajectories can converge. Moreover, depending
on the initial condition, the trajectories will converge toward
one of the two stable points, in our case toward the limit cy-
cle or toward the origin. Due to this undesirable behavior,
we would prefer the supercritical model in equation (1) for
which the hysteresis phenomenon does not arise.
For µ > 0 hysteresis is not present and the phase
q portrait
√
shows a stable limit cycle with a radius R+ = 1+ 21+4µ
∗
(fig 8). Indeed, for further analysis we have chosen with the
supercritical model that is more robust because it is lacking
the hysteresis phenomenon.
Now that we have understood better our simple model we
can add an external force to our simplified supercritical Hopf
oscillator and obtain equation (2). In order to easily analyze
this equation we need to get rid of the time dependency. We spirals. We can do that with the Jacobian matrix that will
do so by a change of variable that will virtually put ourselves traduce our problem in a 2D linear one. With the trace and
in the oscillating reference: determinant of the Jacobian matrix we will be able to see the
−iΩt
nature of the fixed points. In order to avoid problems derived
Z(t) = z(t)e (8) from the domain of cosine and sine function we write them
Geometrically this applied to our equation is nothing but in function of the other parameters exploiting the fact that
a change in the phase. we have a fixed point in Ṙ = Θ̇ = 0.
Introducing:
−R(µ − R2 )
cos(−Θ) = (15)
∆ = ω − Ω (9) F
−∆R
and applying our change of variables to equation (2) sin(−Θ) = (16)
gives: F
and write the Jacobian matrix only in function of R.
Ż = (µ + i∆)Z(t) − Z 3 + F (10)
(µ − R2 ) − 2R2
 
− ∆R
That we can express in cartesian coordinates: J= ∆ (17)
R µ − R2
   3
ẋ −x + x(µ − y 2 ) − ∆y + F
 Plotting the results for the stability analysis gives a char-
= (11) acteristic figure called ”Arnold Tongue” fig. 14. We can see
ẏ −y 3 + y(µ − x2 ) + ∆x that when the difference of phase between the ”Zeitgeber”
We have a fixed point when ẋ and ẏ are both equal to 0 and the endogenous oscillator represented by ∆ is minimal
which is when the two isoclines are null. the force needed by the ”Zeitgeber” to impose synchroniza-
As previously stated we have synchronization when we tion is small and increases as long as the difference of phase
end on a stable fixed point or a stable spiral, equation (11) increase. With Fig. 15 we can see the nature of all the fixed
shows the unequivocal importance that the force of the exter- points and how many there are in every region.
nal oscillator and his frequency will have on the attainment It is remarkable that when we don’t have a stable fixed
of synchronized situation. point or spiral we have an unstable spiral fig. 11, 15. For
To better visualize this result it is helpful to display a the vector field properties and Poincaré - Bendixson theo-
phase portrait fig. 9-13. We will gradually vary F or ∆ while rem we see the formation of a stable limit cycle. This limit
keeping µ constant. Since we have applied the substitution cycle represent an oscillation that in our case is the internal
now |Z(t)| coordinates in a stable fixed point or stable spi- oscillator that will never synchronize with the external one
ral represent the amplitude of the synchronized system com- and for every cycle will return in the same starting condition.
posed by the two oscillators. Applied to a sleep pattern this could suggest that the studied
A more comprehensive way of showing this result is to living organism will let’s say fall asleep the first night at 10
plot an analysis of all the possible combinations of F and ∆ pm and the successive days always some minutes later (or
in a reasonable range to see which kind of fixed point we get sooner depending on initial conditions) until coming back to
for every possible coupling. the first studied day when he felt asleep at 10 pm. It is thus
To do so we transformed our equation in polar coordi- a sort of entrainment, a behaviour that repeats itself during
nates: time.
Another interesting result that could seem trivial is that
when there is no difference in the external and internal os-
R(µ − R2 ) + F cos(−Θ)
   
