International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhm

Research Paper

Effective electronic menu presentation: From the cognitive style and mental
imagery perspectives
⁎
Andy Leea, Min Gyung Kimb,
a
UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
b
College of Business Management, Hongik University, 2639, Sejong-ro, Jochiwon-eup, Sejong 30016, Republic of Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: While technology has significantly changed how we communicate, our knowledge of how to utilize electronic
Electronic menu design menus in restaurants is lacking. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating customer response to various
Mental imagery multimedia presentation formats on a digital platform. To test this, we developed four menu presentation for-
Cognitive style mats and examined how different presentation formats affect mental imagery and the desire to eat. The results
Presentation format
reveal that mental imagery positively affects the desire to eat, while mental imagery itself varies depending on
Video
the presentation format and cognitive style. The video menu elicited the highest mental imagery followed by the
picture, narration, and conventional menus. Visualizers and verbalizers appear to form similar mental imagery
with these presentation formats. Providing support for dual coding theory, the results suggest that while the
visual domain plays the strongest role in mental imagery and the desire to eat, they are also influenced by
auditory stimuli.

1. Introduction et al., 2017).

A restaurant menu serves as the first point of communication with
customers. It presents the customer with cues about the impending
dining experience, while also establishing a strategic marketing plan of
the restaurant (Magnini and Kim, 2016; McCall and Lynn, 2008). A
menu can determine the brand image and the personality of the res-
taurant (Kincaid and Corsun, 2003; Magnini and Kim, 2016) and a well-
designed menu will direct customers’ attention to a particular menu
item and facilitate its sale (Beldona et al., 2014; Hou et al., 2017).
Given the importance of a menu within restaurant operations and
management, a plethora of research studies have examined menu de-
sign and its impact on customer responses and intentions (McCall and
Lynn, 2008; Ozdemir and Caliskan, 2015; Reynolds et al., 2005;
Wansink and Love, 2014; Yang, 2012). These restaurant menu studies
fall into two research streams, namely menu item placement and menu
design properties. Assuming the existence of ‘sweet spots’ on the menu,
the impact of menu item placement on customer responses has been
determined using gaze-motion research (Bowen and Morris, 1995;
Reynolds et al., 2005; Yang, 2012). Research has also examined menu
design properties, including the complexity or ambiguity in the termi-
nology and naming of the menu items (Hou et al., 2017; McCall and
Lynn, 2008; Wansink and Love, 2014), as well as style elements, such as
font, background color (Magnini and Kim, 2016), and picture (Hou
Despite the extensive research in this field, research on restaurant
menus is limited to static visual presentation on paper menus and, thus,
provides few insights into dynamic and multimodal presentations on
digital platforms. Among the various advantages of digital menus,
multimodality would make digital platforms distinctive from conven-
tional paper menus. However, the restaurant industry has mostly only
implemented digital menus as a self-service ordering tool, where menu
items are presented in format similar way to conventional paper menus.
For instance, Eatsa in San Francisco offers only a digital menu for
mobile devices and digital kiosk for ordering in the restaurant (Eatsa,
2018). Customers place orders directly through the digital platforms
but information presentation on the digital menu resembles that of
paper menus; scripted information with static pictures. Sushi Edo, an
Australian sushi chain restaurant, places an iPad at each table, allowing
customers to read the menu and place orders directly through the di-
gital menu. The information on an iPad menu is also static and scripted
with pictures.
The cognitive theory of multimedia learning suggests that in-
formation presented in a multimodal format establishes a positive at-
titude more effectively than that in a unimodal format (Mayer and
Johnson, 2008; Mayer and Massa, 2003). Resonating with the cognitive
theory of multimedia learning, restaurant customers are more likely to
select a menu item when it is presented with a description and a picture

