13 5

THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY
TRAINING NOTES
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AND NO REVISION SERVICE WILL BE PROVIDED TO THE HOLDER.
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 FOR HEALTH AND SAFETY IN THE WORK PLACE YOU SHOULD FOLLOW THE REGULATIONS/ GUIDELINES AS
SPECIFIED BY THE EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURER, YOUR COMPANY, NATIONAL SAFETY AUTHORITIES AND
NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS.
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Thakur Institute of Aviation Technology.
TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 1

Knowledge Levels – Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each
application subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:
LEVEL 1
 A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.
LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.
LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer’s instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where
appropriate.

Module 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I, as amended by
Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
EASA 66 Level
Objective
Reference B2
Electrical Power (ATA 24) : 13.5 3
Batteries Installation and Operation, DC Power Generation, AC Power Generation, Emergency
Power Generation, Voltage Regulation, Power Distribution, Inverters, Transformers, Rectifiers,
Circuit Protection, External / Ground Power.

Module 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)

INTRODUCTION generators) are shutdown, and work from the power supplied from
the battery. Some instrument systems use 26V AC.
There are two types of electrical system used in aircraft; one is
alternating current (AC) system or DC system. AC is constantly There are many benefits of AC power when selected over DC
changing in value and polarity, or as the name implies, alternating. power for aircraft electrical systems. Since more and more units
Figure -1 shows a graphic comparison of DC and AC. The are being operated electrically in airplanes, the power
polarity of DC never changes, and the polarity and voltage requirements are such that a number of advantages can be realized
constantly change in AC. It should also be noted that the AC cycle by using AC (especially with large transport category aircraft).
repeats at given intervals. With AC, both voltage and current start Space and weight can be saved since AC devices, especially
at zero, increase, reach a peak, then decrease and reverse polarity. motors, are smaller and simpler than DC devices. In most AC
If one is to graph this concept, it becomes easy to see the motors, no brushes are required, and they require less maintenance
alternating wave form. This wave form is typically referred to as a than DC motors. Circuit breakers operate satisfactorily under
sine wave. loads at high altitudes in an AC system, whereas arcing is so
excessive on DC systems that circuit breakers must be replaced
frequently. Finally, most airplanes using a 24-volt DC system
have special equipment that requires a certain amount of 400
cycle AC current. For these aircraft, a unit called an inverter is
used to change DC to AC. Alternating Current (AC) can be
converted to DC using a device called a Transformer Rectifier
Unit (TRU).
Figure-1. DC and AC voltage curves. GENERATOR
Alternating current (AC) electrical systems are found on most Energy for the operation of most electrical operated equipment in
multi-engine, high performance turbine powered aircraft and an aircraft is supplied by a generator which are of two types.
transport category aircraft. Large aircraft systems generally use
115V and 200V Alternating Current (AC). The frequency of the 1. D.C. Generator
AC power is held constant at 400 Hz (±5%). Direct current (DC is 2. A.C. Generator (Alternator)
used on systems that must be compatible with battery power, such
as on light aircraft. This is particularly the case with those systems Before going into its operational and constructional detail, we first
which are required to work when the engines (and hence the AC review relevant fundamental voltage generating Principle

PRINCIPLE
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy and the principle of Generator is magnetic
induction, this principle can be summarised as:
Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a

way that the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage
is generated in the conductor.
The amount of voltage generated depends on:
 The strength of the magnetic field

 The angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field Figure 3 : Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
 The speed at which the conductor is moved
 The length of the conductor within the magnetic field
 The polarity of the voltage depends on the direction of the
magnetic lines of flux and the direction of movement of the
conductor
Direction of the current in generator :
For,
Conventional Current Flow --- Fleming’s Right-hand Rule
Electron Current Flow --- Fleming’s Left-hand Rule
Figure 4 : Fleming’s Left-hand Rule

Either rule is applied depending upon the current type

(Conventional or Electron) by using the thumb and first two
fingers of the left hand or Right hand arranged perpendicular to
each other as in figure-3 or figure-4. If the thumb is pointed in the
direction of conductor movement; the forefinger in the direction
of magnetic flux from north to south; then the middle finger
points in the direction of current flow in an external circuit to
which the voltage is applied.
SIMPLE GENERATOR
The simplest generator is an ac generator. A simple generator,

figure-5 and 6 consists of a wire loop positioned so that it can
rotate in a stationary magnetic field and as it does will produce an
Figure 6 : Voltage Induced in a Loop
induced emf in the loop. Sliding contacts, usually called brushes,
connect the loop to an external circuit load in order to pick up or
POSITION 1
use the induced emf.
The conductor A moves parallel to the lines of force. Since it cuts
no lines of force, the induced voltage is zero. As the conductor
advances from position 1 to position 2, the induced voltage
gradually increases.
Figure 5 : Simple Generator Figure 7 :

POSITION 2 until the voltage is zero, and the conductor and wave are ready to
start another cycle. (Figure 8)
The conductor is now moving in a direction perpendicular to the
flux and cuts a maximum number of lines of force; therefore, a POSITION 5
maximum voltage is induced. As the conductor moves beyond
position 2, it cuts a decreasing amount of flux, and the induced The curve shown at position 5 is called a sine wave. It represents
voltage decreases. (Figure 7) the polarity and the magnitude of the instantaneous values of the
voltages generated. The horizontal baseline is divided into
POSITION 3 degrees, or time, and the vertical distance above or below the
baseline represents the value of voltage at each particular point in
At this point, the conductor has made half a revolution and again the rotation of the loop. (Figure 9)
moves parallel to the lines of force, and no voltage is induced in
the conductor. As the A conductor passes position 3, the direction
of induced voltage now reverses since the A conductor is moving
downward, cutting flux in the opposite direction. As the A
conductor moves across the South Pole, the induced voltage
gradually increases in a negative direction until it reaches position
4. (Figure 8)
Figure 9 :
Figure 8 :
POSITION 4
Like position 2, the conductor is again moving perpendicular to

the flux and generates a maximum negative voltage. From
position 4 to position 5, the induced voltage gradually decreases

CONSTRUCTION
The major parts, or assemblies, of a DC generator are, a field

frame, a rotating armature, and a brush assembly. The parts of a
typical aircraft generator are shown in Figure 11.
Figure 10 : O/P of Elementary Generator
Principle shows that voltage is induced in the armature of a

generator throughout the entire 360° rotation of the conductor.
The armature is the rotating portion of a DC generator. As shown,
the voltage being induced is AC. (Figure 10). Since the conductor
Figure 11 : Typical 24 Volt Aircraft Generator
loop is constantly rotating, some means must be provided to
connect this loop of wire to the electrical loads. As shown in
FIELD FRAME
Figure 9, slip rings and brushes can be used to transfer the
electrical energy from the rotating loop to the stationary aircraft
The frame has two functions: to hold the windings needed to
loads. The slip rings are connected to the loop and rotate; the
produce a magnetic field, and to act as a mechanical support for
brushes are stationary and allow a current path to the electrical
the other parts of the generator. The actual electromagnet
loads. The slip rings are typically a copper material and the
conductor is wrapped around pieces of laminated metal called
brushes are a soft carbon substance. It is important to remember
field poles. The poles are typically bolted to the inside of the
that the voltage being produced by this basic generator is AC, and
frame and laminated to reduce eddy current losses and serve the
AC voltage is supplied to the slip rings. Since the goal is to supply
same purpose as the iron core of an electromagnet; they
DC loads, some
concentrate the lines of force produced by the field coils. The field
coils are made up of many turns of insulated wire and are usually
SIMPLE DC GENERATOR wound on a form that fits over the iron core of the pole to which it
is securely fastened. (Figure 12)

Figure 14 and 15, shows a cross-sectional view of a typical

commutator. The commutator is located at the end of an armature
and consists of copper segments divided by a thin insulator. The
insulator is often made from the mineral mica. The brushes ride
on the surface of the commutator forming the electrical contact
between the armature coils and the external circuit. A flexible,
braided copper conductor, commonly called a pigtail, connects
each brush to the external circuit. The brushes are free to slide up
and down in their holders in order to follow any irregularities in
the surface of the commutator. The constant making and breaking
of electrical connections between the brushes and the commutator
segments, along with the friction between the commutator and the
brush, causes brushes to wear out and need regular attention or
Figure 12 : Generator Field Frame replacement.
A DC current is fed t o t he field coils to produce an
electromagnetic field. This current is typically obtained from an
external source that provides voltage and current regulation for the
generator system.
ARMATURE
The armature assembly of a generator consists of two primary

elements: the wire coils (called windings) wound around an iron Figure 13 : A Drum-type Armature
core and the commutator assembly. The armature windings are
evenly spaced around the armature and mounted on a steel shaft.
The armature rotates inside the magnetic field produced by the
field coils. The core of the armature acts as an iron conductor in
the magnetic field and, for this reason, is laminated to prevent the
circulation of eddy currents. A typical armature assembly is
shown in Figure 13.
COMMUTATORS

undue wear of the commutator and yet hard enough to provide

reasonable brush life. Since the contact resistance of carbon is
fairly high, the brush must be quite large to provide a current path
for the armature windings. The commutator surface is highly
polished to reduce friction as much as possible. Oil or grease must
never be used on a commutator, and extreme care must be used
when cleaning it to avoid marring or scratching the surface.
CARBON BRUSHES
A pair of carbon brushes picks off the output current from the
rotating armature. (Figure 16)
Figure 14 : Typical DC Generator Commutator
Figure 16 : Carbon Brush
GENERATOR CONTROL SYSTEMS
Most generator control systems perform a number of functions

related to the regulation, sensing, and protection of t he DC
generation system. Light aircraft typically require a less complex
generator control system than larger multiengine aircraft. Some of
Figure 15: Commutator with Portion Removed to Show
the functions listed below are not found on light aircraft.
Construction
For these reasons, the material commonly used for brushes is Voltage Regulation The most basic of the GCU functions is that
high-grade carbon. The carbon must be soft enough to prevent of voltage regulation. Regulation of any kind requires the

regulation unit to take a sample of a generator output and compare connected to the load bus. If the output is not within the specified
that sample to a known reference. If the generator’s output voltage tolerance, then the generator contactor is not allowed to connect
falls outside of the set limits, then the regulation unit must provide the generator to the load bus.
an adjustment to the generator field current. Adjusting field
current controls generator output. REVERSE CURRENT SENSING
OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION If the generator cannot maintain the required voltage level, it
The overvoltage protection system compares the sampled voltage eventually begins to draw current instead of providing it. This
to a reference voltage. The overvoltage protection circuit is used situation occurs, for example, if a generator fails. When
to open the relay that controls the field excitation current. It is
typically found on more complex generator control systems. GENERATOR CONTROLS FOR HIGH OUTPUT
GENERATORS
PARALLEL GENERATOR OPERATIONS
Most modern high output generators are found on turbine powered
On multiengine aircraft, a paralleling feature must be employed to corporate-type aircraft. These small business jets and turboprop
ensure all generators operate within limits. In general, paralleling aircraft employ a generator and starter combined into one unit.
systems compare the voltages between two or more generators This unit is referred to as a starter generator. A starter-generator
and adjust the voltage regulation circuit accordingly. has the advantage of combining two units into one housing,
Savings pace and weight. Since the starter-generator performs two
OVER EXCITATION PROTECTION tasks, engine starting and generation of electrical power, the
control system for this unit is relatively complex.
When one generator in a paralleled system fails, one of the
generators can become overexcited and tends to carry more than
its share of the load, if not all of the loads. Basically, this
condition causes the generator to produce too much current. If this
condition is sensed, the overexcited generator must be brought
back within limits, or damage occurs. The over excitation circuit
often works in conjunction with the overvoltage circuit to control
the generator.
DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE Figure 17 : Starter Generator

This function of a control system is designed to ensure all
generator voltage values are within a close tolerance before being

A simple explanation of a starter-generator shows that the unit

contains two sets of field windings. One field is used to start the In general, modern GCUs for high-output generators employ
engine and one set for the generation of electrical power. Figure solid-state electronic circuits to sense the operations of the
17 above. During the start function, the GCU must energize the generator or starter-generator. The circuitry then controls a series
series field and the armature causes the unit to act like a motor. of relays and/or solenoids to connect and disconnect the unit to
During the generating mode, the GCU must disconnect the series various distribution busses. One unit found in almost all voltage
field, energize the parallel field, and control the current produced regulation circuitry is the zener diode. The zener diode is a
by the armature. At this time, the starter generator acts like a voltage sensitive device that is used to monitor system voltage.
typical generator. Of course, the GCU must perform all the The zener diode, connected in conjunction to the GCU circuitry,
functions described earlier to control voltage and protect the then controls the field current, which in turn controls the generator
system. These functions include voltage regulation, reverse output.
current sensing, differential voltage, over excitation protection,
overvoltage protection, and parallel generator operations. A GENERATOR CONTROLS FOR LOW OUTPUT
typical GCU is shown in Figure 18. GENERATORS
A typical generator control circuit for low-output generators

modifies current flow to the generator field to control generator
output power. As flight variables and electrical loads change, the
GCU must monitor the electrical system and make the appropriate
adjustments to ensure proper system voltage and current. The
typical generator control is referred to as a voltage regulator or a
GCU. Since most low-output generators are found on older
aircraft, the control systems for these systems are
electromechanical devices. (Solid-state units are found on more
modern aircraft that employ DC alternators and not DC
generators.) The two most common types of voltage regulator are
the carbon pile regulator and the three-unit regulator. Each of
these units controls field current using a type of variable resistor.
Controlling field current then controls generator output. A
simplified generator control circuit is shown in Figure 18.
Figure 18 : Generator Control Unit (GCU)

Figure 18 : Voltage Regulator for Low-Output Generator
CARBON PILE REGULATORS
The carbon pile regulator controls DC generator output by sending

the field current through a stack of carbon disks (the carbon pile).
The carbon disks are in series with the generator field. If the
resistance of the disks increases, the field current decreases and
the generator output goes down. If the resistance of the disks
decreases, the field current increases and generator output goes
up. As seen in Figure-19, a voltage coil is installed in parallel with
the generator output leads. The voltage coil acts like an
electromagnet that increases or decrease strength as generator
output voltage changes. The magnetism of the voltage coil
controls the pressure on the carbon stack. The pressure on the
carbon stack controls the resistance of the carbon; the resistance
of the carbon controls field current and the field current controls Figure 19 : Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator Circuit with
generator output. Carbon pile regulators require regular Typical Carbon Pile Voltage Regulator
maintenance to ensure accurate voltage regulation; therefore, most
have been replaced on aircraft with more modern systems. THREE-UNIT REGULATORS

The three-unit regulator used with DC generator systems is made output, and it therefore measures the voltage of the system. If
of three distinct units. Each of these units performs a specific voltage gets beyond a predetermined limit, the voltage coil
function vital to correct the electrical system operation. A typical becomes a strong magnet and opens the contact points.
three-unit regulator consists of three relays mounted in a single
housing. Each of the three relays monitors generator outputs and
opens or closes the relay contact points according to system needs.
A typical three unit regulator is shown in Figure 20.
Figure 21 : Voltage Regulator

Figure-20, The three relays found on this regulator are used
to regulate voltage, limit current, and prevent reverse current If the contact points are open, field current must travel through a
flow resistor and therefore field current goes down. The dotted arrow
shows the current flow through the voltage regulator when the
VOLTAGE REGULATOR SECTION relay points are open. Since this voltage regulator has only two
positions (points open and points closed), the unit must constantly
The voltage regulator section of the three-unit regulator is used to be in adjustment to maintain accurate voltage control. During
control generator output voltage. The voltage regulator monitor normal system operation, the points are opening and closing at
output and control the generator field current as needed. If the regular intervals. The points are in effect vibrating. This type of
regulator senses that system voltage is too high, the relay points regulator is sometimes referred to as a vibrating type regulator. As
open and the current in the field circuit must travel through a the points vibrate, the field current raises and lowers and the field
resistor. This resistor lowers field current and therefore lowers magnetism averages to a level that maintains the correct generator
generator output. Remember, generator output goes down output voltage. If the system requires more generator output, the
whenever generator field current goes down. As seen in Figure points remain closed longer and vice versa.
21, the voltage coil is connected in parallel with the generator

CURRENT LIMITER SECTION The third unit of a three-unit regulator is used to prevent current
from leaving the battery and feeding the generator. This type of
The current limiter section of the three-unit regulator is designed current flow would discharge the battery and is opposite of
to limit generator output current. This unit contains a relay with a normal operation. It can be thought of as a reverse current
coil wired in series with respect to the generator output. As seen in situation and is known as reverse current relay. The simple reverse
Figure-22, all the generator output current must travel through the current relay shown in Figure-23, contains both a voltage coil and
current coil of the relay. This creates a relay that is sensitive to the a current coil. The voltage coil is wired in parallel to the generator
current output of the generator. That is, if generator output current output and is energized any time the generator output reaches its
increases, the relay points open and vice versa. The dotted line operational voltage.
shows the current flow to the generator field when the current
limiter points are open. It should be noted that, unlike the voltage
regulator relay, the current limiter is typically closed during
normal flight. Only during extreme current loads must the current
limiter points open; at that time, field current is lowered and
generator output is kept within limits.
Figure 23 : Reverse - Current Relay
As the voltage coil is energized, the contact points close and the
current is then allowed to flow to the aircraft electrical loads, as
shown by the dotted lines. The diagram shows the reverse current
relay in its normal operating position; the points are closed and
current is flowing from the generator to the aircraft electrical
loads. As current flows to the loads, the current coil is energized
and the points remain closed. If there is no generator output due to
Figure 22 : Current Limiter
a system failure, the contact points open because magnetism in the
relay is lost. With the contact points open, the generator is
REVERSE-CURRENT RELAY RELAY
automatically disconnected from the aircraft electrical system,

which prevents reverse flow from the load bus to the generator. A driven by the Blue Hydraulic System pressurized by the Ram Air
typical three-unit regulator for aircraft generators is shown in Turbine in emergency configuration, can supply part of the AC
Figure 24. and DC electrical systems in case of loss of normal supply.
Figure 25 : Power Distribution