Ṙ cillator phase no external force is needed to attain synchro-
= (12)
Θ̇ ∆+ F R sin(−Θ) nization fig. 12-14.
We write −Θ in function of R and replace it in equation Waves and defects in a line of nonlinear oscillators
(12), this will give us: Now we will focus on discrete oscillators instead of contin-
r uous like in the previous parts. Namely, let’s have a look
F 2 to a system of 512 non-linear discrete oscillators aligned
Ṙ = R(µ − R2 ) + F 1 + (∆ + ) (13) and coupled to their neighbors. Moreover, we will focus on
R
the phenomenon of synchronization, during which the oscil-
We have a fixed point when Ṙ = 0 so from equation (13) lators have the same behavior. Again we will consider the
we derive: model of a subcritical Hopf system equation (2) where the
2
force, represented this time by the term ∂∂xZ2 , is an internal
R6 − 2µR2 + (µ2 + ∆2 )R − F 2 = 0 (14) force considering the system of all the oscillators, but an ex-
ternal one for every single oscillator. The continuum equa-
Finding the roots of this equations will give us the fixed tion therefore becomes the following:
point of our entrained system.
As previously stated to verify if we have synchronization ∂Z ∂2Z
we need to see if those roots are stable fixed points or stable = (µ + iω)Z − Z|Z|2 + (18)
∂t ∂x2
 After discretisation of the oscillators we obtain the fol-
lowing equation:
zn+1 + zn−1 − 2zn
żn = (µ + iω)zn − zn |zn |2 + (19)
∂x2
where we assume periodic boundary conditions, that is
zN +1 = z1 . If we want to study wave-like discrete oscilla-
tors, the equation (19) should behaves like a wave equation
z(x, t) = R(q)ei(Ω(q)t−qx) (20)
where q is the wavenumber of the wave (with an analysis
of dimension is clear that q and x have reciprocal units for
a dimensionless exponent). Equation (20) corresponds to
the solution of the system if we state the conditions in polar
coordinates
( 9-15.
Ω(q) = ω
p (21)
R(q) = µ − q 2
In order to numerically demonstrate the convergence of
the solution, we studied this model (equation 19) using a
numerical software. We set as initial condition for all the 512
oscillators the equation (20) and we added some noise, pro-
vided with a random function, to it (abs(noise) < 1). We
demonstrated that the system converges toward the wave-
like solution when the time tends to ∞ for small value
of the parameter c (fig. 17). However, when the value of
c increases, the convergence is less clear and some chaos
appears. Even though a definition of chaos is complicated
and debated, we can say that chaos is ”an aperiodical long-
term behavior in a deterministic system that exhibits sen-
sitive condition on the initial condition” (Strogatz, 2000).
That is exactly what we notice from fig 17-18: the wave-
like solution seems less stable and some bifurcations appear
in time. More drastically, when c cross from 9 to 10 that
is the wavenumber q 2 = 1/3, the system stop showing a
wave-like pattern, i.e. the synchronization in space disap-
pears. However, looking at the real part of the solution we
notice that all the oscillators have the same value at the same
time. In other worlds, all the oscillators behave in the same
manner for a given time; thus, we are able to identify a pat-
tern of synchronization in time but not in space. To sum up,
we face three different pattern depending on the value of the
wavenumber c. Firstly, when c is low the wave like solu-
tion is stable and the oscillators are synchronized in time.
Secondly, when c is intermediate, i.e. less than 9 and more
than 4, a chaotic pattern appears. Lastly, when c crosses from
9 to 10, a synchronization in time appears even though the
wave like pattern disappears. Therefore, we have numeri-
cally demonstrated that for a higher number of wavenumber
the synchronization in space and the wave-like pattern is less
probable.
Conclusions
With the analysis of the first modified Hopf oscillator, which
should represent a biological oscillator when no external
force is exerted on it, we have been able to point out that
when µ is comprised between certain values in the phase
portrait a limit cycle appears. This limit cycle is exactly what
we wanted to find since it represent an oscillatory behavior.
Any small deviation given by an external input will still end
on the oscillation after stabilization of the system.
This allows us to use this model to represent a endogenous
biological oscillator.
After having proved the validity of this system we added
the effect of an external oscillating force.
The study of this influence has pointed out how which
parameters are important to attain entrainment. Most no-