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.lee@business.uq.edu.au (A. Lee), mkim@hongik.ac.kr (M.G. Kim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102377
Received 13 December 2018; Received in revised form 18 July 2019; Accepted 12 September 2019
0278-4319/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Andy Lee and Min Gyung Kim, International Journal of Hospitality Management,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102377
A. Lee and M.G. Kim
together, than with description only (Jang and Kim, 2015). While ex-
isting literature suggests the effectiveness of multimedia menu pre-
sentation, upscale restaurants are reluctant to take the technology op-
tion into consideration (Oronsky and Chathoth, 2007) and are hesitant
to include pictures within menus.
If presenting menu items in a multimodal format positively affects
customers, why are upscale restaurants reluctant to implement it?
Putting multimedia menu presentation in an upscale restaurant context,
we can assume that video clips where a manager explains in detail a
menu item and a chef demonstrates the cooking of the food in the
kitchen may resonate with the dining experience of a maître d’hôtel and
be more effective in inducing customers’ desire for food. The sig-
nificance of video clips and multimedia presence have been tested in a
hotel website context (Akincilar and Dagdeviren, 2014; Kim and
Mattila, 2011), and it urges us to empirically test multimodality in a
restaurant context.
From the literature the visual domain of multimodality has been
examined in the restaurant context (Hou et al., 2017; Jang and Kim,
2015), but the auditory or verbal domain is largely unexplored. Dis-
cussion on the visual and verbal domains are rooted within the cogni-
tive style literature. Cognitive style literature suggests that individuals
have different information processing styles (for example, visualizers
and verbalizers) and thus have different preferred instructional
methods (Kollöffel, 2012; Mayer and Massa, 2003; Pashler et al., 2008).
This being the case, the manager’s verbal explanation of a menu item,
which is commonly expected within an upscale restaurant, would be
more effective for those who process information verbally. Similarly,
given the visual dominance in a video clip, a video presentation would
be more suitable for those who process information visually. As res-
taurant menu studies into multimedia menu presentation formats are in
their infancy, our understanding of how a multimodal presentation
affects customers’ desire for food is limited, as is our understanding of
the impact of cognitive style on menu format interaction.
To answer our questions in relation to multimodality within res-
taurant menus, we apply associative learning and imagery processing
literature to underpin the study. Associative learning is a psychological
mechanism that forms links between mental presentations of physical
stimuli (Mitchell et al., 2009). Following association learning, we as-
sume that customers can understand the corresponding menu item
better when it is presented in a multimodal format (both visual and
auditory), as a multimodal format can stimulate past positive sensory
experiences of similar food more effectively than a unimodal format.
When there is a strong association between menu presentation and past
sensory experience, the customers tend to elicit positive responses.
Imagery processing literature further suggests that a stronger asso-
ciation is established through mental imagery (Childers and Houston,
1984; MacInnis and Price, 1987). The better the stimulus (in this case,
the menu presentation) evokes a sensory response (such as smell, taste,
or other sensations), the more easily the customer can associate the
menu item with appetite (Bone and Ellen, 1990; Kim et al., 2014;
Overmars and Poels, 2015). Again, the cognitive style literature pro-
vides that there is a potential linkage between mental imagery evoca-
tion and presentation format through cognitive style (Massa and Mayer,
2006; Mitchell et al., 2009). That is, visualizers may form stronger
mental imagery from visual methods of instruction and verbalizers
experience similar from verbal messages (Hou et al., 2017).
Thus, this study aims to examine 1) the relationship between mental
imagery and different menu presentation formats, 2) the moderation
effect of cognitive style between the presentation format and mental
imagery, and 3) the moderated mediation effect of cognitive style be-
tween the presentation format and the desire to eat. The theoretical
contribution aims to expand the current understanding of static in-
formation presentation to dynamic information presentation in the
context of restaurant menu design. Specifically, this study aims to ex-
pand menu presentation formats from written description and pictures
to a more dynamic multimedia presentation. Furthermore, this study
2
International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx
examines mental imagery as a function of cognitive elaboration in in-
formation processing. The findings from our study fill an existing gap
within the menu design research by delineating how a presentation
format is related to mental imagery and customers’ desire for a focal
menu item. This study also provides industry contributions by offering
results on more effective ways to present menu items to potential cus-
tomers, which may lead to increased sales and customer satisfaction.
Moreover, the findings suggest that technology helps restaurants to
achieve operational goals and may encourage restaurant practitioners
to allocate budgets for digital menus in the future.
2. Conceptual background
2.1. Presentation format and mental imagery
A restaurant menu lists available food and beverage items, identi-
fied by a name, and accompanied by a short description, and the price
of the item. A well-designed menu should entice customers to purchase/
eat by helping them to make an informed decision (Davis et al., 2018).
Existing studies have focused on the ‘ideal’ menu format including at-
tention to naming and description strategies. For example, when com-
pared to generic and straightforward names (such as seafood filet),
descriptive names (such as succulent Italian seafood filet) have been
known to increase the perceived value and quality of the item (Wansink
and Love, 2014; Wansink et al., 2001). Similarly, the complexity in a
description increases customers’ perception of quality (McCall and
Lynn, 2008). This is because the quality cues (for example ‘succulent’
and ‘Italian’) may evoke customers’ past experience, memories,
knowledge, or imagination related to the cue. If customers make a
positive association between the cue and their past experience and
knowledge, they can form a positive attitude towards the corresponding
menu item.
This study assumes that restaurant customers “get to know” menu
items through processing the information provided, subsequently their
understanding of the menu items is affected by how the information is
presented. This view reflects cognitive approaches in learning, parti-
cularly the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. The cognitive ap-
proaches consider learning as acquisition of knowledge via internal
mental processing (Eryaman and Genc, 2010). Also, cognitive ap-
proaches in learning view that active involvement in the learning
process plays a key role in learning, and that prior knowledge and ex-
perience are essential for comprehension of new knowledge. Social
learning theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986) and social cognition theory
(Fiske, 1993; Fiske and Taylor, 1991) share similar views toward
learning in the sense that all recognize the importance of mental pro-
cessing in learning. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning reflects
the cognitive approaches with its emphasis on the method of delivery
and differentiates it from social learning/cognition theories which
emphasize what to learn. Following the cognitive theory of multimedia
learning, we assume that customers’ involvement in information pro-
cessing varies depending on presentation format. Customers process
information better when information is presented in a way that evokes
a connection between prior knowledge and experience and the focal
information.
Given the importance of cue and internal inference (such as past
experience, memory, and prior knowledge) association in quality per-
ception and product evaluation (Rossiter and Percy, 1980; Steenkamp,
1990), the associative learning framework provides a mechanism by
which customers can build such association. It suggests that people
show the same reaction to any of the stimuli when people learn that two
external stimuli simultaneously occur (Mitchell et al., 2009; Paivio,
1969). Pavlov’s experiment using bell–food pairing exemplifies asso-
ciative learning. When an associative link is formed between a bell-
ringing (a conditional stimulus) and the delivery of food (an uncondi-
tional stimulus), the ringing of the bell produces salivation (a condi-
tional response) without the actual delivery of the food. In line with this
A. Lee and M.G. Kim International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx

principle, restaurant customers may form a positive attitude towards a dynamic visual information (motion pictures) and auditory information
menu item (a conditional response), when they know the menu de- are presented. Between static and dynamic pictorial formats, interactive
scription associated the menu item (a conditional stimulus) is favorable visual images are suggested to evoke even greater mental imagery than
(an unconditional stimulus). The associative link is strengthened in static visual images alone (Overmars and Poels, 2015). Thus, we hy-
increasing order with the concreteness of the stimuli. pothesize that, in the restaurant menu presentation, the following is
The concreteness of the stimuli is determined by the extent to which true:
images are represented in one’s mind (Paivio, 1969). Defined as a
H1. A multimodal presentation will elicit more mental imagery than a
process by which sensory information is represented in one’s mind
unimodal presentation in the order of auditory-dynamic visual,
(Childers and Houston, 1984; MacInnis and Price, 1987), mental ima-
auditory-static visual, visual-visual, and visual only presentation.
gery is commonly expressed by vividness, imagery quantity, and ima-
gery elaboration (Ellen and Bone, 1991; Gavilan et al., 2014; Holmes In this hypothesis, an auditory-dynamic visual presentation refers to
and Mathews, 2005; Miller and Marks, 1997). Vividness is the clarity a menu item presented in a video format (a video clip); the auditory-
with which the individual experiences an image (Childers et al., 1985; static visual refers to a conventionally written description along with a
Gavilan et al., 2014). Imagery quantity is the number of images that manager’s verbal explanation (a narration audio clip); visual-visual
come to mind when evoked by a stimulus (Babin and Burns, 1998; presentation refers to a written description accompanied by a high-
Gavilan et al., 2014). Imagery elaboration is the activation of in- quality picture (a menu with pictures); and a visual only presentation
formation in the production of mental images beyond what is provided refers to the conventional menu style with a written description only
by the stimulus (Babin and Burns, 1997; Gavilan et al., 2014). Through (conventional paper menu). This is case, a conventional menu contains
imagery processing, sensory experiences (such as smell, taste, sight, and a title and a written description of the menu item. Presentation formats
other sensation) in working memory, enable the customer to connect are further discussed in the methodology section.
past experiences with the corresponding message. The absence of sen-
sory dimensions in the production of mental images makes the in-
2.2. Cognitive style and presentation format
formation processed less concrete (Paivio, 1969).
Dual coding theory suggests that images in one’s mind are re-
While the dual coding theory suggests the superiority of pictorial to
presented via two different information processing codes: visual and
discursive formats in imagery processing, the cognitive style literature
verbal codes (Paivio, 1990, 2014; Rossiter and Percy, 1980). Pictures
offers a different view towards presentation formats. That is, in-
and concrete verbal/auditory stimuli are processed in the visual code
dividuals have differing information-processing habits and prefer dif-
and information processed in the visual code stimulates mental ima-
ferent instructional methods so that efficient information processing
gery. Conversely, abstract verbal/auditory stimuli are processed in the
depends on the modality matching their cognitive style (Hou et al.,
verbal code and information processed in the verbal code results in
2017; Mayer and Massa, 2003; Richardson, 1977). The cognitive style
semantic interpretation, such as verbal trivial and cognitive responding
framework hypothesizes that visualizers use visual modes of thinking
(Bone and Ellen, 1990; Childers and Houston, 1984; MacInnis and
and prefer visual modes of presentation, whereas verbalizers use verbal
Price, 1987). While abstract verbal stimuli processed in the verbal code
modes of thinking and prefer verbal modes of presentation (Kollöffel,
can evoke images, the visual code is superior to the verbal code in
2012; Massa and Mayer, 2006; Pashler et al., 2008).
evoking images. When both codes are used, the most concrete imagery
Postulating the congruence effect between cognitive style and pre-
is evoked.
ferred instructional methods on learning, several studies attempted to
As discussed above, a concrete stimulus enables customers to con-
test the cognitive style hypothesis (Cook et al., 2009; Kollöffel, 2012;
nect past experiences with focal information and to process the in-
Massa and Mayer, 2006). While participants chose the instructional
formation in both verbal and visual codes. Then, what constitutes
method matching their cognitive style, Massa and Mayer (2006) failed
concrete stimulus? Cue-summation theory suggests it is achieved
to find that participants with an instructional method matching their
through delivery channels. Cue-summation theory provides support for
cognitive style demonstrated better SAT scores than those with an un-
effectiveness of the proper use of auditory and visual channels together
matched instructional method. Similarly, Cook et al. (2009) and
compared to the use of a single channel (Severin, 1967). Similarly, the
Kollöffel (2012) found no difference in knowledge tests when instruc-
effect of discursive and pictorial combination has a stronger effect on
tional methods were matched with participants’ cognitive style, versus
positive attitude formation than that of discursive information alone
when they were not matched.
(Childers and Houston, 1984; Hou et al., 2017; Walther and D’Addario,
In this study, we attempt to examine the cognitive style hypothesis
2001). Individuals learn new words better with greater recollection
in relation to mental imagery, as opposed to cognitive ability (learning
when they simultaneously see and hear the word, rather than when
performance). While matching instructional methods have no impact
they only see the word (Plaza and Cohen, 2005; Penney, 1975).
on learning performance, they may have an interaction effect with
Despite extensive discussion on multimodality, the role of pre-
cognitive style on mental imagery (Yoo and Kim, 2014). Given the
sentation format within multimodality needs further examination. To
different use of processing modes, a visualizer would perceive stronger
elaborate on the role of presentation format, we hypothesize two res-
mental imagery when menu items are visually presented and verbali-
taurant cases here. In the first auditory-visual case, a restaurant man-
zers the same with verbally presented menus (Chang, 2013; Yoo and
ager verbally explains a chef-special item (auditory), while another
Kim, 2014). Thus, we postulate that, depending on cognitive style,
customer only reads the description from a menu (visual). In the second
there would be a ‘proper’ presentation format that assists customers to
visual-visual case, the customer reads the same description (visual), but
easily form or find the associative link between its description and
the menu is accompanied by a high-quality picture (visual). In both
sensory experiences (how it tastes, looks, and smells). Given the ex-
cases, the menu description is considered visual presentation because it
istence of instructional preference, individuals are more likely to as-
is visually examined. Based on cue-summation theory, the auditory-
similate the information when a menu item is presented through a
visual presentation would elicit more concrete mental imagery than the
preferred method, eliciting greater mental imagery (Babin and Burns,
visual-visual presentation because the information is visually and au-
1998; Cacioppo et al., 1986; Pashler et al., 2008). Thus, we hypothesize
ditorily presented. On the contrary, due to strong presence of sensory
the following:
information (the appearance of the item in the menu), the visual-visual
presentation would be processed in the visual code and consequently H2. Cognitive style will moderate the relationship between a
elicit the same, if not more mental imagery than the auditory-visual presentation format and mental imagery such that the relationship
presentation. This question can be extended to a video channel where will be stronger when the presentation format is congruent with the

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cognitive style. 3. Methodology