Figure 24 : Three-Unit Regulator for Variable Speed
Generators
As seen in Figure-24, above all three units of the regulator work

together to control generator output. The regulator monitors
generator output and controls power to the aircraft loads as needed
for flight variables. Note that the vibrating regulator just described
was simplified for explanation purposes. A typical vibrating
regulator found on an aircraft would probably be more complex.
AC POWER SYSTEMS
The AC electrical system can be supplied by the Engine

generators, the APU generator or an External power source. The
DC electrical system is supplied from the AC electrical system or
Figure 26 : Invertor
from the batteries as a back up source. An Emergency Generator,

Since certain electrical systems operate only on AC, many aircraft

employ a completely AC electrical system, as well as a DC
system. The typical AC system would include an AC alternator
(generator), a regulating system for that alternator, AC power
distribution busses, and related fuses and wiring. Note that when
referring to AC systems, the terms “alternator” and “generator”
are often used interchangeably. AC power systems are becoming
more popular on modern aircraft. Light aircraft tend to operate
most electrical systems using DC, therefore the DC battery can
easily act as a back up power source. Some modern light aircraft
also employ a small AC system. In this case, the light aircraft
probably uses an AC inverter to produce the AC needed for this
system. Inverters are commonly used when only a small amount
of AC is required for certain systems. Inverters may also be used
as a backup AC power source on aircraft that employ an AC
alternator. Figure-26, shows a typical inverter that might be found
on modern aircraft. A modern inverter is a solid-state device that
converts DC power into AC power. The electronic circuitry within
an inverter is quite complex; however, for an aircraft technician’s Figure 27 : Power Sources
purposes, the inverter is simply a device that uses DC power, then
feeds power to an AC distribution bus. Many inverters supply ALTERNATORS
both 26-volt AC, as well as 115-volt AC. The aircraft can be
designed to use either voltage or both simultaneously. If both SIMPLE ALTERNATORS
voltages are used, the power must be distributed on separate 26-
and 115-volt AC busses. Most of the electrical power used in modern, large transport
aircraft, as well as in domestic applications, is Alternating
Current (AC or ac). As a result, the AC Generator is the most
important means of producing electrical power. They are
generally called Alternators and vary in size depending upon the
power load requirement. The typical aircraft ac system generates
a sine wave of a given voltage, typically 115 V and 26 V, and in
most case, of a constant frequency. The majority of aircraft that
use ac as the primary power source use a 3-phase system, i.e. the
generator produces three (3) sine waves that are at 120 degree

with respect to each other. Many of the terms and principles other. It will instead be 1.73 times that of the single winding.
covered in this chapter should be familiar to you from earlier Aircraft alternators produce 115 V ac from each winding at a
chapters as they are th same as those covered in the chapter on dc frequency of 400Hz. Therefore, the output across outputs A to
generators. However, before we go on any further, we need to B or B to C is approximately 199 V ac. Since the windings
revisit 3-phase ac to look at how practical systems are connected. are in series between two of the output leads, the output
current is the same as the phase current.
THREE PHASE ALTERNATOR CONNECTION
2. Delta Wound Alternator
There are two (2) ways of connecting the three output windings of
a 3-phase alternator-Delta wound and star or ‘Y’ wound. With the Delta wound alternator, both ends of each winding
can be connected to the ends of the other windings to form a
1. Star or ‘Y’ Wound 3-Phase AC Alternator Delta connection shown in figure 29, below.
With this type of alternator, each of the three windings are

connected together at a common or neutral point as illustrated
in figure 28, below :
Figure 30 : Delta Connected 3-Phase Alternator
It this construction, an output lead is brought from each junction

so that the output voltage will always be the same as the phase
Figure 28 : Star or ‘Y’ Wound Alternator
voltage. As shown in figure 30, there are two coils in series across
or in parallel with each of the phase windings. Since the current
As shown in figure 28, the other three ends of the windings are
in each of the windings is 120 degree out of phase with that in the
brought out as its output leads, each of which is now across
other windings, the output current is also 1.73 times that of the
two of the windings in series.
current in the phase winding.
However, the output voltage will never be twice that of one
BASIC AC GENERATORS
windings as the voltages are at 120 with respect to each

Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc or ac,

depend upon the principle of magnetic induction. An emf is
induced in a coil as a result of:
1. A coil cutting through a magnetic field.

2. A magnetic field cutting through a coil.
As long as there is relative motion between a conductor and a

magnetic field, a voltage will be induced in the conductor. That
part of a generator that produces the magnetic field is called the
field and that part in which the voltage is induced is called the
armature. For relative motion to take place between the
conductor and the magnetic field, all generators must have two
mechanical parts, a rotor and a stator. The rotor is the part that
rotates; the stator is the part that remains stationary. In a dc
generator, the armature is always the rotor, but with alternators,
the armature may be either the rotor or stator. Figure 31 : Simple Rotating Armature Alternator
ROTATING-ARMATURE ALTERNATORS In the DC generator, the emf generated in the armature windings
is converted from ac to dc by means of the commutator. In the
The rotating-armature alternator is similar in construction to the alternator, the generated ac is brought to the load unchanged by
dc generator in that the armature rotates in a stationary magnetic using slip rings. The rotating armature is only found in alternators
field as shown in figure 31. of low power rating and generally is not used to supply electric
power in large quantities. A major disadvantage of a rotating
armature it that it requires slip rings and brushes to conduct the
current from the armature to the load. The armature, brushes, and
slip rings are difficult to insulate, and arc-overs and short
circuits can result at high voltages. For this reason, high-voltage
alternators are usually of the rotating-field type.
ROTATING-FIELD ALTERNATORS
The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and

a rotating-field winding as shown in figure 32. The advantage of

having a stationary armature winding is that the generated voltage

can be connected directly to the load and since the voltage applied
to the rotating field is low voltage dc, the problem of high voltage
arc-over at the slip rings does not exist. The stationary armature,
or stator, of this alternator type holds the windings that are cut by
the rotating magnetic field. The voltage generated in the armature
as a result of this cutting action is the ac power that will be
applied to the load. The stators of all rotating-field alternators are
basically the same. The stator consists of a laminated iron core
with the armature windings embedded in this core, as shown in
figure-33; which is secured to the stator frame.
Figure 33 : Stationary Armature Windings
ALTERNATOR COMPONENTS AND THEIR FUNCTION
A typical rotating-field ac generator consists of an alternator and a

smaller dc generator built into a single unit. The output of the
alternator section supplies alternating voltage to the load. The
only purpose for the dc exciter generator is to supply the direct
current required to maintain the alternator field. This dc generator
is referred to as the Exciter. A typical alternator is shown in the
figure 34; while the bottom view of this figure is in figure 35.
The exciter is a dc, shunt-wound, self-excited generator and the

Figure 32 : Simple Rotating Field Alternator exciter shunt field (2) creates an area of intense magnetic flux
between its poles. When the exciter armature (3) is rotated in the
exciter-field flux, voltage is induced in the exciter armature
windings. The output from the exciter commutator (4) is
connected through brushes and slip rings (5) to the alternator field.
Since this is direct current already converted by the exciter
commutator, the current always flows in one direction through the
alternator field (6). Therefore, a fixed polarity magnetic field is
maintained at all times in the alternator field windings. When the

alternator field is rotated, its magnetic flux is passed through and

across the alternator armature windings (7). In some alternators,
the exciter is supplied directly off the aircraft’s batteries but as
this can drag the battery voltage down considerably, is only used
for smaller alternators.
Figure 35 : Bottom View, Alternator Schematic
ALTERNATOR ROTORS
There are two types of rotors used in rotating-field alternators-The

Figure 34 : Typical AC Generator turbine-driven Rotor and Salient-pole rotors. Figure 36, shows the
construction of these two rotors. The salient-pole rotor shown in
Figure -36, is used in low-speed alternators and often consists of
several separately wound pole pieces, bolted to the frame of the
rotor. If we could compare the physical size of the two types of
rotors with the same electrical characteristics, we would see that
the salient-pole rotor would have a greater diameter.

armature produces a voltage. This voltage produced by the

armature is fed to the aircraft electrical bus and produces a current
to power the electrical loads. Figure 38, shows a basic diagram of
a typical alternator.
Figure 36 : Typical Rotor Construction
At the same number of revolutions per minute, it has a greater

centrifugal force than the turbine-driven rotor. To reduce this
force to a safe level so that the windings will not be thrown out of Figure 37 : DC Alternator Installation
the machine, the salient pole is used in low-speed designs, usually
with a Constant Speed Drive (CSD) unit to keep the speed
constant.
DC ALTERNATORS
DC alternators and their related controls are found on modern,

light, piston-engine aircraft. The alternator is mounted in the
engine compartment driven by a v-belt, or drive gear mechanism,
which receives power from the aircraft engine. (Figure 37) The
control system of a DC alternator is used to automatically regulate
alternator output power and ensure the correct system voltage for
various flight parameters. DC alternators contain two major
components: the armature winding and the field winding. The
field winding (which produces a magnetic field) rotates inside the Figure 38 : Diagram of a Typical Alternator
armature and, using the process of electromagnetic induction, the

The armature used in DC alternators actually contains three coils

of wire. Each coil receives current as the magnetic field rotates
inside the armature. The resulting output voltage consists of three
distinct AC sine waves, as shown in Figure 39. The armature
winding is known as a three- phase armature, named after the
three different voltage waveforms produced.
Figure :40 :Three-phase armature windings : Y on the left and

delta winding on the right
Figure 39 : Sine Waves.
Figure 40 shows the two common methods used to connect the

three phase armature windings: the delta winding and the Y
winding. For all practical purposes, the two windings produce the
same results in aircraft DC alternators. Since the three-phase
voltage produced by the alternators armature is AC, it is not
compatible with typical DC electrical loads and must be rectified Figure 41 : Relatively Smooth Ripple DC
(changed to DC). Therefore, the armature output current is sent
through a rectifier assembly The invention of the diode has made the development of the
alternator possible. The rectifier assembly is comprised of six
that changes the three-phase AC to DC (Figure-41). Each phase of diodes. This rectifier assembly replaces the commutator and
the three-phase armature overlaps when rectified, and the output brushes found on DC generators and help to make the alternator
becomes a relatively smooth ripple DC (Figure 41). more efficient. Figure 42, shows the inside of a typical alternator;
the armature assembly is located on the outer edges of the
alternator and the diodes are mounted to the case. The field

winding, shown in Figure-43, is mounted to a rotor shaft so it can

spin inside of the armature assembly.
Figure 43 : Alternator Field Winding
The field winding must receive current from an aircraft battery in

Figure 42 : Diode Assembly order to produce an electromagnet. Since the field rotates, a set of
brushes must be used to send power to the rotating field. Two slip
rings are mounted to the rotor and connect the field winding to
electrical contacts called brushes. Since the brushes carry
relatively low current, the brushes of an alternator are typically
smaller than those found inside a DC generator. Figure-44, DC
alternator brushes last longer and require less maintenance than
those found in a DC generator.

generally considered to be more reliable and provide better system

regulation than vibrating-type regulators. Solid-state regulators
rely on transistor circuitry to control alternator field current and
alternator output.
The regulator monitors alternator output voltage/current and

controls alternator field current accordingly. Solid state regulator
typically provides additional protection circuitry not found in
vibrating-type regulators. Protection may include over- or under-
voltage protection, over current protection, as well as monitoring
the alternator for internal defects, such as a defective diode. In
Figure 44 : Alternator Brushes many cases, the ACU also provides a warning indication to the
pilot if a system malfunction occurs. A key component of any
The alternator case holds the alternator components inside a solid-state voltage regulator is known as the zener diode. Figure-
compact housing that mounts to the engine. Aircraft alternators 45, shows the schematic diagram symbol of a zener diode, as well
either produce a nominal 14-volt output or a 26-volt output. The as one installed in an ACU. The operation of a zener diode is
physical size of the alternator is typically a function of the similar to a common diode in that the zener only permits current
alternator’s amperage output. Common alternators for light flow in one direction. This is true until the voltage applied to the
aircraft range in output form 60–120 amps. zener reaches a certain level. At that predetermined voltage level,
the zener then permits current flow with either polarity. This is
DC ALTERNATOR VOLTAGE REGULATORS known as the breakdown or zener voltage.
Voltage regulators for DC alternators are similar to those found on

DC generators. The general concepts are the same in that
adjusting alternator field current controls alternator output.
Regulators for most DC alternators are either the vibrating-relay
type or solid-state regulators, which are found on most modern
aircraft. Vibrating-relay regulators are similar to those discussed
in the section on generator regulators. As the points of the relay
open, the field current is lowered and alternator output is lowered
and vice versa. Solid-State Regulators Solid-state regulators for
modern light aircraft are often referred to as alternator control
units (ACUs). These units contain no moving parts and are Figure 45 : Zener Diode

As an ACU monitors alternator output, the zener diode is electromagnetic induction. A typical large aircraft AC alternator is
connected to system voltage. When the alternator output reaches shown in Figure 47.
the specific zener voltage, the diode controls a transistor in the
circuit, which in turn controls the alternator field current. This is a
simplified explanation of the complete circuitry of an ACU.
[Figure 9-73] However, it is easy to see how the zener diode and
transistor circuit are used in place of an electromechanical
vibrating-type regulator. The use of solid-state components
creates a more accurate regulator that requires very little
maintenance. The solid relay in a -state ACU is, therefore, the
control unit of choice for modern aircraft with DC alternators.
AC ALTERNATORS
AC alternators are found only on aircraft that use a large amount

of electrical power. Virtually all transport category aircraft, such Figure 46
as the Boeing 757 or the Airbus A-380, employ one AC alternator
driven by each engine. These aircraft also have an auxiliary AC
alternator driven by the auxiliary power unit. In most cases,
transport category aircraft also have at least one more AC backup
power source, such as an AC inverter or a small AC alternator
driven by a ram-air turbine (RAT). AC alternators produce a
three-phase AC output. For each revolution of the alternator, the
unit produces three separate voltages. The sine waves for these
voltages are separated by 120°. [Figure-46,] This wave pattern is
similar to those produced internally by a DC alternator; however,
in this case, the AC alternator does not rectify the voltage and the
output of the unit is AC. The modern AC alternator does not
utilize brushes or slip rings and is often referred to as a brushless
AC alternator. This brushless design is extremely reliable and
requires very little maintenance. In a brushless alternator, energy Figure 47
to or from the alternator’s rotor is transferred using magnetic
energy. In other words, energy from the stator to the rotor is As seen in Figure 48, the brushless alternator actually contains
transferred using magnetic flux energy and the process of three generators: the Exciter generator (armature and permanent

magnet field), the Pilot exciter generator (armature and fields

windings), and the main AC alternator armature winding and field
winding. The need f or brushes is eliminated by using a
combination of these three distinct generators. The exciter is a
small AC generator with a stationary field made of a permanent
magnet and two electromagnets. The exciter armature is three
phase and mounted on the rotor shaft. The exciter armature output
is rectified and sent to the pilot exciter field and the main
generator field. The pilot exciter field is mounted on the rotor
shaft and is connected in series with the main generator field. The
pilot exciter armature is mounted on the stationary part of the
assembly. The AC output of the pilot exciter armature is supplied
to the generator control circuitry where it is rectified, regulated,
and then sent to the exciter field windings. The current sent to the
exciter field provides the voltage regulation for the main AC
alternator. If greater AC alternator output is needed, there is more
current sent to the exciter field and vice versa. In short, the exciter
permanent magnet and armature starts the generation process, and Figure 48
the output of the exciter armature is rectified and sent to the pilot
exciter field. The pilot exciter field creates a magnetic field and Some alternators are cooled by circulating oil through the internal
induces power in the pilot exciter armature through components of the alternator. The oil used for cooling is supplied
electromagnetic induction. The output of the pilot exciter armature from the constant speed drive assembly and often cooled by an
is sent to the main alternator control unit and then sent back to the external oil cooler assembly. Located in the flange connecting the
exciter field. As the rotor continues to turn, the main AC generator and drive assemblies, ports make oil flow between the
alternator field generates power into the main AC alternator constant speed drive and the generator possible. This oil level is
armature, also using electromagnetic induction. The output of the critical and typically checked on a routine basis.
main AC armature is three-phase AC and used to power the
various electrical loads. BRUSHLESS GENERATOR
The generator is a conventional 3 co- axial component brushless

generator which consists of a Permanent Magnet Generator
(PMG), a rotating diode pilot exciter, the generator itself. The
generator is driven at a constant speed and is cooled by air or oil
spraying. Rotation of the permanent magnet generator rotor

induces an alternating current (ac) voltage in the 3-phase windings

of the permanent magnet generator stator. This ac voltage is
supplied through a connector on the IDG housing and aircraft
wiring to the GCU where it is rectified into direct current (dc)
voltage. This rectified dc voltage is used by the GCU voltage
regulator to control the dc voltage applied to the windings of the
generator's exciter field and GCU power supply. The Permanent
Magnet Generator (PMG) supplies the exciter field through the
Generator Control Relay (GCR) and the Generator Control Unit
through a Rectifier Unit. The stationary magnetic field produced
by the direct current in the windings of the exciter field induces a
3-phase ac voltage in the rotating windings of the exciter armature
(rotor).
Figure 49 : Generator and Excitation Control
This ac voltage is converted to dc voltage by the rotating rectifier The voltage regulator is enabled when PMG frequency exceeds a
assembly on the armature. By applying this dc voltage to the main POR equivalent PMG frequency of 350 Hz. The voltage regulator
generator field, current flows in the field winding producing a is disabled when the POR equivalent PMG frequency falls below
magnetic field rotating with the generator shaft. This rotating
250 Hz or when the GCR protective trip latch is set. The voltage
magnetic field induces an ac voltage in the windings of the main regulator has both 3 phase average and highest phase regulation
generator stator. The generator output is fed through the generator and is compensated by the REAL load CT loop, REACTIVE load
current transformers inside the IDG and through the terminal CT loop and TOTAL generator LOAD.
block on the IDG housing. The excitation control and regulation
module keeps the voltage at the nominal value at the Point Of
INTEGRATED DRIVE GENERATOR (IDG)
Regulation (POR).
The unit shown in Figure 50, contains an alternator assembly
combined with an automatic drive mechanism. The automatic
drive controls the alternator’s rotational speed which allows the
alternator to maintain a constant 400-Hz AC output. All AC
alternators must rotate at a specific rpm to keep the frequency of
the AC voltage within limits. Aircraft AC alternators should
produce a frequency of approximately 400 Hz. If the frequency
strays more than 10 percent from this value, the electrical systems
do not operate correctly. A unit called a constant-speed drive