tably we can see that the difference of the angular velocity
strongly changes the behavior of the system, when this dif-
ference is minimal a small force is required to see the two
oscillators synchronized, whether if this difference increases
the requested force to observe entrainment increases too fig.
We have been able to show that when there is no entrain-
ment a situation of pseudo-entrainment arises, with the ap-
parition in the phase portrait of a limit cycle fig. 11.
We are thus able to use this system as a model to rep-
resent a endogenous biological oscillator influenced by the
environment. The force exerted in our model is the same as
the one a ”Zeitgeber” will give to our biological oscillator.
In the last part, after having modeled the interaction of an
external oscillator with an endogenous one, we have focused
on a model who could better represent many independent
non-linear oscillators interacting with each other. This could
be an initial model for a system as the SNC, even if it is
a oversimplification because we suppose a neuron interacts
only with the previous and the next one in line.
We have shown that after a critical value of C is attained a
wave pattern spreads between the oscillators that fully syn-
chronize themselves.
To have a general picture of the situation we could imag-
ine that an external input given by light influences a neuron
in the SCN that becomes entrained and will pass this impulse
to the other neurons of the SCN. All the system becomes
thus synchronous and will be able to pass a consistent signal
to peripheral clocks in the human body.
It is interesting to see how we can apply different mod-
els to represent several aspects of the same global system
and it is evident how many insights we can discover about
biological system using mathematical models to describe
them. We should clarify that there are other models that
are more robust as the biophysical circadian clock Becker-
WeimannBernard model that is closer to reality that could
have been used instead of the Hopf oscillator. Since the cir-
cadian clock is the master clock of human body and influ-
ences all the peripheral ones having a deeper knowledge
of this master switch could allow us to better control and
cure many deficits or illness derived from errors in periph-
eral clocks.
Lastly, we would like to conclude recalling that numeri-
cal demonstrations are usually very robust but do not con-
stitute any formal proof. This work, especially on the dis-
crete oscillators, should be considered as a first intuition and
would therefore require a more formal mathematical demon-
stration, that could be maybe not so straightforward.
 References Figures
1. Strogatz, Steven H. Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos: With
Applications to Physics, Biology, Chemistry, and Engi-
neering. Cambridge, MA: Westview, 2000. Print.
2. Friesen WO, and Block GD. ”What Is a Biological Os-
cillator?” The American Journal of Physiology. U.S. Na-
tional Library of Medicine, n.d.
3. Honma K, Honma S, and Wada T. ”Phase-dependent Shift
of Free-running Human Circadian Rhythms in Response
to a Single Bright Light Pulse.” Experientia. U.S. National
Library of Medicine, 1 Dec. 1987. Web.
4. Roenneberg T, Kumar CJ, and Merrow M. ”The Human
Circadian Clock Entrains to Sun Time.” Current Biology
: CB. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 23 Jan. 2007.
Web.
5. Zee PC, and Manthena P. ”The Brain’s Master Circa-
dian Clock: Implications and Opportunities for Therapy
of Sleep Disorders.” Sleep Medicine Reviews. U.S. Na-
tional Library of Medicine, 11 Feb. 2007. Figure 1: Changing the coordinates of the system to polar
simplify the analysis of the fixed point: Ṙ in function of R
6. Honma K, and Honma S. ”Circabidian Rhythm: Its
Appearance and Disappearance in Association with a
Bright Light Pulse.” Experientia. U.S. National Library After changing the coordinates of the system to polar, the
of Medicine, 1 Dec. 1988. analysis of the fixed point is brought to a system of 1 di-
mension. The intersection of the function Ṙ with the x-axis
7. Ute Abraham, Adrin E Granada, Pl O Westermark, represents the fixed point of the system i.e. the radii of √
the
Markus Heine, Achim Kramer, and Hanspeter Herzel. limit cycle. Therefore, we can observe a radius of R∗ = µ
”Coupling Governs Entrainment Range of Circadian with g = 1 and the unstable fixed point at the origin. The
Clocks.” Molecular Systems Biology. U.S. National Li- negative radius does not make sense because R > 0.
brary of Medicine, 2010.