Elaborating on Hypothesis 2, we propose that auditory-dynamic
3.1. Study design
visual presentation (the video format) would be congruent with both
visualizers and verbalizers in cognitive style as a video format delivers
To test the hypotheses, this study used a one-way between-subjects
both visual and auditory stimuli (Chen and Wu, 2015). Due to the au-
design. Four presentation formats were developed from an actual menu
ditory verbal components in its delivery, auditory-static visual pre-
of an upscale restaurant at a five-star international chain hotel. We
sentation (a narration format) would be congruent with verbalizers.
chose an upscale restaurant for our experimental context because up-
Similarly, visual-visual presentation would be congruent with vi-
scale restaurants more commonly employ maître ďhôtel service (where
sualizers due to the strong visual component in the photograph. When
manager explains in detail the menu items to customers). The restau-
the presentation format is congruent with cognitive style, enhanced
rant chosen for the study offers western-style cuisine and operates for
mental imagery would be elicited.
breakfast, lunch, and dinner. It uses a conventional paper menu, where
each menu item is named and is accompanied by a short description
and the price. After consulting with the executive chef and the res-
2.3. Mental imagery and desire to eat
taurant manager, we identified the two most popular main menu items
for the study: Eye fillet (200 g) and half crayfish (hereafter denoted as
Desire is a strong indicator of consumption, but it is only one of the
‘the beef item’) and chicken chasseur (hereafter denoted as ‘the chicken
many factors influencing target acquisition and consumption
item’). We chose two menu items to ensure a greater likelihood of
(Kavanagh et al., 2005). The link between desire to eat and mental
participation had the study been limited to one choice only. It was no
imagery is established on a theoretical ground through the elaborated
considered expedient to include more menu items as it would require a
intrusion (EI) theory of desire (Kavanagh et al., 2005). The EI theory of
larger sample size to justify their inclusion.
desire proposes that intrusive thoughts and cognitive elaboration elicit
We created one control menu and three experimental menus
desire. The following exemplifies how the EI theory of desire can be
through manipulation of the presentation format. First, we created a
applied to a restaurant context.
control menu copying the name and description from the restaurant’s
When a restaurant customer reads a menu, the menu description
menu. The control menu (hereafter, the Conventional menu) had a 15-
triggers the idea of something scrumptious. Then, the customer elabo-
word description for the beef item and an 18-word description for the
rately thinks of how the item tastes, looks, and smells. These intrusive
chicken item. Then, we created three experimental menus by adding
and elaborated thoughts elicit the desire to eat the item. The EI theory
narration (hereafter, the Narration menu), by adding a picture (here-
of desire suggests that a set of cues (in this study a menu presentation
after, the Picture menu), and finally, by adding a video clip to the
format) that are more strongly associated with consumption is more
conventional menu (hereafter, the Video menu). We excluded price
likely to elicit desire than a set of weak associations. As discussed
from all our experimental stimuli to control for the potential compound
earlier, when a customer uses imagery processing, the customer will
influence of price. To ensure experimental menus appeared professional
visualize the smell, taste, and appearance connected to the menu item.
and commercial, a professional photographer was hired.
When restaurant customers ‘smell’ bread baking and ‘hear’ the sizzling
For the Narration menu, the restaurant manager was videoed as she
sounds of a steak in their mind, their desire to eat will be accentuated
explained the items on the menu. After audio editing, the final audio
(May et al., 2015). The more vivid the mental imagery is, the stronger
file for the beef item was 34 seconds long with 92 words, and 24 sec-
the sense of desire (Kavanagh et al., 2005). Thus, we hypothesize the
onds long with 67 words for the chicken item. For the Picture menu, a
following:
professional-quality picture of each item shot from a similar angle. For
H3. Mental imagery will be positively related to the desire to eat. the Video menu, a video was made of the food being prepared in the
kitchen. The edited video clip for both the beef and chicken items was
Commonly focused on high caloric foods, food craving literature
55 seconds long. The video clip also had the manager’s narration sound-
shows that vivid, proximal, and concrete imagery influences the desire
mixed with background ‘noises’ captured (including chopping and siz-
to snack (Andrade et al., 2016); and distraction from craving-related
zling). The questionnaire was tested on 10 graduate students and a chef
thoughts weakens mental imagery (Schumacher et al., 2017). Given the
to ensure readability and stimuli manipulation, with feedback in-
positive relationship between mental imagery and craving (a strong and
corporated into the final questionnaire
intense urge that is difficult to resist), we can assume a similar re-
lationship between mental imagery and the desire to eat, albeit with
3.2. Participants and procedure
potentially less intensity than a craving. Along with Hypotheses 1, 2,
and 3 that suggest the impact of presentation format and the modera-
We recruited 792 participants from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
tion effect of cognitive style on mental imagery, we also hypothesize the
(MTurk) workers, who had previously experienced upscale restaurant
following:
services. To minimize potential cultural influence on survey responses,
H4. Presentation format will be related to the desire to eat via we targeted only U.S. residents. We offered 70 cents to those who vo-
conditional indirect effects, such that its relationship with the desire lunteered to complete the survey. After deleting multivariate outliers,
to eat will be moderated by cognitive style and mediated by mental our final sample had 768 participants. Table 1 shows the demographic
imagery. characteristics.
After obtaining consent, the online survey began with measuring
Our hypotheses can be depicted as a moderated mediation model
participants’ desire to eat or current appetite prior to exposing them to
(Ambrose et al., 2013; Hayes, 2018; Preacher et al., 2007). We expect
any experimental menu stimulus. Then, we measured their cognitive
that presentation format evokes more the desire to eat in the order of
style based on the Verbalizer-Visualizer Questionnaire (VVQ) instru-
Video, Narration, Picture, and Conventional formats where the desire to
ments. Participants were asked to identify their dietary restrictions in
eat is affected by mental imagery. Mental imagery is expected to be
relation to chicken, beef, or shellfish. If a restriction was identified, they
stronger when the presentation format is congruent with cognitive
were assigned the menu without this restriction; all others were ran-
style. The conceptual model illustrated in Fig. 1, reflects these re-
domly assigned to one of the two experimental menu items. The menu
lationships.
item was presented in one of the following four formats (i.e.,
Conventional menu; Narration menu; Picture menu; Video menu). At
the bottom of the page, we included a question to confirm that the

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Fig. 1. The conceptual model.