(CSD) is used to ensure the alternator rotates at the correct speed

to ensure a 400- Hz frequency. The CSD can be an independent If the aircraft engine changes speed, the alternator speed remains
unit or mounted within the alternator housing. When the CSD and constant. A typical hydraulic type drive is shown in Figure 51.
the alternator are contained within one unit, the assembly is This unit can be controlled either electrically or mechanically.
known as an integrated drive generator (IDG). Modern aircraft employ an electronic system. The constant-speed
drive enables the alternator to produce the same frequency at
slightly above engine idle rpm as it does at maximum engine rpm.
The hydraulic transmission is, mounted between the AC alternator
and the aircraft engine. Hydraulic oil or engine oil is used to
operate the hydraulic transmission, which creates a constant
output speed to drive the alternator. In some cases, this same oil is
used to cool the alternator as shown in the CSD cutaway view.
Figure 51
The input drive shaft is powered by the aircraft engine gear case.
The output drive shaft, on the opposite end of the transmission,
engages the drive shaft of the alternator. The CSD employs a
Figure 50

hydraulic pump assembly, a mechanical speed control, and a

hydraulic drive. Engine rpm drives the hydraulic pump; the
hydraulic drive turns the alternator. The speed control unit is made
up of a wobble plate that adjusts hydraulic pressure to control
output speed.
Figure 52, shows a typical electrical circuit used to control

alternator speed. The circuit controls the hydraulic assembly
found in a typical CSD. As shown, the alternator input speed is
monitored by a tachometer (tach) generator. The tach generator
signal is rectified and sent to the valve assembly. The valve
assembly contains three electromagnetic coils that operate the
valve. The AC alternator output is sent through a control circuit
that also feeds the hydraulic valve assembly. By balancing the
force created by the three electromagnets, the valve assembly
controls the flow of fluid through the automatic transmission and
controls the speed of the AC alternator. It should be noted that an
AC alternator also produces a constant 400 Hz if that alternator is
driven directly by an engine that rotates at a constant speed. On
many aircraft, the auxiliary power unit operates at a constant rpm.
AC alternators driven by these APUs are typically driven directly
by the engine, and there is no CSD required. For these units, the
APU engine controls monitor the alternator output frequency. If
the alternator output frequency varies from 400 Hz, the APU
speed control adjusts the engine rpm accordingly to keep the
alternator output within limits.
Figure 52 : Typical Electrical Circuit Used to Control

Alternator Speed
VARIABLE SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY (VSCF)

ALTERNATORS

The VSCF systems are the latest attempt to eliminate moving Unlike DC systems, AC systems must ensure that the output
parts from the various electrical components on the aircraft. This frequency of the alternator stays within limits. If the frequency of
system utilizes a large DC alternator which is not reliant on a an alternator varies from 400 Hz, or if two or more alternators
constant input speed. The mechanically complex constant speed connected to the same bus are out of phase, damage occurs to the
drive unit is therefore not required. The DC output voltage from system.
the alternator is sent to a solid-state device which converts the DC
to an AC voltage of a constant 400 hertz. This unit is typically All AC alternator control units contain circuitry that regulates
referred to as an inverter. The electronic control circuitry for both voltage and frequency. These control units also monitor a
VSCF system is quite complex: however, the reliability of the variety of factors to detect any system failures and take protective
electrical system should outperform the CSD needed for the measures to ensure the integrity of the electrical system. The two
typical AC alternator. It is very likely that future AC power most common units used to control AC alternators are the bus
systems will rely on the VSCF system due to their enhanced power control unit (BPCU) and the GCU. In this case, the term
reliability.[ Figure-53] “generator” is used, and not alternator, although the meaning is
the same. The GCU is the main computer that controls alternator
functions. The BPCU is the computer that controls the distribution
of AC power to the power distribution busses located throughout
the aircraft. There is typically one GCU used to monitor and
control each AC alternator, and there can be one or more BPCUs
on the aircraft. BPCUs are described later in this chapter;
however, please note that the BPCU works in conjunction with the
GCUs to control AC on modern aircraft. A typical GCU ensures
the AC alternator maintains a constant voltage, typically between
Figure 53 : VSCF Principle 115 to 120 volts. The GCU ensures the maximum power output of
the alternator is never exceeded.
AC ALTERNATORS CONTROL SYSTEMS
Modern aircraft that employ AC alternators use several

computerized control units, typically located in the aircraft’s
equipment bay for the regulation of AC power throughout the
aircraft. Figure 9-81 shows a photo of a typical equipment bay and
computerized control units. Since AC alternators are found on
large transport category aircraft designed to carry hundreds of
passengers, their control systems always have redundant
computers that provide safety in the event of a system failure.

Figure 54
The GCU provides fault detection and circuit protection in the

event of an alternator failure. The GCU monitors AC frequency Figure 55
and ensures the output if the alternator remains 400 Hz. The basic
method of voltage regulation is similar to that found in all The GCU is also used to turn the AC alternator on or off. When
alternator systems; the output of the alternator is controlled by the pilot selects the operation of an AC alternator, the GCU
changing the strength of a magnetic field. As shown in Figure 55, monitors the alternator’s output to ensure voltage and frequency
the GCU controls the exciter field magnetism within the brushless are within limits. If the GCU is satisfied with the alternator’s
alternator to control alternator output voltage. The frequency is output, the GCU sends a signal to an electrical contactor that
controlled by the CDS hydraulic unit in conjunction with signals connects the alternator to the appropriate AC distribution bus. The
monitored by the GCU. contactor, often call the generator breaker, is basically an
electromagnetic solenoid that controls a set of large contact
points. The large contact points are necessary in order to handle
the large amounts of current produced by most AC alternators.
This same contactor is activated in the event the GCU detects a
fault in the alternator output; however, in this case the contactor
would disconnect the alternator from the bus.
BATTERY

1. INTRODUCTION  CCA
The battery is an essential component of almost all aircraft This term is the peak power typically defined for lead acid
electrical systems. Batteries are used to start engines and battery knowm as cold-cranking amperes, or CCA rating.
auxiliary power units, to provide emergency backup power for The numerical value of the current, in amperes, that a fully
essential avionics equipment, to assure no-break power for charged lead-acid battery can deliver at -18°C (0°F) for 30
navigation units and fly-by-wire computers, and to provide s to a voltage of 1.2 V per cell (i.e., 14.4 V for a 24V
ground powercapability for maintenance and preflight battery). In some cases, 60 s is used instead of 30 s. CCA
checkouts. Many of these functions are mission critical, so the stands for cold cranking amperes.
performance and reliability of an aircraft battery is of
considerable importance.  ELECTROLYTE
2. IMPORTANT TERMS An ionically conductive, liquid medium that allows ions to

flow between the positive and negative plates of a cell. In
 AMPERE-HOUR CAPACITY lead-acid cells, the electrolyte is a mixture of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and deionized water. In nickel-cadmium cells,
The quantity of stored electrical energy, measured in the electrolyte is a mixture of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
ampere-hours that the battery can deliver from its dissolved in deionized water.
completely charged state to its discharged state. The
dischargeable capacity depends on the rate at which the  IMP RATING
battery is discharged; at higher discharge rates the
available capacity is reduced. This term is a peak power rating used typically for nickel-
cadmium batteries defined as the current at maximum
 C-RATE power, or Imp rating. The numerical value of the current,
in amperes, delivered after 15 s during a constant voltage
The discharge rate, in amperes, at which a battery can discharge of 0.6 V per cell (i.e., at 12 V for a 24-V
deliver 1 h of capacity to a fixed voltage endpoint battery). The Imp rating normally is based on a battery
(typically 18 or 20 V for a 24V battery). Fractions or temperature of 23°C (75°F), but manufacturers generally
multiples of the C-rate also are used. C/2 refers to the rate can supply Imp data at lower temperatures as well.
at which a battery will discharge its capacity in 2 h; 2C is
twice the C rate or that rate at which the battery will  MONOBLOC
discharge its capacity in 0.5 h. This rating system helps to
compare the performance of different sizes of cells. A group of two or more cells connected in series and
housed in a one-piece enclosure with suitable dividing

walls between cell compartments. Typical monoblocs An electrically insulating material that is used to prevent
come in 6V, 12V, or 24V configurations. Monoblocs are metallic contact between the positive and negative plates
commonly used in lead-acid batteries, but rarely used in in a cell, but permits the flow of ions between the plates.
nickelcadmium aircraft batteries. In flooded cells, the separator includes a gas barrier to
prevent gas diffusion and recombination of oxygen. In
 NEGATIVE ELECTRODE sealed cells, the separator is intended to allow gas
diffusion to promote high recombination efficiency.
The electrode from which electrons flow when the battery
is discharging into an external circuit. Reactants are  STATE-OF-CHARGE
electrochemically oxidized at the negative electrode.
The available capacity of a battery divided by the capacity
 POSITIVE ELECTRODE available when fully charged, normally expressed on a
percentage basis. Sometimes referred to as “true state-of-
The electrode to which electrons flow when the battery is charge.”
discharging into an external circuit. Reactants are
electrochemically reduced at the positive electrode.  STATE-OF-HEALTH
 NOMINAL VOLTAGE The available capacity of a fully charged battery divided

by the rated capacity of the battery, normally expressed on
The characteristic operating voltage of a cell or battery. a percentage basis. Sometimes referred to as “apparent
The nominal voltage is 2.0 V for lead-acid cells and 1.2 V state-of charge.”
for nickel-cadmium cells. These voltage levels represent
the approximate cell voltage during discharge at the C-rate  ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E)
under room-temperature conditions. The actual discharge
voltage depends on The energy supplied by a cell to one coulomb of charge is
called e.m.f. It is the potential difference between two
i. The state-of-charge electrodes.
ii. State-of-health
iii. Discharge time  INTERNAL RESISTANCE (R)
iv. Rate and The opposition offered to the flow of current by the
v. Temperature internal composition of the cell itself is called internal
resistance.
 SEPARATOR
 TERMINAL VOLTAGE (V)

The potential difference across the terminals of the cells at Secondary cells are rechargeable and require a DC charging
load is called terminal voltage. source to restore reactants to their fully charged state. In these
cells chemical action is reversible Examples of secondary
Thus, V = E – I x r cells include lead-lead dioxide (lead-acid), nickel-cadmium,
nickel-iron, nickel-hydrogen, nickel-metal hydride, silver-
 SULPHATION zinc, silver-cadmium, and lithium-ion. In these cells, no
electrode is consumed during discharging, however chemical
If ead acid battery allowed to remain in the discharged composition of the plates is changed. When the direction of
state for a prolonged time period, the battery becomes flow of current is reversed, the plates regain their original
damaged by “sulfation.” Sulfation occurs when lead composition. That why these cells are also reffered to as
sulfate forms into large, hard crystals, blocking the pores storage cells.
in the active material. The sulfation creates a high
impedance condition that makes it difficult for the battery NOTE
to accept recharge. The sulfation may or may not be
reversible, depending on the discharge conditions and For aircraft applications, secondary cells are the most
specific cell design. prominent, but primary cells are sometimes used for powering
critical avionics equipment (e.g., flight data recorders, ELT).
3. TYPES OF BATTERY’S CELL
4. PRINCIPLE
PRIMARY CELL
Batteries operate by converting chemical energy into electrical
Primary cells are not rechargeable and must be replaced once energy through electrochemical discharge reactions. Batteries
the reactants are depleted. In these cells chemical action is not are composed of one or more cells, each containing a positive
reversible are called as primary cells. Examples of primary electrode, negative, electrode, separator, and electrolyte as
cells include carbon-zinc (Leclanche or dry cell), alkaline- shown in Figure 1 below
manganese, mercuryzinc, silver-zinc, and lithium cells (e.g.,
lithium-manganese dioxide, lithium-sulfur dioxide, and
lithium- thionyl chloride). In this type, during discharging one
of the plate is consumed which cannot recovered by reversing
the direction of flow of current. Thus chemical action is not
reversible. So primary cells are expansive source of energy.
SECONDARY CELL

requirements exceed the charging system's ability to

produce electricity. Both the battery and the generator,
supply electricity when demand is high For example- one
of the engine failure and rest of the engines has to take
load.
6. GROUPING OF CELLS
When a number of cells are connected in such a way that the

negative terminal of one cell is connected to the positive
terminal of the other and so on, the cells are said to be
connected in series grouping.
Figure 1
Current delivered to the load, I = n E/ R + nr
5. PURPOSE OF THE BATTERY
Where,
 ENGINE IS OFF n = No. of cells connected in series,
E = e.m.f. of each cell,
Electricity from the battery is used to operate lighting, R = Internal resistance,
accessories, or other electrical systems when the engine is R = Load resistance
not running.
1. SERIES CONNECTED BATTERY
 ENGINE STARTING
Positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative
Electricity from the battery is used to operate the starter terminal of the next, is called a series connected battery. The
motor (or also known as starter generator) and to provide voltage of this type of battery is the sum of a individual cell
current for the ignition system during engine cranking. voltages.
Starting the aircraft engine is the battery's most important
function.
 ENGINE RUNNING
Electricity from the battery may be needed to supplement

the charging system when the aircraft’s electrical load

r = Internal resistance of each cell

E = e.m.f. of each cell, R = load resistance
Figure 1 & 2 : Series Connected Batteries
2. PARALLEL GROUPING
When a number of cells are connected in such a way that the

positive terminals of all the cells are connected together and
negative terminals are connected together separately, the cells
are said to be connected in parallel.
Figure 5 : Series-Parallel Connected Batteries
EXAMPLE 1
How many cells, each having an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and internal

resistance of 0.25 ohm would be required to pass a current of 1.5
Figure 3 & 4 : Parallel Grouping A through a resistance of 15 ohm, when connected in series ?
SERIES - PARALLEL GROUPING SOLUTION
The grouping in which a number of cells are connected in Let, n be the number of cells connected in series.
series in one row and a number of such rows are connected in Current delivered to load, I = nE / (R + nr)
parallel is called series-parallel grouping of cells.
Here, E = 1.5 V, R = 15 ohm, r = 0.25 ohm and I = 1.5 A
Current delivered to the load, I = n E/R + (nr/m) 1.5 = n X 1.5 / (15 + n X 0.25)
n = 20 (Answer)
Where,
n = No. of cells in series, 7. AIRCRAFT BATTERIES
m = No. of rows connected in parallel,

charge may result in a case rupture, thermal runaway or

The main uses of battery in aircraft systems are: internal mechanical damage.
 To supply power for engine or APU starting.

 To provide emergency power for the Inertial Navigation
System (INS) or Inertial Reference System (IRS).
 To provide under emergency conditions limited amounts
of power to operate essential flight instruments and radio
communications equipment.
 To provide power for emergency lighting.
7.1. AIRCRAFT LEAD ACID BATTERY
Lead-acid batteries are the most commonly used type of

battery in light general aviation aircraft. Figure 6 : Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries
7.1.1. TYPES Therefore, the valve-regulated battery is the most common type of
sealed battery and these have a spring-controlled valve that vents
There are two basic types of lead-acid battery: gases at a predetermined pressure, typical 2 to 5 psi, depending on
the battery design. Although the term ‘valve-regulated’ is often
A. FLOODED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES: used synonymously to describe sealed lead-acid batteries, not all
sealed batteries are valve-regulated. Some battery designs use
Flooded cells are those where the electrode plates are replaceable vent plugs or other mechanisms to relieve excess
immersed in the electrolyte. As gases created during pressure. Sealed batteries were developed to reduce maintenance
charging are vented to the atmosphere, distilled water requirements for batteries in active service. Since electrolyte
must be occasionally added to bring the electrolyte levels are preserved by trapping and reabsorbing gasses, there
back to its required level. should not be any need to add distilled water over the life of the
battery. These batteries are often misnamed ‘maintenance free ’
B. SEALED LEAD-ACID BATTERIES but in reality, all maintenance practices applicable to unsealed
type batteries are applicable to sealed type batteries with the
These battery types confine the electrolyte, but have a vent exception of electrolyte level replenishment. Sealed batteries are
or valve to allow gases to escape if its internal pressure
often used for aircraft backup and emergency power applications,
exceeds a certain safety threshold. Too high a rate of
e.g. emergency exit lighting, but as their state of charge cannot be

checked by the usual specific gravity measurement, they are

subjected to specific time period maintenance checks. However, 1. BATTERY CASE / CONTAINER
one disadvantage of the sealed battery is its susceptibility to high
temperature and so they are location sensitive, especially in an The container houses the plates and the electrolyte. It is made
aircraft environment. of acid resisting materials like glass or hard rubber depending
upon service requirements. The cell container must be
7.1.2. CONSTRUCTION impervious to the action of dilute sulphuric acid and is
typically made of a plastic material.
A battery consists of a number of cells and each cell of the
battery consists of the following components.
1. Battery case / Container

2. Positive Plate
3. Negative Plate
4. Separator
5. Electrolyte
6. Cell covers and vent plugs
7. Cell connectors
8. Battery terminals
FIGURE 8
2. POSITIVE PLATE
Positive plate is made of lead peroxide (PbO2) deposited on a

grid frame. The grid frame is made of antimony-lead alloy.
The color of the positive plate is dark brown.
FIGURE 7 : Lead-Acid Aircraft Battery

FIGURE 9 Figure 10 : A Lead–Acid Cell
3. NEGATIVE PLATE
Negative plate is made spongy lead (Pb). It is also deposited

on a grid frame for stiffness and strength. The color of the
negative plate is grey. The number of negative plates in a
battery is always one more than the positive plates to make use
of both the sides of the positive plate most effectively.
Figure 11 : A Lead–Acid Cell
4. SEPARATOR

It is made of thin sheet of porous insulating materials.

Separators are placed between positive and negative plates.
The positive and negative plates are separated electrically by
the separators. The separators must allow free circulation of
the electrolyte between the plates. These are made of specially
treated wood, glass, rubber etc.
5. ELECTROLYTE
The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Battery grade

sulphuric acid is used for the preparation of electrolyte. The Figure 12 : Vent Plugs
electrolyte of pure sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water
must be of the correct specific gravity (relative density), 7. CELL CONNECTORS
typically 1.25 to 1.27. Checking the specific gravity of the
electrolyte is the best way to determine the state of charge of Cell connectors are used to connect the individual cells in
the battery. Specific gravity of a battery varies inversely with series to give the required voltage. Lead alloys are the material
temperature and electrolyte level. normally used as cell connector. Corrosion due to sulphuric
acid is normally avoided by proper coating.
NOTE
Specific gravity of a liquid is the ratio of a given volume of

liquid to the weight of a comparable volume of water at the
same temperature. If one cubic centimetre of water weighs one
gram and one cubic centimetre of electrolyte at the same
temperature weighs 1.2 grams, the ratio, i.e. specific gravity of
the electrolyte, is 1.2:1.0 this is simply written as 1.2.
6. CELL COVERS AND VENT PLUGS Figure-13 & 14 : Cell Connectors
Each cell has a cover made of moulded hard rubber. Openings 8. BATTERY TERMINALS
are provided in these covers for two terminal posts and vent
plug. Vent plug has a vent hole for easy escape of gas formed A battery has two terminals, the +ve and the –ve. The
inside the cell during charging. Vent plugs can be easily polarities are marked on the terminals. The terminals are
removed for adding electrolyte.

generally made of lead alloys and the +ve terminal is made

larger than –ve terminal.
Figure 16
Figure 15 : Battery + ve Terminal Indications of a fully charged cell are:
7.1.3. CHEMICAL REACTION 1. While still “On charge”, the voltage of the cell will
reach approximately 2.7 and “fully off charge”, the
Pb 2 H 2SO 4 PbO 2 PbSO 4 2 H 2O PbSO 4
 
Charge
voltage is 2.2V.
Lead  Sulfuric Acid  Lead Peroxide Lead Sulfate  Water  Lead Sulfate
  2. The specific gravity rises between 1.280 to 1.290.
-   Discharge
  
3. The chemical reaction in the cell during the charge
process releases hydrogen and oxygen, which is fully
7.1.4. INDICATIONS
absorbed into the electrolyte. On completion of
charge the electrolyte no longer absorb these gases
1. FULLY CHARGED
which are released by the plates and rise to the
surface in the form of a constant stream of bubbles.
A fully charged battery contains a negative plate of sponge
This is known as gassing and is the third sign of
lead (Pb), a positive plate of lead peroxide (Pb02), and
completion of the charge.
electrolyte of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H20).
NOTE 1

However the state of battery can be checked by checking

Colors of plates. When battery is fully charged , the anode
is of chocolate color and cathode is of grey color.
NOTE 2
To check the specific gravity of sulphuric acid , an

instrument called hydrometer is used which works on
Archmedies principle.
NOTE 3
Charge must not be considered complete until all three

indications have been sustained for one hour.
Figure 17
2. FULLY DISCHARGED
INDICATION FOR FULLY DISCHARGED BATTERY
In a fully discharged battery, both plates are covered with
lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is diluted to 1. Voltage “On load” falls to 1.8V
mostly water (H2O). 2. Specific gravity falls to minimum value i.e. 1.130( as as
stated by manufacturer instruction and these instructions
prevailed always)
3. The two indications should always be considered together,
as single indication may mislead.
NOTE
In this condition, the color of both plates is whitish. To get

good life of battery keep the specific gravity more than 1.18.
3. DISCHARGING

As the battery is discharging, the electrolyte becomes diluted - +

and the plates become sulphated. The electrolyte divides into
hydrogen (H2) and sulfate (S04). The hydrogen (H2) discharge As the cell
combines with oxygen (0) from the positive plate to form discharges, more
more water (H20). The sulphate combines with the lead (Pb) water is formed,
lowering the
in both plates to form lead sulfate (PbS04)
At cathode, Pb + SO4 PbSO4

Pb PbO2 specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
At anode, PbO + H2SO4 PbSO4 + H2O H2SO4 + H2O
Figure 19
INDICATION DURING DISCHARGING
1. Both plates are converted to lead sulphate

2. Specific gravity of sulphuric acid is 1.15
3. Terminal voltage fall from 2.0 V to 1.8 V
4. Chemical energy changes to electrical energy
4. CHARGING
During charging, the chemical action is reversed. Sulfate

(S04) leaves the plates and combines with hydrogen (H2) to
become sulphuric acid (H2SO4). Free oxygen (02) combines
Figure 18 with lead (Pb) on the positive plate to form lead dioxide
(Pb02). Gassing occurs as the battery nears full charge, and
hydrogen bubbles out at the negative plates, oxygen at the
positive.
At anode, PbSO4+ O + H2O PbO2 + H2SO4

At cathode, PbSO4 + 2H Pb + H2SO4

Five factors affect battery charging by increasing its

internal resistance and CEMF (counter-electromotive force
produced by the electrochemical reaction)
 TEMPERATURE
As the temperature decreases the electrolyte resists charging.

A cold battery will take more time to charge; a warm battery,
less time. Never attempt to charge a frozen battery.
 STATE-OF-CHARGE
The condition of the battery's active materials will affect

charging. A battery that is severely discharged will have hard
Figure 20 sulfate crystals on its plates. The vehicle's charging system
may charge at too high of a rate to remove such sulphates.
INDICATION DURING RECHARGING
 PLATE AREA
1. Plates regain their original composition
2. Specific gravity of acid become 1.28 Small plates are charged faster than large plates. When
3. Terminal voltage increases from 1.8 V to 2.0 V sulfation covers most of the plate area, the charging system
4. Electrical energy converted to chemical energy which is may not be able to restore the battery.
stored in cell.
 IMPURITIES
Specific Gravity Condition % age
1.280 to 1.290 Fully charged 100 % Dirt and other impurities in the electrolyte increase charging
1.230 to 1.250 Charged 75 % difficulty.
1.190 to 1.200 Charged 50 %
1.150 to 1.160 Charged 25 %  GASSING
Below 1.130 Fully discharged 0%
Table 1 : Shows the various conditions collectively Hydrogen and oxygen bubbles form at the plates during
charging. As these bubble out, they wash away active
7.1.5. FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING material, cause water loss, and increase charging difficulty.

continuously for 20 hours, the battery has a rating of 20 amperes ×

20 hours, or 400 ampere-hours. Therefore, the 20-hour rating is
equal to the average current that a battery is capable of supplying
without interruption for an interval of 20 hours.
NOTE
As stated above, this method is used for most batteries, but aircraft
batteries are always rated according to a 1-hour rate of
discharge.The ampere-hour capacity of a battery depends upon its
total effective plate area. Connecting batteries in parallel increases
ampere-hour capacity. Connecting batteries in series increases the
total voltage but not the ampere-hour capacity.
7.1.7. DISCHARGE PERFORMANCE
Battery performance characteristics usually are described by

Figure 21 : Factors Affecting Charging plotting voltage, current, or power vs. discharge time, starting
from a fully charged condition. Typical discharge performance
7.1.6. CAPACITY AND RATING OF A LEAD ACID data for aircraft batteries are illustrated in Figures-22 and 23.
BATTERY Figure-24, shows the effect of temperature on the capacity when
discharged at the C-rate. Manufacturers’ data should be obtained
A battery’s capacity is measured in Ampere-Hours (AH). This is for current information on specific batteries of interest.
calculated by multiplying the battery’s current output in amperes
and the time in hours during which the battery will supply this
current. The ampere-hour capacity varies inversely with the
discharge current, e.g. a 50 ampere-hour battery will deliver 50
amperes for 1 hour or 10 amperes for 5 hours.
Batteries are rated according to their rate of discharge and

ampere-hour capacity and most are rated according to a 20-hour
rate of discharge, i.e. if a fully charged battery is completely
discharged during a 20-hour period, it is discharged at the 20-hour
rate. Consequently, if a battery can deliver 20 amperes

Figure 22 : Discharge Curve at 25°C for a 24 V/37 Ah Aircraft Figure 23 : Maximum Power Curves (12 V Discharge) 24 V/37
Battery Ah Aircraft Battery

Figure 23 : Capacity vs. Temperature for Aircraft Batteries at conditions. However, when the battery is discharged, the SG
the C-Rate drops and the freezing point rises. At low SG, the electrolyte first
will turn to slush as the temperature drops. This is because the
7.1.8. CHARGE METHOD FOR LEAD ACID BATTERY water content freezes first, gradually raising the SG of the
remaining liquid so that it remains unfrozen. Solid freezing of the
Constant voltage charging at 2.3 to 2.4V per cell is the preferred electrolyte in a discharged battery requires temperatures well
method of charging lead-acid aircraft batteries. For a 12-cell below the slush point; a practical lower limit of -30°C is often
battery, this equates to 27.6 to 28.8 V which generally is specified. Solid freezing can damage the battery permanently (i.e.,
compatible with the voltage available from the aircraft’s 28-V DC by cracking cell containers), so precautions should be taken to
bus. Thus, lead-acid aircraft batteries normally can be charged by keep the battery charged or heated when exposed to temperatures
direct connection to the DC bus, avoiding the need for a dedicated below -30°C.
battery charger. If the voltage regulation on the DC bus is not
controlled sufficiently, however, the battery will be overcharged The upper temperature limit is generally in the range of 60 to
or undercharged causing premature failure. In this case, a 70°C. Capacity loss is accelerated greatly when charged above
regulated voltage source may be necessary to achieve acceptable this temperature range due to vigorous gassing and/or rapid grid
battery life. Some aircraft use voltage regulators that compensate, corrosion. The capacity loss generally is irreversible when the
either manually or automatically, for the battery temperature by battery is cooled.
increasing the voltage when cold and decreasing the voltage when
hot. Adjusting the charging voltage in this manner has the Specific Battery Freezing Point
Cell OCV
beneficial effect of prolonging the battery’s service life at high Gravity at OCV
(Volts) (°C) (°F)
temperature and achieving faster recharge at low temperatures. 15°C (Volts)
1.000 1.84 22.08 0 +32
7.1.9. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS AND LIMITATIONS 1.050 1.89 22.68 -3 +26
1.100 1.94 23.28 -8 +18
Lead-acid batteries generally are rated at 25°C (77°F) and operate 1.150 1.99 23.88 -15 +5
best around this temperature. Exposure to low ambient 1.200 2.04 24.48 -27 -17
temperatures results in performance decline, whereas exposure to 1.250 2.09 25.08 -52 -62
high ambient temperatures results in shortened life. The lower 1.300 2.14 25.68 -70 -95
temperature limit is dictated by the freezing point of the 1.350 2.19 26.28 -49 -56
electrolyte. The electrolyte freezing point varies with acid
1.400 2.24 26.88 -36 -33
concentration, as shown in Table-2 . The minimum freezing point
is a chilly 70°C(-95°F) at a specific gravity (SG) of 1.30. Since Table 2 : Freezing Points of Sulfuric Acid-Water Mixtures
fully charged batteries have SGs in the range of 1.28 to 1.33, they
are not generally susceptible to freezing even under extreme cold

7.1.10. NEUTRALISING AGENTS FOR LEAD ACID 7.1.12. STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS

BATTERY
A charged battery which is to be stored for any length of time.
The neutralising agents for Sulphuric Acid:
 Should be in the “fully charged” condition.
a. Saturated solution of bicarbonate of soda.  Before storing, the electrolyte levels should be checked and
b. Ammonia powder. the battery bench-charged in accordance with manufacturer’s
c. Borax powder. instructions.
 When fully charged, the battery should be stored in a cool,
The acid should be soaked up with sawdust which should then be dry, well ventilated store on an acid resistant tray.
removed and buried. The affected area should be treated with one  Batteries may also be stored in the dry, uncharged state.
of the above, followed by washing down with copious amounts of
fresh water. Additional points to note are as follows:
7.1.11. FAILURE MODES AND FAULT DETECTION  Every 4 to 6 weeks (depending on manufacturer’s
instructions) the battery should be removed from storage and
The predominant failure modes of lead-acid cells are summarized fully recharged, i.e. until voltage and specific gravity readings
as follows: cease to rise.
 Shorts caused by growth on the positive grid, shedding or NOTE

massing of active material, or mechanical defects protruding
from the grid, manifested by inability of the battery to hold a Damage to the battery will occur if it is allowed to stand idle
charge (rapid decline in open circuit voltage). beyond the period for charging specified by the manufacturer.
 Loss of electrode capacity due to active material shedding,  Regardless of periodic check charges, the battery should be
excessive grid corrosion, sulfation, or passivation, manifested given a complete charge and capacity check immediately
by low capacity and/or inability to hold voltage under load. before being put into service.
 Water loss and resulting cell dry-out due to leaking seal,  For new batteries, a complete capacity test to the
repeated cell reversals, or excessive overcharge (this mode manufacturer’s instructions should be made every 6 months,
applies to sealed cells or to vented cells that are improperly but if the battery has been in service this test should be made
maintained), manifested by low capacity and/or inability to every 3 months.
hold voltage under load

 
Charge
Positive Electrode 2NiOOH  2H 2 O  2e - 2 Ni(OH) 2  2(OH) 

 Every 12 months, or earlier if a leak is suspected, an insulation Discharge
 
resistance test should be carried out to the manufacturer’s Negative Electrode Cd  2(OH)  Cd(OH) 2  2e -
instructions.  
Charge
Overall Cell Reaction 2NiOOH  Cd  2H 2O 2 Ni(OH) 2  Cd(OH) 2

Discharge
 
 If the conditions mentioned in the previous paragraphs are
observed, a battery may remain in storage up to 18 months. A
battery should not be allowed to stand in a discharged There are two basic cell types: vented and recombinant. Vented
condition, and electrolyte temperatures should not exceed cells have a flooded electrolyte, and the hydrogen and oxygen
48.8ºC. gases generated during charging are vented from the cell
container. Recombinant cells have a starved electrolyte, and the
NOTE oxygen generated from the positive electrode during charging
diffuses to the negative electrode where it recombines to form
Trickle charging at low rates is not recommended as damage will cadmium hydroxide by the following reaction:
occur if idle batteries are subjected to this.
Cd  H 2 O 1/ 202  Cd(OH) 2
8. NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERY
The recombination reaction suppresses hydrogen evolution at the
8.1. GENERAL negative electrode, thereby allowing the cell to be sealed. Unlike
valve-regulated lead-acid cells, recombinant nickel-cadmium cells
The Nickel-Cadmium Cell, usually shortened to NiCad, is are sealed with a high-pressure vent that releases only during
superior to the lead-acid cell in several ways. The NiCad cell abusive conditions. Thus, these cells remain sealed under normal
construction differs greatly to the lead-acid cell in that its anode, charging conditions. However, provisions for gas escape must still
cathode and electrolyte are made of different materials. Typically be provided when designing battery cases since abnormal
NiCad aircraft battery has twenty (20) cells versus a Lead Acid’s conditions may be encountered periodically (e.g., in the event of a
twelve (12). Larger nickel–cadmium batteries are used for as the charger failure that causes an over current condition).
essential power source in some aircraft and can even start up some
aircraft engines. They are also found as backup power systems
where very high currents, low temperature conditions, and
reliability are important factors. Due to these superior
characteristics and capabilities the nickel-cadmium cells are being
used extensively in many aircraft applications that require a high
discharge rate.