Appendix
Poincaré - Bendixson Theorem
Hypotesis The Poincaré-Bendixson theorem suppose
that:
1. R is closed, bounded subset of plane;
2. ẋ = f (x) is a continuously differential vector field on an
open set containing R;
3. R does not contain any fixed points; and
4. There exists a trajectory C that is ”confined” in R, in the
sense that it starts in R and stays in R for all future time.
Figure 2: The radius R in function of the parameter µ.

Then either C is a closed orbit, or it spirals toward a closed

orbit as t → ∞. In either case, R contains a closed orbit. Here we present the radius of the limit cycle in √
function
of the parameter µ, described by the function R = µ with
g = 1 found in the previous analysis fig. 1. From the graph
we notice that the radius of the limit cycle is equal to zero
when µ is negative, for instance µ = −0.2. Moreover, the
system presents a stable fixed point at the origin with this
condition of µ fig 5.
Figure 3: Phase portrait of the supercritical Hopf oscillator
when µ is positive, in this case µ = 0.7.
In the phase portrait the nullclines ẋ = 0 and ẏ = 0 are
plotted with some trajectories in red starting from different
initial conditions. The intersection between the isoclines is
the fixed point. Computing the trace and the determinant of
the jacobian matrix, we were able to assess the correct nature
of this fixed point: a unstable fixed point.
Figure 4: Ṙ in function of R when µ < 0.
This graph depicted the different behavior of the fixed
point at the origin: the unstable point showed in fig 1 that
generated the stable limit cycle in this case becomes a sta-
ble fixed point. This effect is known as bifurcation that is
changing the value of a parameter (µ) leads to a change in
the nature of a fixed point.
Figure 5: Ṙ in function of R when µ < 0.
This graph depicted the different behavior of the fixed
point at the origin: the unstable point showed in fig 1 that
generated the stable limit cycle in this case becomes a sta-
ble fixed point. This effect is known as bifurcation that is
changing the value of a parameter (µ) leads to a change in
the nature of a fixed point.
Figure 6: R in function of µ showing two different behaviors
of R depending on the sign of µ.
The red and the blue curves show the radii of the stable
and unstable cycle limit receptively, please refer also to fig
7. The values of the radius equals to 0 illustrate the nature of
the fixed point located at the origin.
 Figure 9: Phase portrait when µ = 1, ∆ = 0.1, F = 0.3

Figure 7: Phase portrait for a negative µ shows hysteresis in

a subcritical Hopf model with h = 0.4, g = 1 and ω = π2 .

Here we demonstrate that two trajectories in the same

phase portrait can converge toward two different solutions;
this phenomenon is known as hysteresis and it arises because
of the unstable limit cycle that is not visible on the figure
(none of the trajectories can converge toward it by defini-
tion). Due to this undesirable behavior of the subcritical sys-
tem, we would prefer the model supercritical for which the Figure 10: Phase portrait when µ = 1, ∆ = 0.2, F = 0.6
hysteresis phenomenon does not arise.

Figure 11: Phase portrait when µ = 1, ∆ = 0.6, F = 0.2

Figure 9-11: Those vector fields represent the phase por-

Figure 8: Phase portrait for a positive µ shows stable limit
cycle with a unstable point at the origin.
trait of the modified Hopf oscillator system described in
equation 7. In the three different images the paramters de-
scribing the force of the external oscillator F and the phase
difference between the two oscillators ∆ are different.
Apporting this changes allows us to have a glimpse on
how they influence the stability of the system.
 We can observe that only in the last case fig. 3 we don’t
have a stable fixed point or spiral. Instead we can observe the
formation of a limit cycle that indicates the absence of syn-
chronicity between the two oscillators. This situation repre-
sent a constant frequency difference between the two oscil-
lators that with the perpetration of time will bring the system
to the initial condition in a cyclic way.
Remarkable how we don’t have synchronicity when ∆ has
an high value and F is relatively small.
Figure 12: Phase portrait when µ = 1, ∆ = 0, F = 0.3
Figure 13: Phase portrait when µ = 1, ∆ = 0, F = 0.6
Figures 12-13: We study the special case when there is
no phase difference between the two oscillators (∆ = 0). We
notice that there is in both cases the presence of a stable fixed
point and that only the isocline which follows all the vectors
that only have a component in the ŷ coordinate varies with
the changing of F.
Figure 14: Arnold tongue showing the presence of syn-
chronicity in respect to ∆ and F
Figure 9: Every pixel of this image represent a combi-
nation of a ∆ value with a F value and allows to rapidly
recognize for which combination our system will undergo
entrainment. In this case where we defined µ = 1 we can ob-
serve synchronicity zones, which correspond to zones who
where equation (7) has a stable fixed point or spiral, in the
red part.
Figure 15: Arnold tongue showing the nature of fixed point
depending on ∆ and F values.
Figure 10: This figure use the same principle as figure 9.
In this version every different colors denotes the different
combination of fixed points we find on a phase portrait us-
ing the ∆ and F parameters associated with that pixel. This
figure allowed us to say that when no stable fixed point is
present there is only an unstable spiral, that arises the for-
mation of a stable limit cycle.
Figure 16: C = 3 Figure 19: C = 10

Figure 20: C = 11

Figure 16-20: The wave pattern created by 512 non-linear

oscillator during time, plotting the real part of the complex
Figure 17: C = 5
solution. We can observe a critical condition for C=5 and
C=9 where waves fuse together generating some chaotic pat-
terns. For small values and especially for higher values of C
we can instead observe a stabilization of all the oscillators
that behave in a synchronous way.

Figure 18: C = 9