participants had read, heard or watched the experimental stimulus
before proceeding to the next questions. This forced click prevented
participants from proceeding to the next page accidentally or in error.
Participants’ subjective appetite was measured again immediately after
their exposure to the stimulus. Then, participants answered measure-
ment items for mental imagery along with the conventional demo-
graphic information items.
3.3. Measurements
The dependent variable in the model is the desire to eat, which was
operationalized as subjective appetite. This study measured subjective
appetite with commonly used self-reported subjective appetite items,
which measure psychological responsiveness to a stimulus, rather than
a physiological energy deficit (Andriessen et al., 2018; Blundell et al.,
2010; Hill et al., 1984). We used change in subjective appetite (here-
after denoted by subjective appetite change), not appetite per se, to
better examine the immediate effect of the experimental stimulus on
the desire to eat (Shadish et al., 2002). Subjective appetite change in-
dicates the change in the desire to eat of a participant before and after
the participant was exposed to a stimulus. The measurement items were
“how hungry are you?”; “how full are you?”; “how much do you think
you could eat?”; and “how strong is your desire to eat?” anchored at 1
(not at all) and 5 (extremely). The phrase “right now” was added to
each of the four questions after stimulus exposure to ensure that the
questions were intended to measure subjective appetite immediately
after the stimulus exposure. Subjective appetite change was computed
by subtracting subjective appetite after stimulus exposure from sub-
jective appetite before the stimulus.
The mediating variable in the model is mental imagery. Research
has proposed a triadic model of mental imagery, which includes vi-
vidness, imagery quantity, and imagery elaboration (Ellen and Bone,
1991; Holmes and Mathews, 2005; Miller and Marks, 1997). Adapting
scales from existing studies (Babin and Burns, 1997, 1998; Gavilan
et al., 2014), this study measured vividness with eight items, imagery
quantity with three items, and imagery elaboration with two items
anchored at 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree).
The moderating variable in this study is cognitive style. Previous
studies on the construct used various methods, such as the VVQ, Santa
Barbara Learning Style Questionnaire, Verbal-Visual Learning Style

Table 1
Characteristics of the sample.
Control Narration Picture Video Total

n = 192 (25.0) n = 187 (24.3) n = 195 (25.4) n = 194 (25.3) N = 768 (100.0)

Gender
Male 109 115 116 124 464 (60.5)
Female 83 70 78 67 298 (38.9)
Other 0 1 1 3 5 (0.7)

Age
18–25 19 17 25 29 90 (11.7)
26–34 92 81 81 76 330 (43.0)
35–49 61 62 63 62 248 (32.3)
50–64 18 25 24 23 90 (11.7)
≥65 2 2 2 4 10 (1.3)

Ethnicity
Caucasian 150 146 151 154 601 (78.3)
African American 16 18 19 15 68 (8.9)
Hispanic 14 10 11 9 44 (5.7)
Asian 17 17 16 16 66 (8.6)
Other 5 3 6 4 18 (2.4)

Education
Less than high school 2 0 1 1 4 (0.5)
High school 21 26 15 18 80 (10.4)
Some college 35 35 36 38 144 (18.8)
2-year college 18 15 31 27 91 (11.8)
Bachelor’s degree 90 83 85 86 344 (44.8)
Master’s degree 21 18 21 17 77 (10.0)
Doctoral degree 5 10 6 7 28 (3.7)

Annual Household Income

Less than $20,000 18 20 19 26 83 (10.8)
$20,000 to $39,999 46 35 50 45 176 (22.9)
$40,000 to $59,999 44 47 50 53 194 (25.3)
$60,000 to $79,999 39 35 43 39 156 (20.3)
$80,000 to $99,999 21 24 15 18 78 (10.2)
$100,000 to $149,999 21 13 13 9 56 (7.3)
$150,000 or more 3 13 5 4 25 (3.3)

Note: Percentage in brackets. Multiple answers allowed for ethnicity.

5
A. Lee and M.G. Kim International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx

Rating, Learning Scenario Questionnaire, Style-of-Process scale, and Table 3

Cognitive Style Analysis (Childers et al., 1985; Hou et al., 2017; Regression results for estimated coefficients (N = 768).
Kollöffel, 2012; Massa and Mayer, 2006). Each method has strengths 95% CI
and weaknesses, however they are all on a continuous scale influenced
by Richardson’s (1977) VVQ. Hence, we measured cognitive style with B SE Lower Upper
Richardson’s VVQ. The nine verbal items were measured using a 7-
Mental imagery
point Likert-type scale anchored at −3 (strongly agree) and 3 (strongly Constant (Control) −3.37** 0.37 −4.10 −2.64
disagree). The other six visual items were measured using a 7-point Narration vs. Control 0.74* 0.30 0.15 1.33
Likert-type scale ranging from −3 (strongly disagree) and 3 (strongly Picture vs. Control 1.50** 0.27 0.96 2.03
agree). Then, we summated a VVQ score ranging between −45 and 45. Video vs. Control 2.23** 0.28 1.67 2.78
Cognitive style −0.07 *
0.03 −0.13 −0.01
The higher (lower) the VVQ score is, the more likely the individual is to
Narration × Cognitive style 0.00 0.04 −0.08 0.08
be a visualizer (verbalizer). We used continuous values, not categorical, Picture × Cognitive style 0.05 0.03 −0.02 0.11
for cognitive style. This is because dichotomously classifying in- Video × Cognitive style 0.08* 0.04 0.01 0.15
dividuals into verbalizer or visualizer, as categorical values would have Model R2 0.18*
done, is statistically inadequate (Chang, 2013; Chiou et al., 2008; Lee Subjective appetite change
et al., 2010; Yoo and Kim, 2014). Dichotomizing individuals using Constant (Control) 0.26** 0.06 0.15 0.38
median- or mean-splitting is known to reduce statistical power and Narration vs. Control 0.06 0.05 −0.04 0.15
Picture vs. Control 0.05 0.05 −0.05 0.14
create spurious results (Fitzsimons, 2008; Rucker et al., 2015). Thus, Video vs. Control 0.26 **
0.05 0.16 0.35
reserving the continuous nature and analyzing the data via regression Mental imagery 0.05** 0.01 0.03 0.06
approaches are ideal to address such statistical risks.
The demographic information included gender, age, ethnicity, ** p < 0.001.
education background, and household income. Participants also re- * p < 0.05.
ported the frequency of dining out at an upscale restaurant and average
amount spent for an entree or main dish. potential statistical risks as mentioned. PROCESS MACRO provides re-
sults in three steps. Step one, the moderation model, examines the
impact of the independent variable (a presentation format), the mod-
4. Results
erator variable (cognitive style), and their interaction on the mediator
variable (mental imagery). Step one tests Hypotheses 1 and 2. The
Prior to testing the hypotheses, we checked the reliability and va-
second step examines the impact of the mediator variable on the de-
lidity of the variables in the model (see Table 2). The indices of relia-
pendent variable and tests Hypothesis 3. The final step tests the con-
bility and validity for vividness, imagery quantity, imagery elaboration,
ditional indirect effect proposed in Hypothesis 4.
and subjective appetite surpassed the recommended threshold of 0.70
Hypothesis 1 proposed that a multimodal presentation will elicit
for Cronbach’s alpha (Nunnally, 1978) and 0.50 for average variance
more mental imagery than a unimodal presentation in the order of
explained (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). We then created a composite
auditory-dynamic visual (Video format), auditory-static visual
measure for mental imagery by imputing factor scores for further
(Narration format), visual-visual (Picture format) and visual only
analysis (Hair et al., 2010). We used dummy coding for the independent
(Conventional) presentation. The results reveal a significant main effect
variable presentation format.
of the presentation format on mental imagery but not in the hypothe-
To test the hypotheses, we followed the regression-based PROCESS
sized order. Thus, the results do not provide support for Hypothesis 1
MACRO procedure outlined by Preacher et al. (2007) to avoid the

Table 2
Convergent validity and reliability (N = 768).
Measurement Items Mean SD Standardized Factor Loadings Average Variance Cronbach’s ɑ
Explained

Vividness 0.72 0.95

The imagery [which occurred while I read/listened to/watched the menu] was 5.75 1.17 0.87
clear.
The imagery […] was detailed. 5.65 1.24 0.86
The imagery […] was weak.a 5.33 1.52 0.72
The imagery […] was fuzzy.a 5.45 1.43 0.80
The imagery […] was vague.a 5.40 1.48 0.78
The imagery […] was vivid. 5.48 1.38 0.87
The imagery […] was sharp. 5.49 1.35 0.93
The imagery […] was well-defined. 5.53 1.31 0.93

Imagery quantity 0.76 0.91

[When I tried to imagine how the food looks and tastes like], I really only experience 4.39 1.66 0.75
one image.a
[…], I imagined a number of things. 4.97 1.57 0.94
[…], many images came to my mind. 4.82 1.61 0.92

Imagery elaboration 0.62 0.76

[…], I imagined what the food would taste like. 5.95 1.05 0.80
[…], I imagined the smell of the food. 5.51 1.35 0.77

Subjective appetite 0.65 0.87

How hungry are you? 2.85 1.10 0.87
How full are you?a 3.89 1.08 0.61
How much do you think you can eat right now? 3.08 1.02 0.83
How strong is your desire to eat? 3.24 1.19 0.90

a
Reverse coding.

6
A. Lee and M.G. Kim International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx

(see Table 3). In detail, the Video format (β = 2.23, p < 0.001), fol- Table 4
lowed by the Picture format (β = 1.50, p < 0.001) then by the Nar- Bootstrapping results for test of conditional indirect effects (N = 768).
ration format (β = 0.74, p = 0.01), elicited more mental imagery than 95% BootCI
the Conventional format.
Hypothesis 2 proposed that cognitive style will moderate the re- Index BootSE Lower Upper
lationship between a presentation format and mental imagery such that
Narration × Cognitive style 0.000 0.002 −0.004 0.003
the relationship will be stronger when the presentation format is con- Picture × Cognitive style 0.002 0.002 −0.001 0.005
gruent with cognitive style. To ensure a significant moderating effect Video × Cognitive style 0.004* 0.002 0.000 0.007
(Baron and Kenny, 1986), the following conditions should be met: 1) a Model R2 0.126*
significant effect between the independent variable presentation format
* p < 0.05.
and the mediator variable mental imagery, 2) a significant effect be-
tween the moderator variable cognitive style and the mediator variable
mental imagery, and 3) a significant interaction effect between the mediation, the conditional indirect effect quantifies how differences in
independent variable and the moderator variable. The test results of the independent variable presentation format map onto differences in
Hypothesis 1 show that the first condition is met. The results further the dependent variable desire to eat, indirectly through the mediation
reveal a significant negative relationship between cognitive style and variable mental imagery depending on the moderation variable cogni-
mental imagery (β = −0.07, p = 0.02), which indicates that the more tive style. Hypothesis 4 proposed that presentation format will be re-
visual the cognitive style was, the less mental imagery was elicited (see lated to the desire to eat via conditional indirect effects, such that its
Table 3). It indicates that the second condition is met: a significant relationship with the desire to eat will be moderated by cognitive style
moderating effect between the Video format and mental imagery and mediated by mental imagery. Shown in Table 4, the results reveal
(β = 0.08, p = 0.03) but no significant effect between the other formats that significant conditional indirect effects on the desire to eat exists for
and mental imagery (see Table 3). That is, only under the Video format the Video format with visual-inclined cognitive style and more mental
condition, the more visual the cognitive style was, the more mental imagery (conditional indirect coefficient = 0.004, p < 0.05). As the
imagery was elicited (See Fig. 2). Thus, Hypothesis 2 was conditionally conditional indirect effect was significant only in the Video format,
supported. Hypothesis 4 was conditionally supported.
The second step examines the impact of the mediator variable
(mental imagery) on the dependent variable (the desire to eat) while 5. Discussion
controlling for the independent variable (presentation format), the
moderator variable (cognitive style), and their interaction. This step Technology has significantly changed how we communicate. More
provides the test results for Hypothesis 3, which proposed that mental people have started obtaining news from digital newspapers, than from
imagery will be positively related to the desire to eat. The results reveal print media. Tourists search for destination information through online
that the greater mental imagery is elicited, the more the desire to eat travel agencies, while restaurant patrons ‘check out’ restaurants on Yelp
occurs (see Table 3; β = 0.05, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypothesis 3 was or Zomato. Digital platforms provide users with richer content and in-
supported. teractivity. Electronic devices carry many vivid pictures, clear sounds,
The last step allows us to test the conditional indirect effect pro- and video clips, which are unavailable through print media. As res-
posed in Hypothesis 4. Interchangeable with the term moderated taurants start introducing electronic menus, it is largely unknown how
these digital menus will benefit their patrons or how to design them. A

Fig. 2. Moderation effect of cognitive style between presentation format and mental imagery.

7
A. Lee and M.G. Kim
plethora of research has examined the effective presentation of menus
in restaurants, but little research has explored it in the context of in-
teractive and multimedia menus. To fill this gap in research, we have
examined the effect of multimedia menu presentation on the desire to
eat, via cognitive style and mental imagery.
We proposed that there would be a stronger effect of a multimodal
presentation over a unimodal presentation (Hypothesis 1). We assumed
that effective menu presentation evokes the desire to eat the corre-
sponding menu item through sensory representations in the mind
(Sørensen et al., 2003). Furthermore, we posited that mental imagery
stimulates the desire to eat more when the presentation format matches
the cognitive style (Hypotheses 2 and 3). The results corresponding to
Hypotheses 1 and 3 show that presentation format affects mental
imagery, which positively affects the desire to eat. The findings re-
sonate with existing literature, revealing that external food stimuli can
induce strong sensory images of a craved food (Knäuper et al., 2011;
Tiggemann and Kemps, 2005). As per the existing literature, such ex-
ternal food stimuli include sensory food cues (such as looking at a food,
a picture of the food or smelling the food) and cognitive cues (in-
structions to think about food) (Fedoroff et al., 1997, 2003).
According to the EI theory of desire, mental imagery is constructed
by elaborating intrusive thoughts. When intrusive thoughts are elabo-
rately processed, the mental imagery becomes more concrete, and in-
dividuals experience more desire. We found that visual formats (such as
Picture and Video menus) elicit higher mental imagery than verbal
formats (Conventional and Narration menus). As mental imagery is a
process by which sensory experiences are represented in one’s mind, it
is not surprising to find that a format capable of stimulating as many
sensory modalities as possible such as the Video menu, evokes higher
mental imagery than its counterparts (Hou et al., 2017; Kim et al.,
2014; Overmars and Poels, 2015).
The test results of Hypothesis 1 further reveal an interesting re-
lationship between multimodality and mental imagery. That is, a visual
code stimulating modality has a stronger influence on mental imagery
than a verbal code stimulating modality. This finding is interesting
because both the dual coding theory and cue-summation theory suggest
the importance of simultaneous use of different delivery channels,
especially stimulate both visual and verbal codes in information pro-
cessing. Based on these theoretical foundations, we hypothesized and
tested the robustness of a stimulus that stimulates both visual and
verbal codes. Comparing Picture and Narration menus, we found that
the Picture menu, which carries additional visual information, elicited
higher mental imagery than Narration menu, which carries visual and
auditory information. The results suggest that a visual-auditory sti-
mulus does not necessary elicit more mental imagery than a visual
stimulus. A visual-enhanced stimulus (a high-quality picture) can elicit
more mental imagery than a visual-auditory stimulus. In constructing
mental imagery, the visual domain is known to play a dominant role
followed by the gustatory and olfactory domains, while auditory and
tactile domains play little or no role (Tiggemann and Kemps, 2005).
While our study confirms the dominant role of visual information,
we also found a significant role of auditory information in mental
imagery. Within the Narration menu, the restaurant manager uses
words representing such qualities as “traditional,” “very rich,” “beau-
tiful,” “high-quality,” and “very old-style French,” which were excluded
from Conventional menu. As examined in past studies (Wansink and
Love, 2014; McCall and Lynn, 2008), these quality verbal cues would
evoke higher mental imagery than the Conventional menu but not as
much as a visual cue does. This study cannot prove or disprove whether
such quality words were significant determinants of mental imagery
because such quality words are inherent to most narratives.
The results of Hypotheses 2 and 4 provide intriguing points to dis-
cuss the moderating role of cognitive style. We expected that con-
gruence of the presentation format with cognitive style would
strengthen the mental imagery (H2) and the desire to eat (H4). Simply
speaking, visual-enhanced stimuli were expected to elicit more mental
8
International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx
imagery and evoke more the desire to eat when presented to visually
inclined individuals and the same can be found for verbal-enhanced
stimuli with verbally inclined individuals. In our study, the Narration
menu is a verbal-enhanced menu by its auditory nature, the Picture
menu is a visual-enhanced menu through high quality pictures, and the
Video menu is a visual-verbal enhanced menu through the use of both
auditory and dynamic pictures. As auditory verbal information is pro-
cessed in the verbal code (Crutcher and Beer, 2011), verbally inclined
individuals (verbalizers) would form higher mental imagery than vi-
sually inclined individuals when the Narration menu is presented. Si-
milarly, visually inclined individuals (visualizers) would form higher
mental imagery than verbally inclined individuals when the Picture
menu is presented. However, we found the moderation effect of cog-
nitive style only true for the Video menus and not for the Narration or
Picture menus. As shown in Table 3 and Fig. 2, the Picture menu elicits
more mental imagery than the Narration menu, however the significant
effect results from presentation format, not from cognitive style. The
Video menu however, elicits more mental imagery from the visually-
inclined individuals than verbally-inclined individuals (see Fig. 2). This
finding also suggests the stronger visual effect on mental imagery. As
the Video menu is likely to be processed by both visual and verbal codes
due to its visual and auditory components, if the verbal code is as ef-
fective as visual code in eliciting mental imagery, we should expect no
moderation effect of cognitive style on mental imagery with the Video
menu. Given the stronger role of the visual domain in mental imagery
(Tiggemann and Kemps, 2005), visually inclined individuals would
form higher mental imagery than verbally inclined individuals with the
Video menu.
The results of Hypothesis 4 reveal the condition where the con-
ceptual model works. From Hypotheses 1 and 2, we found that pre-
sentation format affects mental imagery and cognitive style strengthens
the relationship between the Video presentation format and mental
imagery. Also, we found that mental imagery positively affects the
desire to eat through Hypothesis 3. The test results of Hypothesis 4
show that presentation format indirectly affects the desire to eat via
mental imagery where a stronger mental imagery is elicited when the
Visual menu is presented to visually-inclined individuals. In summary,
the conceptual moderated mediation model works in the Video pre-
sentation format condition, while the full mediation model (presenta-
tion format - mental imagery – the desire to eat) works regardless of
cognitive style. Thus, our conclusion is that presentation format is a
more critical attribute of a restaurant menu than the cognitive style of
restaurant patrons and that visual information is an essential compo-
nent within a restaurant menu.
This study extends our understanding of restaurant menus on a di-
gital platform by examining various presentation formats as existing
menu studies have been limited to conventional paper menus (Beldona
et al., 2014; Hou et al., 2017; Magnini and Kim, 2016; McCall and Lynn,
2008; Ozdemir and Caliskan, 2015; Reynolds et al., 2005; Wansink and
Love, 2014; Yang, 2012). By examining the effect of a video format on
the desire to eat, our study expands the scope of restaurant menu stu-
dies to a digital platform. Our study also reveals the importance of vi-
sualizing a focal menu item when evoking the desire to eat and chal-
lenges cue-summation theory that advocates diversity of delivery
channels in information processing (Childers and Houston, 1984; Hou
et al., 2017; Plaza and Cohen, 2005; Penney, 1975; Severin, 1967;
Walther and D’Addario, 2001).
Existing cognitive style literature, especially studies using VVQ
scale, commonly dichotomizes respondents into visualizers and verba-
lizers (Childers et al., 1985; Hou et al., 2017; Kollöffel, 2012; Massa and
Mayer, 2006; Richardson, 1977). Dichotomizing cognitive style has a
potential problem in that it can reduce statistical power and produce
spurious results (Fitzsimons, 2008; Rucker et al., 2015), and hence
cognitive style is measured with continuous numeric scores. Our results
therefore carry greater statistical power by keeping continuous vari-
ables within the analysis, and applying PROCESS MACRO, a multiple
A. Lee and M.G. Kim
regression approach.
5.1. Managerial implications
The results of our study indicate that the desire to eat decreases in
the order of a video, picture, narration, and written presentation
format. The findings of this study provide support for utilizing digital
menus in restaurants. When a menu item is presented in a video format,
it will effectively trigger sensory images in customers’ minds, and then
evoke a desire to eat the corresponding item. Videos require digital
platforms, suggesting that restaurants might consider replacing con-
ventional paper menus with tablet PCs like Apple iPads or Android
tablets.
Should restaurant practitioners wish to retain conventional paper
menus, it is suggested that the addition of add high-quality pictures
may evoke greater desire to eat. However, this suggestion may be
contradictory to current operational norms in upscale restaurants,
where anecdotal evidence suggest the use of pictures is considered to
look ‘cheap’ and therefore inappropriate within an upscale restaurant
menu. The results, however, suggest that additional pictorial informa-
tion is better in stimulating the desire to eat than written information
alone and manager’s narration, which then will likely lead to higher
sales.
Digital platforms allow customers to use the menu in a way that
they prefer. Individuals may prefer different instructional methods
based on their cognitive style. Visually inclined customers may prefer
visual stimuli, while verbally inclined customers may prefer verbal
stimuli. While video or pictorial formats have yielded a higher level of
desire than written or auditory formats, customers may form a negative
attitude towards the menu and restaurants if they do not feel comfor-
table with the format. In such cases, restaurants can disable interactive
functions and show photos on the device instead.
As auditory information stimulates mental imagery and the desire to
eat, it is suggested that servers receive training to enhance their com-
munications skills in relation to the look, taste and aromas of menu
items. Sizzling sounds and smells from a kitchen would also stimulate
mental imagery, thus, restaurant practitioners may consider open
kitchen options to enhance customers’ appetite.
In this study, we designed a 55-second video clip for each menu
item. The video begins with a restaurant manager introducing herself,
followed by a description of the item as she would face to face with
customers in the restaurant. Then, the video clip shows how the food
item is prepared in the kitchen as the manager’s narration continues.
While we did not measure how the identity of the speaker (in this case
the restaurant manager) affects mental imagery and subjective appetite,
existing studies show that source creditability can affect decision
making (Ayeh et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2013). Thus, it is recommended
that a ‘credible’ speaker narrate the video script. In the experiments,
participants spent slightly less time at around 30 to 40 s with Conven-
tional and Picture menus. Although the relationship between the time
spent and mental imagery is unknown from this study, a lengthy video
clip may distract customers, which will likely reduce desire (Knäuper
et al., 2011).
5.2. Limitations and future research
This study has some limitations. First, results may not be general-
izable, and potentially have external validity issues. This study in-
structed participants to read, view, watch, or listen to experimental
menus, but in reality, customers may not pay the same attention to the
menu as participants did in this study. And using online surveys for
examining the effects of video, picture, and narration menu might in-
volve external validity as they are not introduced online in reality.
Additionally, this study assigned a single main menu item. In reality,
each menu item competes with several other items, and customers will
go through different information-processing strategies, unlike the
9
International Journal of Hospitality Management xxx (xxxx) xxxx
experimental setting. While we recruited participants who have pre-
viously dined in an upscale restaurant, we cannot ignore the potential
bias associated with MTurk panel characteristics.
The study may be influenced by some compounding variables, for
example, participants were recommended to use a desktop computer,
however the experimental menu was viewed on various digital plat-
forms. While the display size was designed to accommodate the size of
the device that participants used, a larger display device is likely to
provide more immersive experiences (Penczek et al., 2015). Ad-
ditionally, as the Narration menu relies on transference via servers the
number of words used and description may be moderated by the in-
dividual relaying the information, thus mental imagery may be influ-
enced by not only the number of words but the emotive capacity of the
speaker.
Instead of conducting the study within a simulated environment,
future studies may examine the relationship between a presentation
format and mental imagery using iPads in an actual restaurant. Also,
research could further investigate how the use of these formats may
influence sales. As discussed earlier, the role of the presenter in a video
format could also be examined. As existing studies have examined the
role of gender in restaurant service (Hwang et al., 2015; Wen and
Kwon, 2017), it would be interesting to examine what role gender may
play in mental imagery. Furthermore, future research may be expanded
further to measure how the effect of imagery of the customer enjoying
the corresponding menu item will have the desire to eat and menu
decision making (DePalma et al., 1996; Sherman et al., 1985).
Given the strong role of visual stimulus, pictures and videos of vi-
sually less appealing menu items (such as escargot and ragout) would
likely produce the reverse effect on the desire to eat. In these instances,
a verbal presentation would likely be a more suitable format. Therefore,
future research could examine the relationship between visual appeal
and presentation format and its impact on the desire to eat.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by Hongik University research fund.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102377.
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