Nickel-cadmium aircraft batteries generally consist of a steel case

containing identical, individual cells connected in series. The
number of cells depends on the particular application, but
generally 19 or 20 cells are used. The end cells of the series are
connected to the battery receptacle located on the outside of the
case. Cases are vented by means of vent tubes or louvers to allow
escape of gases produced during overcharge. Some battery
designs have provisions for forced air cooling, particularly for
engine start applications. Thermostatically controlled heating pads
sometimes are employed on the inside or outside of the battery
case to improve low-temperature performance. A typical aircraft
battery assembly is shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24 : A typical Ni-Cd Aircraft Battery
8.2. CELL CONSTRUCTION
The construction of nickel-cadmium cells varies significantly,

depending on the manufacturer. In general, cells feature
alternating positive and negative plates with separator layers
interleaved between them, a potassium hydroxide (KOH)
electrolyte of approximately 31% concentration by weight
(specific gravity1.30), and a prismatic cell container with the cell
terminals extending through the cover. The positive plate is
impregnated with nickel hydroxide and the negative plate is
impregnated with cadmium hydroxide. Cell containers typically
are made of nylon, polyamide, or steel. One main difference
between vented cells and sealed (recombinant) cells is the type of
separator. Vented cells use a gas barrier layer to prevent gases
from diffusing between adjacent plates. Recombinant cells feature
a porous separator system that permits gas diffusion between
plates.
8.3. BATTERY CONSTRUCTION Figure 25 : Assembly Drawing of a Nickel-Cadmium Aircraft

Battery

8.4. VOLTAGE OF NI CAD BATTERY
 Fully charged 1.5V

 Nominal voltage 1.2V
 Fully discharge 1.0V
8.5. DISCHARGE PERFORMANCE
Typical discharge performance data for aircraft batteries are

illustrated below in Figures 26 and 27.
Figure 27 : Maximum Power Curves (12 V Discharge) for a 24

V/37 Ah Aircraft Battery
Figure 26, shows the effect of temperature on discharge capacity

at the C-rate. Compared with lead-acid batteries, nickel-cadmium
batteries tend to have more available capacity at low temperature,
but less available capacity at high temperature.
8.6. CHARGE METHODS
A variety of methods are employed to charge nickel-cadmium

aircraft batteries. The key requirement is to strike an optimum
balance between overcharging and undercharging, while
Figure 26 : Discharge Curves at 25°C for a 24 V/37 Ah achieving full charge in the required time frame. Overcharging
Aircraft Battery results in excessive water loss (vented cells) or heating (sealed
cells). Undercharging results in capacity fading. Some overcharge

is necessary, however, to overcome coulombic inefficiencies Current Charger that limits the amount of current that can put
associated with the electrochemical reactions. into the cell.
For vented-cell batteries, common methods of charging include 8.8. CELL MEMORY
constant potential, constant current, or pulse current. Constant
potential charging is the oldest method and normally is Nickel-cadmium cells have a characteristic that causes them to
accomplished by floating a 19-cell battery on a 28-V DC bus. The lose capacity if they are repeatedly discharged and charged to only
constant current method requires a dedicated charger and typically a small percentage of their capacity. For example, if 20% of a
uses a 0.5 to 1.5 C-rate charging current.The constant current cell’s capacity is taken out of it and the cell is recharged
method is more complicated, but results in less gassing and repeatedly, the cell will lose some of its capacity and it will never
electrolyte spewage during overcharge. Pulse current methods are accept a full charge. A cell that has had its capacity decreased by
similar to the constant current methods, except the charging repeated shallow charges can be restored to its full capacity by
current is pulsed rather that constant. completely discharging it and overcharging it to approximately
140%of its rated AH capacity nown as a deep cycling.
For sealed-cell batteries, only constant current or pulse current
methods should be used. Constant potential charging can cause 8.9. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS AND LIMITATIONS
excessive heating, resulting in thermal runaway. Special attention
must be given to the charge termination technique in sealed-cell Nickel-cadmium batteries, like lead-acid batteries, normally are
batteries, because the voltage profile is relatively flat as the rated at room temperature (25°C) and operate best around this
battery becomess fully charged. For example, it may be necessary temperature. Exposure to low ambient temperatures results in
to rely on the battery’s temperature rise rather than voltage rise as performance decline, and exposure to high ambient temperatures
the signal for charge termination. results in shortened life. The lower temperature limit is dictated by
the freezing point of the electrolyte. Most cells are filled with an
8.7. THERMAL RUNWAY electrolyte concentration of 31% KOH, which freezes at -66°C.
Lower concentrations will freeze at higher temperatures, as shown
If a nickel cad cell is subjected to an excessively high charging in Table 3.
rate, even though its internal resistance low, it can become
overheated. When this occurs, its internal resistance drops further. Specific Gravity Concentration Freezing Point
The lower internal resistance allows the cell to take more current at 15°C Weight % (°C) (°F)
from the charger and more heat is generated. This condition is 1.000 0 0 +32
known as thermal runway and it can destroy a cell. Sealed nickel 1.045 5 -3 +27
cadmium cells are vented to relieve the pressure that could build 1.092 10 -8 +18
up to a dangerous level under thermal runway conditions. The 1.140 15 -15 +5
problem of thermal runway is minimized by using a Constant 1.118 20 -24 -11

Specific Gravity Concentration Freezing Point  At high discharge rates the nickel-cadmium cell can deliver
at 15°C Weight % (°C) (°F) greater power and can maintain its output for longer. Sealed
1.239 25 -38 -36 NiCad cells are equipped with ‘jelly roll’ electrodes that allow
1.290 30 -59 -74 efficient high current delivery.
1.300 31 -66 -87
1.344 35 -50 -58  The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries,
Table 3 : Freezing Points of KOH - Water Mixture tolerating deep discharge for long periods. In fact, NiCad
batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully
For practical purposes, a lower operating temperature limit of discharged. This is in contrast, for example, to lithium ion
40°C often is quoted. The upper temperature limit is generally in batteries, which are highly volatile and will be permanently
the range of 50 to 60°C; significant capacity loss occurs when damaged if discharged below a minimum voltage.
batteries are operated (i.e., repeated charge/discharge cycles)
above this temperature range. The battery capacity often is  NiCad batteries typically last longer, in terms of number of
recoverable, however, when the battery is cooled to room charge/discharge cycles, than other rechargeable batteries.
temperature and subjected to several deep discharge cycles. Compared to lead-acid batteries, NiCad batteries have a much
higher energy density.
8.10. STATE OF CHARGE
 A NiCad battery is smaller and lighter than a comparable lead-
For a battery to work properly, its electrolyte must contain a acid battery. In cases where size and weight are important
certain amount of active ingredient be it acid or alkaline. As the considerations (for example, aircraft), NiCad batteries are
active ingredient of NiCad Cell is usually dissolved in water, preferred over the cheaper lead acid batteries
That’s why its amount cannot be directly measured and therefore,
an indirect method is used, which measures the electrolyte’s  All NiCad batteries are capable of :
Specific Gravity.
• Delivering exceptionally high currents
8.11. ADVANTAGE • Being charged and discharged any number of times
without any appreciable damage
When compared to other forms of rechargeable battery, the NiCad • Being rapidly recharged hundreds of times
battery has a number of distinct advantages: • Tolerance to abuse such as over-discharging or
overcharging
 Their major advantage is that they generally require less • Being charged in a shorter time
maintenance throughout their service life in comparison to • Staying idle longer in any state of charge and keeping a
lead-acid cells. full charge when stored for a longer period of time

8.12. NEUTRALIZING AGENT FOR NI CAD BATTERY

The predominant failure modes of nickel-cadmium cells are
The neutralising agents for Potassium Hydroxide (KOH): summarized as follows :
a. Boric acid solution.  Shorts caused by cadmium migration through the separator,
b. Boric acid crystals or powder. swelling of the positive electrode, degradation of the
separator, or mechanical defects protruding from the electrode.
NOTE Manifested by inability of the battery to hold a charge (soft
shorts) or dead cells (hard shorts).
The alkali should be soaked up with sawdust, which should then
be removed and buried. The affected area should be treated with  Water loss and resulting cell dry-out due to leaking seal,
one of the above, followed by washing down with copious repeated cell reversal, or excessive overcharge (this mode
amounts of fresh water. applies to sealed cells or to vented cells that are improperly
maintained). Manifested by low capacity and/or inability to
8.13. STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS hold voltage under load.
 Nickel-cadmium batteries can be stored in any state of charge  Loss of negative (cadmium) electrode capacity due to
and over a broad temperature range (i.e.,-65 to 60°C). For passivation or active material degradation. Manifested by low
maximum shelf life, however, it is best to store batteries capacity and/or inability to hold voltage under load. Usually
between 0° and 30°C. reversible by deep discharge followed by shorting cell
terminals, or by “reflex” charging (pulse charging with
 Vented cell batteries normally are stored with the terminals momentary discharge between pulses).
shorted together. Shorting of sealed-cell batteries during
storage is not recommended, however, since it may cause cell  Loss of positive (nickel) electrode capacity due to swelling or
venting and/or cell reversal. active material degradation. Manifested by low capacity that is
non restorable.
 When left on open circuit during periods of non-operation,
nickel-cadmium batteries will self-discharge at a relatively fast 9. SERVICING AND TEST EQUIPMENT
rate. As a rule of thumb, the self-discharge rate of sealed cells
is approximately 1%/day at 20°C (when averaged over 30 1. Servicing of aircraft batteries should be carried out in
days), and the rate increases by 1%/day for every 10°C rise in accordance with the instructions contained in the
temperature(e.g., 2%/day at 30°C, 3%/day at 40°C, etc.). manufacturers’ Maintenance Manual.
8.14. FAILURE MODES AND FAULT DETECTION

2. In addition to the general engineering hand tools which  Do not use freshly prepared electrolyte until it has cooled to at
may be required for aircraft battery servicing, the least 90°F. Considerable heat is generated, which can damage
following specialised items will also be required : the battery.
a. Hydrometers 1. DO NOT use a wire brush to clean battery. Use a stiff bristle brush.
b. Thermometers Wipe with cloth dampened with bicarbonate of soda solution (one
c. Battery kits (as supplied by battery manufacturers) part of soda to 20 parts of water) to neutralize any spilled electrolyte
d. Capacity test sets solution.
e. Leakage tester (lead-acid batteries)
f. Filler pumps (for transferring of liquids from one
container to another)
g. Calibrated test equipment :
i. Insulation resistance tester
ii. Universal test meter.
iii. Digital voltmeter.
10. PRECAUTIONS
10.1. PRECAUTIONS FOR LEAD ACID BATTERY
CAUTION
 Hydrogen gas given off during charging and shortly after

charging is highly explosive. Open flames and sparks must be
avoided in these areas. Figure 28 : Bristle Brush for Cleaning
 Turn battery charger off before connecting battery to charger
and before moving battery from charger. 2. To prevent the risk of burns, such personal items as rings,
metal watches, watchstraps and identification bracelets should
 Battery charging area must be well, ventilated.
be removed, to avoid contact with connecting links and
 When mixing electrolyte, always pour acid into water while
terminals.
slowly and continually stirring, do not pour water into acid.
 Use only glass, hard rubber or other suitable containers for 3. Always disconnect battery’s negative cable first and connect it
mixing electrolyte.
last during installation.

10.2. PRECAUTIONS FOR NICKEL-CAD BATTERIES

 Terminals should be periodically checked for cleanliness and
 The batteries are alkaline type and require absolute good electrical connection. The battery casing should be
internal cleanliness. Avoid any contamination. checked for cleanliness and evidence of damage.
CAUTION  Since there is virtually no chemical change taking place

during nickel-cadmium cell charging or discharging, the
Do not use any tools, jars or instruments in common condition of the electrolyte does not provide an indication of
with acid batteries. Acid and alkali do not mix. the battery’s condition. Cell terminal voltage does not
provide an indication of charge since it remains relatively
 Alkaline electrolyte has a strong corrosive effect on constant. The only accurate and practical way to determine
most metals. In case of spills, immediately neutralize the condition of the nickel cadmium battery is with a
area with either a solution of six ounces of boric acid measured discharge in the workshop. The fully charged
to one gallon water or a solution of one part vinegar to battery is tested after a two hour ‘resting’ period, after which
three parts water. Do not flush with water prior to the electrolyte is topped up using distilled or demineralized
neutralizing as this will only enlarge the area of water. Note that since the electrolyte level depends on the
contamination. state of charge, water should never be added to the battery
on the aircraft. This could lead to the electrolyte overflowing
 Alkaline electrolyte is harmful to human skin. If a when the battery discharges, leading to corrosion and self-
splash occurs, immediately rinse area with water then discharging (both of which could lead to premature failure
neutralize with either a solution of six ounces boric of the battery). Ni-Cd batteries emit gas near the end of the
acid to one gallon water or a solution of one part charging process and during overcharging. This is an
vinegar to three parts water followed by washing with explosive mixture and must be prevented from
soap and water. accumulating; maintenance of the venting system is
essential.
 Do not use a wire brush to clean cells. Use a bristle
brush and water. In the event of electrolyte spillage/leaks (always refer to the
aircraft maintenance manual for specific details):
 Always disconnect battery’s negative cable first and
connect it last during installation.  Report incident
 Mop electrolyte with damp rag or sponge
11. GENERAL MAINTENANCE OF A BATTERY  Cover the area with a dilute solution of acetic acid, 5%
solution of chromic acid, or 10% solution of boric acid.
Following should be checked as per the Maintenance Schedule :

 Press moist piece of red litmus paper on affected area; change 5. After washing cells with tap water and drying, inspect for
of colour to blue indicates presence of alkaline. cracks and leaks. Store cells in a dry, clean area.
 Leave for a minumum of 24 hours, check for corrosion.
 Restore protective finish. 6. Wash battery case with tap water and dry with compressed air.
Replace cells in case, making certain to insert with the polarity
11.1. CLEANING OF BATTERIES symbols in the right direction. Cells are connected plus to
minus.
1. Remove batteries from aircraft.
12. BATTERY CHARGING
CAUTION
In order to avoid shorting resulting in possible cell damage, it Depending on the initial condition of the battery, it can be charged
is recommended that the batteries be discharged prior to in the following ways:
disassembly for cleaning.
1. Initial charge
2. Discharge batteries through a resistance high enough to permit 2. Normal charge
a current flow depending on the battery AH capacity. When 3. Equalising charge
voltage is approximately 9.5 volts, placing a shorting clip (8- 4. Trickle charge
gage stranded wire, 6 inches long with insulated alligator clips) 5. Fast charge
across each cell’s terminals with the load applied. When 15
cells are shorted out, place a 1.0 ohm, 2 watt resistor across 1. INITIAL CHARGE
each of the remaining cells and allow the battery to remain
shorted for 3 hours before removing the shorting straps and New batteries are sometimes shipped dry, and so are in an
resistors. uncharged condition. After adding electrolyte, it is necessary
to charge the battery and this is usually accomplished by via a
3. After battery has been discharged, remove shorting clips and long, low - rate initial charge in accordance with the
all intercell connecting links. During removal, mark all manufacturer's instructions.
connecting hardware to ensure proper reinstallation. Remove
any white deposits (potassium carbonate) from top of cells and 2. NORMAL CHARGE
case with a bristle brush.
A normal charge is the routine maintenance charge given in
4. Loosen vent plugs, using a vent wrench. accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions or nameplate
data during an ordinary operation cycle to restore the battery
to its fully charged condition.

3. EQUALISING CHARGE Charging Room for Aircraft Batteries(lead acid as well as Ni cad
battery).
An equalising charge is a special extended normal charge,
given periodically as part of a long term maintenance routine.  In no circumstance should the same facility be used for both
It ensures that all the plates are cleared of sulphates and the nickel-cadmium and lead-acid battery charging; and the
cells are restored to maximum specific gravity. The equalising ventilation arrangements shall be such that no cross
charge is continued until the specific gravity of all cells, contamination can occur.
corrected for temperature, shows no change for at least a 4-
hour period.  Buildings and rooms used for the purpose of charging batteries
should be well lit and cool and should have a ventilation
4. TRICKLE CHARGE system which is capable of exhausting all the gases and fumes
which may be present during the servicing and charging
With a trickle charge, the charging rate is determined by the operations.
battery voltage rather than by a definite current value. The
trickle charge keeps the battery fully charged when it is idle or  The level of lighting within the charging rooms should be
only being used for light currents. It is also referred to as a sufficient to enable the levelof the electrolyte in individual
floating charge and is achieved with low current. cells of batteries to be easily determined without additional
lighting. To prevent accidental ignition of gases all electrical
5. FAST CHARGE fittings should be of a spark proof design.
A fast charge is used when a battery must be recharged in the  Hydrogen is given off at all stages of lead-acid battery
shortest possible time. The charge starts at a much higher rate servicing; the highest concentration being at the end of the
than normal and should really only be used in an emergency, charging cycle. Hydrogen is also produced when nickel-
as too many of these charges can harm the battery. cadmium batteries reach the fully charged state; i.e. at the
'overcharge' point and for a 24 hour period thereafter.
NOTE
 Heavy corrosive fumes are also emitted when mixing of
Normally, the battery charging rate is given in the appropriate electrolytes takes place. Therefore, a ventilation system is
Maintenance Manual or on the battery nameplate. However, the required which is capable of extracting all gases and fumes,
rate should never be as high as to creating violent gassing. whether heavier or lighter than air.
13. CHARGING ROOM  The maximum permissible electrolyte temperature during
charging is normally 50°C(122°F).

 Environmental temperatures exceeding 27°C (81°F) for lead-

acid batteries and 21°C (70°F) for nickel-cadmium batteries 3. The battery should be discharge at a rate
impose time penalties in reaching the fully charged state and corresponding to the rating of the battery. For
may also be deleterious to the batteries. example, if the battery is rated at 18Ah at the one hour
rate then the discharge would be set to 18 amps. Note
 Transformer/rectifiers which normally provide rectified a.c. the time of switch-on.
for charging board supplies should be sited in a fume free, dry
and cool position, preferably in a separate room, located as 4. Monitor the voltage until it falls to the discharged
near as possible to the charging boards. Charging boards value 21.6V (1.8 volts/cell) for a lead acid battery,
which require 240 volts mains supply should be supplied from 20V (1 volt/cell) for a Ni-Cad battery. Note the time.
a ring main system.
5. Calculate the capacity as follows : Actual time/rated
14. BATTERY ROOM TEST time x 100% e.g. If the time to discharge was 54 min.
then the capacity will be 54/60 x 100%.
All tests on batteries must be carried out in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions, which are supplied with each battery. Generally the minimum acceptable capacity for aircraft use is
The following descriptions are typical tests, these include 80%. However, inspection of the battery record card should be
made to check the previous capacity tests to see if there is any
14.1. Capacity Test [trend. Note the capacity on the battery record card together with
14.2. Cell Balance Test date.
14.3. Insulation Test
14.4. Cell Vent Pressure Test 14.2. CELL BALANCE TEST
14.1. CAPACITY TEST If Ni cad battery fails its capacity test then a cell balance test
should be carried out as a follow-on test as follows:
1. Fully Charge the battery and allow it to stand for 15-24
Hours.  Short out each cell with 1Ω, 2 watt resistor.
 Allow to stand for 15-24Hrs.
2. Connect a discharge test panel, which must be
 Check each cell voltage.
incorporate a variable-load resistance, ammeter and
ampere-hour meter and a voltmeter. If the control  Discharge at the 1 Hr. rate and monitor the cells voltage.
panel is not of the automatic type, then accurate  Short circuit any cell which falls below 1V in the first 48
monitoring and control of current must be maintained minutes (less than 80% capacity).
manually throughout the test.

 Continue the discharge until the terminal voltage is an average 2. Connect a 50 Ω resistor, 10mA ammeter and a 50-volt DC
of 1V per cell. power supply.
 Replace the short circuited cells. 3. Place one probe of the test apparatus to the battery negative
 If five or more cells are short circuited, either at one time or terminal and the other probe to the battery case.
over a period of time, then all the cells should be replaced as it 4. Check the current leakage doesn’t exceed 50 mA.
is most likely that the remaining cells have been damaged and
will need to be replaced in the near future. 14.4. CELL VENT CAPACITY TEST
 Recharge the battery and repeat the cell balance procedure (all
cells should meet the 80% capacity). For lead acid batteries remove the vent caps. Hold the tester
 Recharge the battery. firmly over each vent in turn and pressurise each cell to 2 PSI.
There should be no detectable leakage after a period of not less
14.3. INSULATION TEST than 15 seconds. For Ni-Cads each cell vent is typically checked
by applying a pressure via a compressed air line with the valve
A breakdown in a electrical insulation between the cells and the immersed in water. The pressure is raised and the valve should
battery case will result in a ‘leakage’ current which, over a period open between 2 and 10 PSI.
of time can discharge the battery. The most common cause for
loss of insulation is the leakage of electrolyte from the cells which 15. SERVICE LIFE OF LEAD ACID NI CAD BATTERY
can act as a conductor between the cell plates (or terminals) and
the battery container. The service life of a nickel-cadmium aircraft battery depends on
many factors, including the type of use it experiences
The procedure is as follows:
 Rate of charge
1. Place the (clean and dry) battery on a clean corrosion free  Frequency, and depth of discharge
metal plate.  Environmental conditions (e.g., temperature and vibration)
2. Connect a 250V insulation tester between the metal plate and  Charging method and
the battery terminals.  The care with which it is maintained and reconditioned.
3. Operate the tester and the minimum acceptable value should
be 1MΩ for a lead acid and 10MΩ for Ni cad battery with the For Lead Acid Battery
steel case. Depth of Discharge (% of Number of Cycles to End of
Rated Capacity) Life
An alternative method is: 10 2000
30 670
1. Disconnect the battery. 50 400

For Lead Acid Battery  To extend service life of the lead acid batteries, the batteries
Depth of Discharge (% of Number of Cycles to End of must be kept at or near full charge, proper electrolyte level
Rated Capacity) Life maintained, battery kept clean and not overcharged.
80 250
100 200 17. OVERHEATING WARNING SYSTEM
Table 4
 The battery system also incorporates a battery overheat
For Ni Cad Battery warning system. The system consists of two
Depth of Discharge (% of Number of Cycles to End of thermoswitches (lo-limit and hi-limit) installed in each
Rated Capacity) Life battery and warning lights. Generally warning lights are
30 7500 installed in pilot’s subpanel or in the glare shield.
50 4500
60 3000  The optional temperature indicating system consists of a
80 1500 dual indicator mounted normally on the copilot’s switch
100 1000 panel or in the center pedestal, a circuit breaker located on
Table 5 the copilot’s circuit breaker panel and a temperature sensor
located in each battery.
Table 4 & Table 5, shows typical representative life cycle data
as a function of the depth of discharge for Lead acid and Ni
cad Battery respectively.
All things being equal, the service life of a nickel-cadmium

battery is inherently longer than that of a lead-acid battery.
16. EXTENTION OF BATTERY SERVICE LIFE
 To extend the service life of the nickel-cadmium batteries, the

batteries should be removed from the aircraft and a complete
discharge and recharge cycle be performed in accordance with
current inspection intervals.
Figure 29 : Overheating Warning System Schematic

positive connection), which is used in the battery circuit due to the

heavy current provided through these wires. Because batteries can
supply large current flows, a battery is typically connected to the
system through an electrical solenoid.
Figure 30 : Overheating Warning System Schematic
If battery temperature reaches 140°F, the lo-limit thermoswitch

energizes the BAT 140 (red) warning light. If battery temperature
reaches 160°F, the hi-limit thermoswitch energizes the BAT 160
(red) warning light. If at any time during flight or ground
operation, including engine start, either overheat warning light
illuminates, the batteries must be removed from the aircraft and Figure 56 : Battery Circuit
the discharge-recharge reconditioning cycle must be performed.
At the start/end of each flight, the battery is connected /
disconnected from the electrical distribution bus through the
BATTERY CIRCUIT
solenoid contacts. A battery master switch on the flight deck is
The aircraft battery and battery circuit is used to supply power for used to control the solenoid. Although they are very similar,
engine starting and to provide a secondary power supply in the there is often confusion between the terms “solenoid” and
event of an alternator (or generator) failure. A schematic of a “relay”. A solenoid is typically used for switching high current
typical battery circuit is shown in Figure 56. This diagram shows circuits and relays used to control lower current circuits. To help
the relationship of the starter and external power circuits that are illuminate the confusion, the term “contactor” is often used when
discussed later in this chapter. The bold lines found on the describing a magnetically operated switch. For general purposes,
diagram represent large wire (see the wire leaving the battery an aircraft technician may consider the terms relay, solenoid, and

contactor synonymous. Each of these three terms may be used on Figure 57 : Battery Solenoid
diagrams and schematics to describe electrical switches
controlled by an electromagnet. Here it can be seen that the GENERATOR CIRCUIT
battery positive wire is connected to the electrical bus when the
battery master switch is active. A battery solenoid is shown in Generator circuits are used to control electrical power between the
Figure 57. aircraft generator and the distribution bus. Typically, these circuits
are found on older aircraft that have not upgraded to an alternator.
The battery switch is often referred to as the master switch since it Generator circuits control power to the field winding and
turns off or on virtually all electrical power by controlling the electrical power from the generator to the electrical bus. A
battery connection. Note how the electrical connections of the generator master switch is used to turn on the generator typically
battery solenoid are protected from electrical shorts by rubber by controlling field current. If the generator is spinning and
covers at the end of each wire. The ammeter shown in the battery current is sent to the field circuit, the generator produces electrical
circuit is used to monitor the current flow from the battery to the power. The power output of the generator is controlled through
distribution bus. When all systems are operating properly, battery the generator control unit (or voltage regulator). A simplified
current should flow from the main bus to the battery giving a generator control circuit is shown in Figure 58. As can be seen in
positive indication on the ammeter. In this case, the battery is Figure 58, the generator switch controls the power to the generator
being charged. If the aircraft alternator (or generator) experiences field (F terminal). The generator output current is supplied to the
a malfunction, the ammeter indicates a negative value. A negative aircraft bus through the armature circuit (A terminal) of the
indication means current is leaving the battery to power any generator.
electrical load connected to the bus. The battery is being
discharged and the aircraft is in danger of losing all electrical
power.
Figure 58 : Typical Generator Circuit
Alternator Circuit Alternator circuits, like generator circuits, must

control power both to and from the alternator. The alternator is
controlled by the pilot through the alternator master switch. The

alternator master switch in turn operates a circuit within the Figure 60, shows a typical ammeter circuit used to monitor
alternator control unit (or voltage regulator) and sends current to alternator output. An ammeter placed in the alternator circuit is a
the alternator field. If the alternator is powered by the aircraft single polarity meter that shows current flow in only one
engine, the alternator produces electrical power for the aircraft direction. This flow is from the alternator to the bus. Since the
electrical loads. The alternator control circuit contains the three alternator contains diodes in the armature circuit, current cannot
major components of the alternator circuit: alternator, voltage reverse flow from the bus to the alternator. When troubleshooting
regulator, and alternator master switch. [Figure 59] an alternator system, be sure to monitor the aircraft ammeter. If
the alternator system is inoperative, the ammeter gives a zero
indication. In this case, the battery is being discharged.
A voltmeter is also a valuable tool when troubleshooting an

alternator system. The voltmeter should be installed in the
electrical system while the engine is running and the alternator
operating. A system operating normally produces a voltage within
the specified limits (approximately 14 volts or 28 volts depending
on the electrical system). Consult the aircraft manual and verify
the system voltage is correct. If the voltage is below specified
values, the charging system should be inspected. the alternator
contains diodes in the armature circuit, current cannot reverse
flow from the bus to the alternator. When troubleshooting an
alternator system, be sure to monitor the aircraft ammeter. If the
alternator system is inoperative, the ammeter gives a zero
indication. In this case, the battery is being discharged. A
Figure 59 : Alternator Control Circuit voltmeter is also a valuable tool when troubleshooting an
alternator system. The voltmeter should be installed in the
The voltage regulator controls the generator field current electrical system while the engine is running and the alternator
according to aircraft electrical load. If the aircraft engine is operating. A system operating normally produces a voltage within
running and the alternator master switch is on, the voltage the specified limits (approximately 14 volts or 28 volts depending
regulator adjusts current to the alternator field as needed. If more on the electrical system). Consult the aircraft manual and verify
current flows to the alternator field, the alternator output increases the system voltage is correct. If the voltage is below specified
and feeds the aircraft loads through the distribution bus. All values, the charging system should be inspected.
alternators must be monitored for correct output. Most light
aircraft employ an ammeter to monitor alternator output.

Figure 60
STARTER CIRCUIT
Virtually all modern aircraft employ an electric motor to start the

aircraft engine. Since starting the engine requires several
horsepower, the starter motor can often draw 100 or more
amperes. For this reason, all starter motors are controlled through
a solenoid. [Figure 61] The starter circuit must be connected as
close as practical to the battery since large wire is needed to Figure 61
power the starter motor and weight savings can be achieved when
the battery and the starter are installed close to each other in the
aircraft. As shown in the starter circuit diagram, the start switch
can be part of a multifunction switch that is also used to control
the engine magnetos. [Figure 62] The starter can be powered by
either the aircraft battery or the external power supply. Often
when the aircraft battery is weak or in need of charging, the
external power circuit is used to power the starter. During most
typical operations, the starter is powered by the aircraft battery.
The battery master must be on and the master solenoid closed in
order to start the engine with the battery.

Figure 62
AVIONICS POWER CIRCUIT
Many aircraft contain a separate power distribution bus Figure 63

specifically for electronics equipment. This bus is often referred to
as an avionics bus. Since modern avionics equipment employs The circuit employs a normally closed (NC) solenoid that
sensitive electronic circuits, it is often advantageous to disconnect connects the avionics bus to the main power bus. The
all avionics from electrical power to protect their circuits. For electromagnet of the solenoid is activated whenever the starter is
example, the avionics bus is often depowered when the starter engaged. Current is sent from the starter switch through Diode
motor is activated. This helps to prevent any transient voltage D1, causing the solenoid to open and depower the avionics bus. At
spikes produced by the starter from entering the sensitive that time, all electronics connected to the avionics bus will lose
avionics. [Figure 63] power. The avionics contactor is also activated whenever external

power is connected to the aircraft. In this case, current travels assembly when the appropriate gear reaches a given limit. The
through diodes D2 and D3 to the avionics bus contactor. A landing gear system must also provide an indication to the pilot
separate avionics power switch may also be used to disconnect the that the gear is in a safe position for landing.
entire avionics bus. A typical avionics power switch is shown
wired in series with the avionics power bus. In some cases, this Many aircraft employ a series of three green lights when all three
switch is combined with a circuit breaker and performs two gears are down and locked in the landing position. These three
functions (called a circuit breaker switch). It should also be noted lights are activated by the up and down limit switches found in the
that the avionics contactor is often referred to as a split bus relay, gear wheel well. A typical instrument panel showing the landing
since the contactor separates (splits) the avionics bus from the gear position switch and the three gears down indicators is shown
main bus. in Figure 64.
LANDING GEAR CIRCUIT
Another common circuit found on light aircraft operates the

retractable landing gear systems on high-performance light
aircraft. These airplanes typically employ a hydraulic system to
move the gear. After takeoff, the pilot moves the gear position
switch to the retract position, starting an electric motor. The motor
operates a hydraulic pump, and the hydraulic system moves the
landing gear. To ensure correct operation of the system, the
landing gear electrical system is relatively complex. The electrical
system must detect the position of each gear (right, left, nose) and
determine when each reaches full up or down; the motor is then
controlled accordingly. There are safety systems to help prevent
accidental actuation of the gear. A series of limit switches are
needed to monitor the position of each gear during the operation
of the system. (A limit switch is simply a spring-loaded,
momentary contact switch that is activated when a gear reaches it Figure 64
limit of travel.) Typically, there are six limit switches located in
the landing gear wheel wells. The three up-limit switches are used The hydraulic motor/pump assembly located in the upper left
to detect when the gear reaches the full retract (UP) position. corner of Figure 9-95 is powered through either the UP or DOWN
Three down-limit switches are used to detect when the gear reach solenoids (top left). The solenoids are controlled by the gear
the full extended (DOWN) position. Each of these switches is selector switch (bottom left) and the six landing gear limit
mechanically activated by a component of the landing gear switches (located in the center of Figure 65). The three ear

DOWN indicators are individual green lights (center of Figure 65)

controlled by the three gear DOWN switches. As each gear On this system, there is a low current control circuit fused at 5
reaches it’s DOWN position, the limit switch moves to the amps (CB2, top right of Figure 65). This circuit is used for
DOWN position, and the light is illuminated. Figure 65 shows the indicator lights and the control of the gear motor contactors. There
landing gear in the full DOWN position. It is always important to is a separate circuit to power the gear motor fused at 30 amps
know gear position when reading landing gear electrical diagrams. (CB3, top right of (Figure 65). Since this circuit carries a large
Knowing gear position helps the technician to analyze the diagram current flow, the wires would be as short as practical and carefully
and understand correct operation of the circuits. Another protected with rubber boots or nylon insulators.
important concept is that more than one circuit is used to operate
the landing gear. Figure 66 shows current flow when the gear is traveling to the
extend (DOWN) position. Current flow is highlighted in red for
each description. To run the gear DOWN motor, current must
flow in the control circuit leaving CB2 through terminal 1 to the
NOT DOWN contacts of the DOWN limit switches, through
terminal 3, to the DOWN solenoid positive terminal (upper left).
Figure 65

Figure 66 Figure 67
The negative side of the DOWN solenoid coil is connected to When the landing gear control circuit is sending a positive voltage
ground through the gear selector switch. Remember, the gear to the DOWN solenoid, and the gear selector switch is sending
DOWN switches are wired in parallel and activated when the gear negative voltage, the solenoid magnet is energized. When the
reach the full-DOWN position. All three gears must reach full- gear-DOWN solenoid is energized, the high-current gear motor
DOWN to shut off the gear DOWN motor. Also note that the gear circuit sends current from CB1 through the down solenoid contact
selector switch controls the negative side of the gear solenoids. points to the gear DOWN motor. When the motor runs, the
The selector switch has independent control of the gear UP and hydraulic pump produces pressure and the gear begins to move.
DOWN motors through control of the ground circuit to both the When all three gears reach the DOWN position, the gear-DOWN
UP and DOWN solenoids. switches move to the DOWN position, the three green lights
illuminate, and the gear motor turns off completing the gear-
DOWN cycle. Figure 67 shows the landing gear electrical

diagram with the current flow path shown in red as the gear aircraft compresses the strut, the switch is activated and moved to
moves to the retract (UP) position. the GROUND position. When the switch is in the GROUND
position, the gear cannot be retracted and a warning horn sounds if
Starting in the top right corner of the diagram, current must flow the pilot selects gear UP. The squat switch is sometimes referred
through CB2 in the control circuit through terminal 1 to each of to as the weight-on-wheels switch. A throttle switch is also used
the three gear-UP switches. With the gear-UP switches in the not in conjunction with landing gear circuits on most aircraft. If the
UP position, current flows to terminal 2 and eventually through throttle is retarded (closed) beyond a certain point, the aircraft
the squat switch to the UP solenoid electromagnet coil. The UP descends and eventually lands. Therefore, many manufacturers
solenoid coil receives negative voltage through the gear selector activate a throttle switch whenever engine power is reduced. If
switch. With the UP solenoid coil activated, the UP solenoid engine power is reduced too low, a warning horn sounds telling
closes and power travels through the motor circuit. To power the the pilot to lower the landing gear. Of course, this horn need not
motor, current leaves the bus through CB1 to the terminal at the sound if the gear is already DOWN or the pilot has selected the
DOWN solenoid onward through the UP solenoid to the UP DOWN position on the gear switch. This same horn also sounds if
motor. (Remember, current cannot travel through the DOWN the aircraft is on the ground, and the gear handle is moved to the
solenoid at this time since the DOWN solenoid is not activated.) UP position. Figure 66 shows the gear warning horn in the bottom
left corner.
As the UP motor runs, each gear travels to the retract position. As
this occurs, the gear UP switches move from the NOT UP position POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
to the UP position. When the last gear reaches up, the current no
longer travels to terminal 2 and the gear motor turns off. It should PARALLELING ALTERNATORS OR GENERATORS
be noted that similar to DOWN, the gear switches are wired in
parallel, which means the gear motor continues to run until all Since two alternators (or generators) are used on twin engine
three gear reach the required position. During both the DOWN aircraft, it becomes vital to ensure both alternators share the
and UP cycles of the landing gear operation, current travels from electrical load equally. This process of equalizing alternator
the limit switches to terminal 2. From terminal 2, there is a current outputs is often called paralleling. In general, paralleling is a
path through the gear selector switch to the gear unsafe light. If simple process when dealing with DC power systems found on
the gear selector disagrees with the current gear position (e.g., light aircraft. If both alternators are connected to the same load
gear is DOWN and pilot has selected UP), the unsafe light is bus and both alternators produce the same output voltage, the
illuminated. The gear unsafe light is shown at the bottom of alternators share the load equally.
Figure 66.
Therefore, the paralleling systems must ensure both power
The squat switch (shown mid left of Figure 66) is used to producers maintain system voltage within a few tenths of a volt.
determine if the aircraft is on the GROUND or in FLIGHT. This For most twin-engine aircraft, the voltage would be between 26.5-
switch is located on a landing gear strut. When the weight of the volt and 28-volt DC with the alternators operating.

A simple vibrating point system used for paralleling alternators is

found in Figure 67. As can be seen in Figure 67, both left and
right voltage regulators contain a paralleling coil connected to the
output of each alternator. This paralleling coil works in
conjunction with the voltage coil of the regulator to ensure proper
alternator output. The paralleling coils are wired in series between
the output terminals of both alternators. Therefore, if the two
alternators provide equal voltages, the paralleling coil has no
effect. If one alternator has a higher voltage output, the paralleling
coils create the appropriate magnetic force to open/close the
contact points, controlling field current and control alternator
output. Today’s aircraft employ solid-state control circuits to
ensure proper paralleling of the alternators. Older aircraft use
vibrating point voltage regulators or carbon-pile regulators to
monitor and control alternator output. For the most part, all Figure 67
carbon-pile regulators have been replaced except on historic
aircraft. Many aircraft still maintain a vibrating point system, LIGHT MULTIENGINE AIRCRAFT
although these systems are no longer being used on contemporary
aircraft. Multiengine aircraft typically fly faster, higher, and farther than
single engine aircraft. Multiengine aircraft are designed for added
safety and redundancy and, therefore, often contain a more
complex power distribution system when compared to light
single-engine aircraft. With two engines, these aircraft can drive
two alternators (or generators) that supply current to the various
loads of the aircraft. The electrical distribution bus system is also
divided into two or more systems. These us systems are typically
connected through a series of circuit protectors, diodes, and
relays. The bus system is designed to create a power distribution
system that is extremely reliable by supplying current to most
loads through more than one source.

control and protection components to ensure the reliability of

electrical power. As aircraft employ more electronics to perform
various tasks, the electrical power systems becomes more
complex and more reliable. One means to increase reliability is to
ensure more than one power source can be used to power any
given load. Another important design concept is to supply critical
electrical loads from more than one bus. Twin-engine aircraft,
such as a typical corporate jet or commuter aircraft, have two DC
generators; they also have multiple distribution busses fed from
each generator. Figure 70 shows a simplified diagram of the
power distribution system for a twin-engine turboprop aircraft.
This aircraft contains two starter generator units used to start the
engines and generate DC electrical power. The system is typically
Figure 68 defined as a split-bus power distribution system since there is a
left and right generator bus that splits shares) the electrical loads
by connecting to each sub-bus through a diode and current limiter.
The generators are operated in parallel and equally carry the loads.
The primary power supplied for this aircraft is DC, although small
amounts of AC are supplied by two inverters.
The aircraft diagram shows the AC power distribution at the top

and mid left side of the diagram. One inverter is used for main AC
power and the second operated in standby and ready as a backup.
Both inverters produce 26-volt AC and 115-volt AC. There is an
inverter select relay operated by a pilot controlled switch used to
choose which inverter is active. The hot battery bus (right side of
Figure 70) shows a direct connection to the aircraft battery. This
bus is always hot if there is a charged battery in the aircraft. Items
Figure 69 powered by this bus may include some basics like the entry door
lighting and the aircraft clock, which should always have power
POWER DISTRIBUTION ON MULTIENGINE AIRCRAFT available. Other items on this bus would be critical to flight safety,
such as fire extinguishers, fuel shut offs, and fuel pumps. During
The power distribution systems found on modern multiengine massive system failure, the hot battery bus is the last bus on the
aircraft contain several distribution points busses) and a variety of aircraft that should fail. If the battery switch is closed and the

battery relay activated, battery power is connected to the main bus connects output of the left and right generators in parallel. The
battery bus and the isolation bus. The main battery bus carries output of the two generators is then sent to the loads through
current for engine starts and external power. So the main battery additional busses. The generator busses are connected to the
bus must be large enough to carry the heaviest current loads of the isolation bus through a fuse known as a current limiter. Current
aircraft. It is logical to place this bus as close as practical to the limiters are high amperage fuses that isolate busses if a short
battery and starters and to ensure the bus is well protected from circuit occurs. There are several current limiters used in this
shorts to ground. system for protection between busses.
As can be seen in Figure 70, a current limiter symbol looks like

two triangles pointed toward each other. The current limiter
between the isolation bus and the main generator busses are rated
at 325 amps and can only be replaced on the ground. Most current
limiters are designed for ground replacement only and only after
the malfunction that caused the excess current draw is repaired.
The left and right DC generators are connected to their respective
main generator busses. Each generator feeds its respective bus,
and since the busses are connected under normal circumstances,
the generators operate in parallel. Both generators feed all loads
together. If one generator fails or a current limiter opens, the
generators can operate independently. This design allows for
redundancy in the event of failure and provides battery backup in
the event of a dual generator failure.
In the center of Figure 70 are four dual-feed electrical busses.

These busses are considered dual-feed since they receive power
from both the left and right generator b busses. If a fault occurs,
either generator bus can power any or all loads on a dual-feed bus.
During the design phase of the aircraft, the electrical loads must
be evenly distributed between each of the dual-feed busses. It is
also important to power redundant systems from different busses.
Figure 70 For example, the pilot’s windshield heat would be powered by a
different bus from the one that powers the copilot’s windshield
The isolation bus connects to the left and right busses and receives heat. If one bus fails, at least one windshield heat continues to
power whenever the main battery bus is energized. The isolation work properly, and the aircraft can be landed safely in icing

conditions. Notice that the dual-feed busses are connected to the (AC generators) and a variety of distribution busses. A typical
main generator busses through both a current limiter and a diode. airliner contains two or more main AC generators driven by the
Remember, a diode allows current flow in only one direction. aircraft turbine engines, as well as more than one backup AC
[Figure 71] generator. DC systems are also employed on large aircraft and the
ship’s battery is used to supply emergency power in case of a
The current can flow from the generator bus to the dual-feed bus, multiple failures. The AC generator (sometimes called an
but the current cannot flow from the dual fed bus to the main alternator) produces three-phase 115-volt AC at 400 Hz. AC
generator bus. The diode is placed in the circuit so the main bus generators were discussed previously in this chapter. Since most
must be more positive than the sub bus for current flow. This modern transport category aircraft designed with two engines,
circuit also contains a current limiter and a circuit breaker. The there are two main AC generators. The APU also drives an AC
circuit breaker is located on the flight deck and can be reset by the generator. This unit is available during flight if one of the main
pilot. The current limiter can only be replaced on the ground by a generators fails. The main and auxiliary generators are typically
technician. The circuit breaker is rated at a slightly lower current similar in output capacity and supply a maximum of 110 kilovolt
value than the current limiter; therefore, the circuit breaker should amps (KVA). A fourth generator, driven by an emergency ram air
open if a current overload exists. If the circuit breaker fails to turbine, is also available in the event the two main generators and
open, the current limiter provides backup protection and one auxiliary generator fail. The emergency generator is typically
disconnects the circuit. smaller and produces less power. With four AC generators
available on modern aircraft, it is highly unlikely that a complete
power failure occurs. However, if all AC generators are lost, the
aircraft battery will continue to supply DC electrical power to
operate vital systems.
Transport category aircraft use large amounts of electrical power

for a variety of systems. Passenger comfort requires power for
lighting, audio visual systems, and galley power for food warmers
Figure 71 and beverage coolers. A variety of electrical systems are required
to fly the aircraft, such as flight control systems, electronic engine
POWER DISTRIBUTION ON LARGE MULTIENGINE controls, communication, and navigation systems. The output
AIRCRAFT capacity of one engine-driven AC generator can typically power
all necessary electrical systems. A second engine-driven
Transport category aircraft typically carry hundreds of passengers generator is operated during flight to share the electrical loads and
and fly thousands of miles each trip. Therefore, large aircraft provide redundancy. The complexity of multiple generators and a
require extremely reliable power distribution systems that are variety of distribution busses requires several control units to
computer controlled. These aircraft have multiple power sources maintain a constant supply of safe electrical power. The AC

electrical system must maintain a constant output of 115 to 120

volts at a frequency of 400 Hz (±10 percent).
The system must ensure power limits are not exceeded. AC

generators are connected to the appropriate distribution busses at
the appropriate time, and generators are in phase when needed.
There is also the need to monitor and control any external power
supplied to the aircraft, as well as control of all DC electrical
power. Two electronic line replaceable units are used to control
the electrical power on a typical large aircraft. The generator
control unit (GCU) is used for control of AC generator functions,
such as voltage regulation and frequency control. The bus power
control unit (BPCU) is used to control the distribution of electrical
power between the various distribution busses on the aircraft. The
GCU and BPCU work together to control electrical power, detect
faults, take corrective actions when needed, and report any defect Figure 72
to the pilots and the aircraft’s central maintenance system.
If t he generator output is within limits, the GCU then connects
There is typically one GCU for each AC generator and at least one the electrical power to the main generator bus through an
BPCU to control bus connections. These LRUs are located in the electrical contactor (solenoid). These contactors are often called
aircraft’s electronics equipment bay and are designed for easy generator breakers (GB) since they break (open) or make (close)
replacement. When the pilot calls for generator power by the main generator circuit. After generator power is available, the
activating the generator control switch on the flight deck, the BPCU activates various contact or or to distribute the electrical
GCU monitors the system to ensure correct operation. If all power. The BPCU monitors the complete electrical system and
systems are operating within limits, the GCU energizes the communicates with the GCU to ensure proper operation. The
appropriate generator circuits and provides voltage regulation for BPCU employs remote current sensors known as a current
the system. The GCU also monitors AC output to ensure a transformers (CT) to monitor the system. [Figure 72]
constant 400-Hz frequency.
A CT is an inductive unit that surrounds the main power cables of
the electrical distribution system. As AC power flows through the
main cables, the CT receives an induced voltage. The amount of
CT voltage is directly related to the current flowing through the
cable. The CT connects to the BPCU, which allows accurate
current monitoring of the system. A typical aircraft employs

several CTs throughout the electrical system. The BPCU is a and BPCU ensures proper generator operation and power
dedicated computer that controls the electrical connections distribution.
between the various distribution busses found on the aircraft. The
BPCU uses contactors (solenoids) called bus tie breakers (BTB) On all modern split bus systems, the APU can be started and
for connection of various circuits. These BTBs open/close the operated during flight. This allows the APU generator to
connections between the busses as needed for system operation as provide back-up power in the event of a main generator
called for by the pilots and the BPCU. This sounds like a simple failure. A fourth emergency generator powered by the ram air
task, yet to ensure proper operation under a variety of conditions, turbine is also available if the other generators fail. The four
the bus system becomes very complex. AC generators are shown at t he bottom of Figure 73. These
generators are connected to their respective busses through the
COMMON TYPES OF POWER DISTRIBUTION BUS generator breakers. For example, generator 1 sends current
SYSTEMS through GB1 to AC bus1. AC bus 1 feeds a variety of primary
electrical loads, and also feeds sub-busses that in turn power
There are three common types of distribution bus systems found additional loads.
on transport category aircraft:
With both generators operating and all systems normal, AC
1. Split Bus Power Distribution System bus 1 and AC bus 2 are kept isolated. Typically during flight,
2. Parallel Bus System and the APB (bottom center of Figure 9-104) would be open and
3. Split Parallel System the APU generator off; the emergency generator (bottom
right) would also be off and disconnected. If generator one
1. SPLIT-BUS POWER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM should fail, the following happens:
Modern twin-engine aircraft, such as the Boeing 737, 757,  The GB 1 is opened by the GCU to disconnect the failed
777, Airbus A-300, A-320, and A-310, employ a split-bus generator.
power distribution system. During normal conditions, each  The BPCU closes BTB 1 and BTB 2. This supplies AC
engine-driven AC generator powers only one main AC bus. power to AC bus 1 from generator 2.
The busses are kept split from each other, and two generators  The pilots start the APU and connect the APU generator.
can never power the same bus simultaneously. This is very At that time, the BPCU and GCUs move the appropriate
important since the generator output current is not phase BTBs to correctly configure the system so the APU
regulated. (If two out-of-phase generators were connected to powers bus 1 and generator 2 powers bus 2.Once again;
the same bus, damage to the system would occur.) The split- two AC generators operate independently to power AC
bus system does allow both engine-driven generators to power bus 1 and 2.
any given bus, but not at the same time. Generators must
remain isolated from each other to avoid damage. The GCUs

If all generators fail, AC is also available through the static

inverter (center of Figure 9-104). The inverter is poweredfrom the
hot battery bus and used for essential AC loads if all AC
generators fail. Of course, the GCUs and BPCU take the
appropriate actions to disconnect defective units and continue to
feed essential AC loads using inverter power. To produce DC
power, AC bus 1 sends current to its transformer rectifier (TR),
TR 1 (center left of Figure 73). The TR unit is used to change AC
to DC. The TR contains a transformer to step down the voltage
from 115-volt AC to 26-volt AC and a rectifier to change the 26-
volt AC to 26 volt DC. The output of the TR is therefore
compatible with the aircraft battery at 26-volt DC. Since DC
power is not phase sensitive, the DC busses are connected during
normal operation. In the event of a bus problem, the BPCU may
isolate one or more DC busses to ensure correct distribution of DC
power. This aircraft contains two batteries that are used to supply
emergency DC power.
Figure 73
2. PARALLEL BUS SYSTEMS
Multiengine aircraft, such as the Boeing 727, MD-11, and the

early Boeing 747, employ a parallel power distribution
system. During normal flight conditions, all engine-driven
generators connect together and power the AC loads. In this
configuration, the generators are operated in parallel; hence
the name parallel power distribution system. In a parallel
system, all generator output current must be phase regulated.
Before generators are connected to the same bus, their output
frequency must be adjusted to ensure the AC output reaches
the positive and negative peaks simultaneously. During the
flight, generators must maintain this in-phase condition for
proper operation. One advantage of parallel systems is that in

the event of a generator failure, the busses are already

connected and the defective generator need only be isolated
from the system. A paralleling bus, or synchronizing bus, is
used to connect the generators during flight.
The synchronizing bus is often referred to as the sync bus.

Most of these systems are less automated and require that
flight crew monitor systems and manually control bus
contactors. BTBs are operated by the flight crew through the
electrical control panel and used to connect all necessary
busses. GBs are used to connect and disconnect the generators.
Figure 74 shows a simplified parallel power distribution
system. This aircraft employs three main-engine driven
generators and one APU generator. The APU (bottom right) is
not operational in flight and cannot provide backup power.
The APU generator is for ground operations only. The three
main generators (bottom of Figure 74) are connected to their
respective AC bus through GBs one, two, and three.
Figure 74
The AC busses are connected to the sync bus through three

BTBs. In this manner, all three generators share the entire AC
electrical loads. Keep in mind, all generators connected to the
sync bus must be in phase. If a generator fails, the flight crew
would simply isolate the defective generator and the flight
would continue without interruption. The number one and
two DC busses (Figure 9-105 top left) are used to feed the DC
electrical loads of the aircraft. DC bus 1 receives power form
AC bus 1 though TR1. DC bus 2 is fed in a similar manner
from AC bus 2. The DC busses also connect to the battery bus
and eventually to the battery. The essential DC bus (top left)
can be fed from DC bus 1 or the essential TR. A diode
prevents the essential DC bus from powering DC bus 1. The
essential DC bus receives power from the essential TR, which

receives power from the essential AC bus. This provides an

extra layer of redundancy since the essential AC bus can be
isolated and fed from any main generator. Figure 74 shows
generator 3 powering the essential AC bus.
3. SPLIT-PARALLEL SYSTEMS
A split-parallel bus basically employs the best of both split-

bus and the parallel-bus systems. The split-parallel system is
found on the Boeing 747-400 and contains four generators
driven by the main engines and two APU-driven generators.
The system can operate with all generators in parallel, or the
generators can be operated independently as in a split-bus
system. During a normal flight, all four engine-driven Figure 75
generators are operated in parallel. The system is operated in
split-bus mode only under certain failure conditions or when The main generators (top of Figure 75) are driven by the main
using external power. The Boeing 747-400 split parallel turbine engines. Each generator is connected to its load bus
system is computer controlled using four GCU and two through a generator control breaker (GCB). The generator
BPCU. There is one GCU controlling each generator; BPCU 1 control unit closes the GCB when the pilot calls for generator
controls the left side bus power distribution, and BPCU 2 power and all systems are operating normally. Each load bus
controls the right side bus power. The GCUs and BPCUs is connected to various electrical systems and additional sub-
operate similarly to those previously discussed under the split- busses. The BTB are controlled by the BPCU and connect
bus system. Figure 75 shows a simplified split parallel power each load bus to the left and right sync bus. A split systems
distribution system. breaker (SSB) is used to connect the left and right sync busses
and is closed during a normal flight. With the SSB, GCBs, and
BTBs, in the closed position the generators operate in
parallel. When operating in parallel, all generators must be in
phase. If the aircraft electrical system experiences a
malfunction, the control units make the appropriate
adjustments to ensure all necessary loads receive electrical
power.
For example, if generator 1 fails, GCU 1 detects the fault and

command GCB 1 to open. With GCB 1 open, load bus 1 now

feeds from the sync bus and the three operating generators. In
another example, if load bus 4 should short to ground, BPCU The three phase current network of commercial aircrafts is feeding
4 opens the GCB 4 and BTB 4. This isolates the shorted bus symmetrical loads (3 phase heaters and motors) and assymetrical
(load bus 4). All loads on the shorted bus are no longer loads (single phase 115V) and 200V consumer). Due of
powered, and generator 4 is no longer available. However, assymetrical load, a neutral current flowing through the aircraft
with three remaining generators operational, the flight structure. That means the metallic structure of the aircraft is
continues safely. As do all large aircraft, the Boeing 747-400 conducting high currents. Therefore low resistance connections to
contains a DC power distribution system. The DC system is the structure must be granted. (Electrical Bonding)
used for battery and emergency operations. The DC system is
similar to those previously discussed, powered by TR units. DC DISTRIBUTION
The TRs are connected to the AC busses and convert AC into
26-volt DC. The DC power systems are the final backups in
the event of a catastrophic electrical failure. The systems most
critical to fly the aircraft can typically receive power from the
battery. This aircraft also contains two static inverters to
provide emergency AC power when needed.
AC DISTRIBUTION
Figure 76
The positive pole of DC power sources like Tranformer/Rectifiers

and aircraft batteries is routed via wiring to the DC-loads. The
aircraft structure is used as the return conductor the negative pole
of the power source.
GENERATOR INSTALLATION
Reference should always be made to the relevant Maintenance

Manuals in which the specific installation instructions are given.
The arrangements for the installation of generators depend
primarily upon the type of engine and, in some cases, also upon
Figure 76 the particular type of aircraft. Before installing any generator a

check should be made to ensure that its type, part number and engagement of the splines. After a generator has been correctly
direction of rotation are correct for the particular installation. orientated on its mounting it should be secured by the appropriate
These details are given on a name plate attached to the generator method (e.g. self-locking nuts and studs, bolts, or Mandrel ring),
yoke or casing. The rotation is specified as the direction of paying particular attention to any torque values specified for
armature rotation when viewed from the driving end. Housings tightening. Installation and not be allowed to hang on their drive
and terminals should be checked for cleanliness and freedom from shafts or mounting studs. Generator cables should be checked to
corrosion, distortion, cracks or other damage. The movement of ensure that they are free from damage to terminations, fraying and
armatures should also be checked for freedom by manually chafing of insulation covering. The alignment of cable ends
rotating the appropriate assembly at the driving end. On should also be checked to ensure that cables are not subjected to
generators employing drive shafts, a light coating of grease or strain particularly at points of entry to terminal boxes. The
engine oil should be applied to the splines after first removing any identification of terminations should be checked and connections
protective compound from the shaft. Reference should always be made in accordance with relevant generator and aircraft
made to the relevant generator and aircraft Maintenance Manuals installation wiring diagrams. Before connecting cooling ducts they
for details of the type of lubricant to be used. should be inspected for cleanliness, signs of damage and for
correct orientation. Gaskets, where applicable, should also be
In belt-driven generator installations, drive pulleys and belts inspected for condition and renewed as necessary. Where cooling
should be checked for security and condition. After installation, ducts or scoops are fitted to movable cowlings, the alignment of
belts should also be checked to ensure that they have the correct cooling duct to generator cooling air entry should be checked.
tension. Low tension will permit belt slippage, with a resulting After installation, a check should be made that all associated
rapid belt wear and low or erratic generator output, while electrical circuits are in a safe condition for operation, and a
excessive tension will cause rapid wear on the belt and on the generator function test carried out to the requirements specified in
generator bearing. The tension may be checked either by the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual.
measuring the torque required to slip the belt at the generator
pulley, or by measuring the amount of belt deflection caused by a POWER CONVERSION
predetermined load. Reference should always be made to the
Maintenance Manuals for details of the measuring procedure and Equipment used on aircraft to provide secondary power supplies
permissible limits. The appropriate generator mountings at engine include:
drive units should be inspected for cleanliness and damage,
paying particular attention to mounting studs and drive shafts. 1. Inverters
2. Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU)
If gaskets are employed between mounting faces these should be 3. Transformers.
checked for serviceability and renewed as necessary. When
locating generators of the splined drive type they should be turned 1. INVERTERS
slightly in each direction about the drive axis to facilitate proper

To 115 VAC distribution system Inverters are used to convert Modern aircraft equipment is based on the static inverter; it is
direct current into alternating current. The input is typically from solid state, i.e. it has no moving parts (see Fig-78). The DC power
the battery; the output can be a low voltage (26 V AC) for use in supply is connected to an oscillator; this produces a low-voltage
instruments, or high voltage (115 V AC single or three phase) for 400Hz output. This output is stepped up to the desired AC output
driving loads such as pumps. Older rotary inverter technology voltage via a transformer. The static inverter can either be used
uses a DC motor to drive an AC generator, see Fig.- . A typical as the sole source of AC power or to supply specific equipment in
rotary inverter has a four-pole compound DC motor driving a star- the event that the main generator has failed. Alternatively they
wound AC generator. The desired output frequency of a rotary are used to provide power for passenger use, e.g. lap-top
inverter is determined by the DC input voltage. The outputs can computers. The DC input voltage is applied to an oscillator that
be single- or three phase; 26 V AC, or 115 V AC. The desired produces a sinusoidal output voltage. This output is connected to a
output frequency of 400 Hz is determined by the DC input transformer that provides the required output voltage. Frequency
voltage. Various regulation methods are employed, e.g. a and voltage controls are usually integrated within the static
trimming resistor (R) connected in series with the DC motor field inverter; it therefore has no external means of adjustment.
sets the correct speed when connected to the 14 or 28 V DC
supply.
Figure 77 : Rotary Inverter Schematic

Figure 78 : Static Inverter

Figure 79 : Static Inverter Installation
A typical inverter used on a large commercial aircraft can produce
2. TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER UNITS
1 kVA. Static inverters are located in an electrical equipment bay;
a remote on/off switch in the flight compartment is used to isolate
Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) converts AC into DC; these
the inverter if required. Figure-79 shows an inverter installation in
are often used to charge batteries from AC generators. A
a general aviation aircraft.
schematic diagram for a TRU is shown in Fig. 80. The three-phase
115/200V 400Hz input is connected to star-wound primary
windings of a transformer. The dual secondary windings are
wound in star and delta configuration. Outputs from each of the
secondary windings are rectified and connected to the main output
terminals. A series (shunt) resistor is used to derive the current
output of the TRU. Overheat warnings are provided by locating
thermal switches at key points within the TRU.

Figure 81 : The Principle of the Transformer
At any instant the flux , Φ, in the transformer core is given by the

equation:
Figure 80 : Transformer Rectifier Unit (TRU) schematic
Φ = Φ max. sin (ω t)
3. TRANSFORMERS
Where,
PRINCIPLE Φ max is the maximum value of flux (in Wb)
t is the time in seconds
The principle of the transformer is illustrated in Figure -81.
The primary and secondary windings are wound on a common The r.m.s. value of the primary voltage (Vp) is given by:
low-reluctance magnetic core consisting of a number of steel
laminations. All of the alternating flux generated by the Vp = 4.44 fNp Φ max
primary winding is therefore coupled into the secondary
winding (very little flux escapes due to leakage). A sinusoidal Similarly, the r.m.s. value of the secondary voltage (VS) is given
current flowing in the primary winding produces a sinusoidal by:
flux within the transformer core.
Vs = 4.44 fNs Φ max
From these two relationships (and since the same magnetic flux
appears in both the primary and secondary windings) we can infer
that Figure 82.

The ratio of primary turns to secondary turns (Ns/Np) is known as

Vp/Vs = Np/Ns the turns ratio.
Furthermore, since ratio of primary voltage to primary turns is the

same as the ratio of secondary turns to secondary voltage, we can
conclude that, for a particular transformer:
Turns – per - volt (t.p.v.) = Vp / Np = Vs / Ns
The t.p.v. rating can be quite useful when it comes to designing

transformers with multiple secondary windings.
Figure 82 : Transformer Turns and Voltages
TRANSFORMER APPLICATIONS
If the transformer is loss-free the primary and secondary powers
will be equal. Transformers provide us with a means of coupling AC power
from one circuit to another without a direct connection between
Thus: the two.
Pp = Ps
Pp = Ip x Vp and
Ps = Is x Vs
So,
Ip x Vp = Is x Vs
From which
Ip / Is = Vs / Vp thus Ip / Is = Ns / Np
Furthermore, assuming that no power is lost in the transformer Table-1

(i.e. as long as the primary and secondary powers are the same)
we can conclude that: Table 1 Above, summarizes the properties of some common types
of transformer (note how the choice of core material is largely
Ip / Is = Ns / Np responsible for determining the characteristics of the transformer).
A further advantage of transformers is that voltage may be

stepped-up (secondary voltage greater than primary voltage) or

stepped-down (secondary voltage less than primary voltage).
Since no increase in power is possible (like resistors, capacitors
and inductors, transformers are passive components) an increase
in secondary voltage can only be achieved at the expense of a
corresponding reduction in secondary current, and vice versa (in
fact, the secondary power will be very slightly less than the
primary power due to losses within the transformer).
Typical applications for transformers include stepping-up or

stepping-down voltages in power supplies, coupling signals in
audio frequency amplifiers to achieve impedance matching and to
isolate the DC potentials that may be present in certain types of
circuit. The electrical characteristics of a transformer are Figure 82
determined by a number of factors including the core material and
physical dimensions of the component. The specifications for a TRANSFORMER REGULATION
transformer usually include the rated primary and secondary
voltages and currents the required power rating (i.e. the rated The output voltage produced at the secondary of a real
power, usually expressed in VA), which can be continuously transformer falls progressively, as the load imposed on the
delivered by the transformer under a given set of conditions, the transformer increases (i.e. as the secondary current increases from
frequency range for the component (usually stated as upper and its no-load value). The voltage regulation of a transformer is a
lower working frequency limits) and the per-unit regulation of a measure of its ability to keep the secondary output voltage
transformer. As we shall see, this last specification is a measure of constant over the full range of output load currents (i.e. from no-
the ability of a transformer to maintain its rated output voltage load to full load) at the same power factor. This change, when
under load. divided by the no-load output voltage, is referred to as the per-unit
regulation for the transformer. This can be best illustrated by the
use of an example.
TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY AND LOSSES
As we saw earlier, most transformers operate with very high

values of efficiency. Despite this, in high power applications the
losses in a transformer cannot be completely neglected.
Transformer losses can be divided into two types of loss:

transformer. On the other hand, copper loss is zero when a

 Losses in the magnetic core (often referred to as iron loss). transformer is under no-load conditions and rises to a maximum at
 Losses due to the resistance of the coil windings (often full-load. The efficiency of a transformer is given by:
referred to as copper loss).
Efficiency = Output Power ÷ Input Power x 100 %
Iron loss can be further divided into hysteresis loss (energy lost in
repeatedly cycling the magnet flux in the core backwards and From which
forwards) and eddy current loss (energy lost due to current
circulating in the steel core). Hysteresis loss can be reduced by Efficiency = Input Power – Losses ÷ Input Power x 100 %
using material for the magnetic core that is easily magnetized and
has a very high permeability (see Figure 5.174.Note that energy Efficiency = 1 – (Losses ÷ Input Power) x 100 %
loss is proportional to the area inside the B–H curve).
As we have said, the losses present are attributable to iron and
copper loss but the copper loss appears in both the primary and
the secondary windings.
Hence:
Iron Loss 
 Primary Copper Loss 
 
 Secondary Copper Loss 
Efficiency = 1 - 100
Input Power
Figure 83 : Hysteresis Curves and Energy Loss
RECTIFIER
Eddy current loss can be reduced by laminating the core (e.g.
using E- and I-laminations) and also ensuring that a small gap is Rectifier is a device which convert AC into DC by using Crystal
present. These laminations and gaps in the core help to ensure that Diodes. There are different types of Rectifier and named as per
there is no closed path for current to flow. Copper loss results the output we are getting or construction of diode, For Example
from the resistance of the coil windings and it can be reduced by half wave rectifier which gives output for one half ( either +ve or
using wire of large diameter and low resistivity. It is important to –ve cycle depending upon the connection of diode ) of the Input
note that, since the flux within a transformer varies only slightly AC cycle, full wave centre tapped and full wave Bridge rectifier
between the no-load and full-load conditions, iron loss is gives output for both +ve and –ve half of Input Cycle. [Figure 84
substantially constant regardless of the load actually imposed on a to 86]

DIODES
Figure 84 : Diode and a Check-Valve
Figure 86 : Various Rectifier Circuits
TRANSFORMER – RECTIFIERS
Figure 85 : Conducting and Blocking Diode in an Electric
The primary electrical power source of larger aircrafts are AC
Circuit
Generators producing 115/200 Volts 400 Hertz. Many systems in
the airplane uses 28 Volt DC.
To convert the high voltage alternating current into lower voltage,

transformers are used. Rectifiers change the alternating current
AC into direct current DC. Both devices are built in the same unit.
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU)
An APU is a relatively small gas turbine engine, typically located

in the tail cone of the aircraft. The APU is a two-stage centrifugal
compressor with a single turbine. Bleed air is tapped from the

compressor and connected into the aircraft’s air distribution The APU itself is started from the main aircraft battery. In some
system. Once started the APU runs at constant speed, i.e. there is aircraft, the APU can also provide electrical power in the air in the
no throttle control. The APU shuts down automatically in the event of main generator failure. The Boeing 787 aircraft has more
event of malfunction. APUs are used for starting the aircraft’s electrical systems and less pneumatic systems than aircraft it is
main engines via the air distribution system the APU can also replacing. In this case the APU delivers only electrical power.
provide: [ Figure-87]
APUs fitted to extended-range twin-engine operations aircraft
 Provide electrical energy (115V, 400 Hz) for aircraft systems (ETOPS) are critical to the continued safe flight of the aircraft
during ground time; since they supply electrical power, hydraulic pressure and an air
 Provide air to the environmental control system (air- supply in the event of a failed main engine generator or engine.
conditioning) during ground time; Some APUs on larger four-engined aircraft are not certified for
 Provide air (bleed air) for main engine start; use while the aircraft is in flight.
 Serve as electric and hydraulic back-up system in flight;
Figure 88
EMERGENCY POWER GENERATION
RAM AIR TURBINE
In the event of generator failure, continuous power can be

provided by a ram air turbine (RAT). Also referred to as an air-
driven generator, this is an emergency source of power that can be
called upon when normal power sources are not available. The
Figure 87 : Auxiliary Power Units for Commercial Aircraft RAT is an air-driven device that is stowed in the wing or fuselage
and deployed in the event that the aircraft loses normal power.
When deployed, it derives energy from the airflow, see figure

RATs typically comprises a two-bladed fan, or propeller that The RAT can be deployed between aircraft speeds of 120 to 430
drives the generator shaft via a governor unit and gearbox; the knots; some RATs feature variable pitch blades operated by a
gear ratios increase the generator shaft speed. hydraulic motor to maintain the device at typical speeds of 4,800
r.p.m. Typical RAT generators produces an AC output of 7.5 VA
to a TRU. Heaters are installed in the RAT generator to prevent
ice formation. RATs can weigh up to 400 lbs on very large
transport aircraft, with blade diameters of between 40 and 60
inches depending on power requirements.
AIR DRIVEN GENERATOR
In case of need, the pilot extends the ADG into the airstream. The
turbine begins to rotate and drives on its shaft directly the
generator. To keep the speed of the generator constant, there is a
build in governor in the propeller, adjusting its blade angle.
Figure 90 : Air Driven Generator
EXTERNAL POWER
Many aircraft employ an external power circuit that provides a

means of connecting electrical power from a ground source to the
Figure 89 : Ram Air Turbine. aircraft. External power is often used for starting the engine or
maintenance activities on the aircraft.

The system controls simultaneous connection of the two sources

for a Short Time External Power with APU, External Power with
engine driven generator, APU generator with engine driven
generator. To achieve this, both sources are synchronized on a
frequency reference signal. Synchronization may take up to 15
seconds for APU GEN with GPU, and some milliseconds in all
other cases. For this paralleling, the frequency difference should
be less than 0.5 Hz the Phase angle less than 15° If
synchronization is not achieved within allowed time transfer is
performed anyway (without simultaneous connection of two
sources).
Figure 91
Figure 92 : Basic Layout of Aircraft Ground Energy Systems Figure 93 : External Power Receptacle
The electricity is generated with rotary- or static inverters on

ground installations or mobile generator systems driven by a
combustion engine. Small aircraft uses a cart carrying batteries or
a transformer-rectifier. Power switching from and to aircraft
power source to external source or APU source produces short
power transients of 100 ms. No Break Power Transfer is function
avoids busbar power interruption during supply source transfer on
ground in normal configuration.

Figure 95
Figure 94 : Connector
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT CONTROL AND PROTECTING
EXTERNAL POWER CIRCUIT
DEVICES
External power systems typically consists of an electrical plug
There are many systems on aircraft that need to be controlled
located in a convenient area of the fuselage, an electrical solenoid
and/or monitored, either manually by the crew, or automatically.
used to connect external power to the bus, and the related wiring
A switch provides the simplest form of control and monitoring.
for the system. A common external power receptacle is shown in
For example, the crew needs to know if any doors are not closed
Figure 93. Figure 94, shows how the external power receptacle
as part of their pre-flight check; on larger aircraft the position of
connects to the external power solenoid through a reverse polarity
control surfaces is displayed in the cockpit. Using these two
diode. This diode is used to prevent any accidental connection in
examples, doors can be either open or closed; control surfaces can
the event the external power supply has the incorrect polarity (i.e.,
move through an infinite number of positions (within their normal
a reverse of the positive and negative electrical connections). A
limits of travel).
reverse polarity connection could be catastrophic to the aircraft’s
electrical system. If a ground power source with a reverse polarity
Many other aircraft parameters need to be measured, e.g.
is connected, the diode blocks current and the external power
temperature and pressure. Here we shall discuss controls and
solenoid does not close. This diagram also shows that external
Protective devices used on aircraft.
power can be used to charge the aircraft battery or power the
aircraft electrical loads. For external power to start the aircraft
The simplest form of switch is the on/off device used to isolate
engine or power electrical loads, the battery master switch must be
circuits. Other switch types are used to direct the current into pre-
closed.
determined parts of a circuit. Switches are characterized by
Number of poles, Number of switched positions and Type of
switched contacts (permanent or momentary). Hazardous errors in

switch operation can be avoided by logical and consistent

installation. Two-position on/off switches should be mounted so
that the on position is reached by an upward or forward movement
of the toggle. When the switch controls movable aircraft elements,
such as landing gear or flaps, the toggle should move in the same
direction as the desired motion. Inadvertent operation of a switch
can be prevented by mounting a suitable guard over the switch.
Figure 96, A specifically designed switch should be used in all
circuits where a switch malfunction would be hazardous.
Table 2 : Derating Table for Switches
Such switches are of rugged construction and have sufficient

contact capacity to break, make, and carry continuously the
connected load current. