ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES AND FRAMES
Members are subjected to only axial forces
An engineering structure is any connected system of
members built to support or transfer forces and to safely
withstand the loads applied to it.
(1) Trusses
Trusses are simply defined as triangulation of members
to make the stabilized structure.
(2) Types of Trusses
 Simple Truss - indicates a single triangular truss.
These trusses are most often used as the roof
trusses.
 Planar Truss –
 Space Truss - Electrical and telecom towers are
the one of the simplest example that we are
seeing in the day to day life.
(3) Techniques for Truss Analysis
Method of Joints
 In this method, it is assumed that all members
are joined together in the form of an ideal pin,
and that all forces are in tension (+ve reactions).
 It is usually the fastest and easiest way to solve
for all the unknown forces in a truss structure.
(4) Continuation
Method of Sections
 The section method is an effective method when
the forces in all members of a truss are to be
determined
 Since the Method of Sections allows solving for
up to three unknown forces at a time, you should
choose sections that involve cutting through no
more than three members at a time.
(5) Frames
(6) Techniques for Frame Analysis
Method of Members
 Frames are pin-connected structures with some
or all members are three-force members.
(7) Truss vs. Frames
In truss, joints are of pin joint type and the members are
free to rotate about the pin. So, truss cannot transfer
moments. Loads should be applied at the joints of
members.
(tensile and compression).
On the other hand, members of frames are jointed rigidly
at joints by means of welding and bolting and individual
members can carry transverse load. So the joints of
frame could transfer moments also in addition to the
axial loads.
RELATIVE MOTION OF PARTICLES
To discuss relative motion in one or more dimensions, we
first introduce the concept of reference frames. When
we say an object has a certain velocity, we must state it
has a velocity with respect to a given reference frame.
(1) Reference frame definition
(2) Velocity of A with respect to C = Velocity of A with
respect to C + Velocity of B with respect to C
THERMAL STRAIN
(1) Thermal Strain Definition
(2) To understand how thermal strain happens, a higher
temperature means that the molecules are moving faster
on average. If you heat up a material, the molecules
move faster and, as a result, they take up more space -
they tend to move into areas that were previously
empty. This causes the size of the object to increase.
(3) Linear Expansion Formula
∆𝐿= 𝛼∆𝑇
(Change in length = Linear coefficient of thermal
coefficient multiply by the change in temperature)
The formula for stress:
𝜀=∆𝐿/𝐿
Combining these two expressions we will get the
formula for the linear expansion which is
∆𝐿=𝛼𝐿∆𝑇
(4) Volume Expansion Formula
ΔV = βVΔT
(Change in Volume = Volumetric coefficient of thermal
expansion multiply by the original volume multiply by
change in temperature)
(5) Applications (1) Axial Force definition

Shrink Fit in Mechanical Parts

 Thermal expansion is taken into consideration in
the manufacture of mechanical components
that fit over one another. A shrink fit is obtained
for fitting a bushing over a shaft by designing the
bushing diameter slightly less than the shaft
diameter.
 A shrink fit is generally used in industries by pre-
heating metal parts to allow expansion and
consequently facilitate insertion and removal of
another part.
Railway Tracks and Steel Bridges
 Space is left between railway tracks as an
allowance for their expansion when
temperature increases, otherwise the rails may
overlap each other and dislodge from their
position which is dangerous.
 Similarly, long steel bridges are designed to
include expansion joints to allow for their
expansion, by fixing one end and resting the
other end on rollers.
A tension force is one that pulls materials apart. A
compression force is one that squeezes material
together.
(2) Shear Force definition
In simple terms, one part of the surface is pushed in one
direction, while another part of the surface is pushed in
the opposite direction.
(3) Sign Convention Shear force
 Positive shear force: Upward force on the left
section while downward force acting on the right
section of the body. (clockwise)
 Negative shear force: Downward force on the
left section while upward force acting on the
right section of the body. (anticlockwise)
(4) Bending Moments definition
 Sagging bending moment: The moment about
the point which produces convexity below the
center line is called as sagging bending moment.
It is also called as positive bending moment

Thermometers  Hogging bending moment: The moment about

 Thermal expansion is also applied in mercury the point which produces convexity above the
thermometers that contain a liquid, the volume center line is called as hogging bending moment.
of which changes as the temperature varies. It is also called as negative bending moment.
Liquids occupy less space when cold, but
additional space is required when temperature is
increased.

Soft drink Bottles

 Due to the rise in pressure with increase in
temperature of molecules. In summer, high
temperature leads to high pressure inside the
bottle of soda. So, to withstand it, the soda
bottles are made of thick glass.

AXIAL, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENTS

Axial, shear, and bending moment diagrams (AFD, SFD,
and BMD) show the internal forces and moments along
a structural member. They help determine the material,
size, and type of a member given a set of loads it can
support without structural failure.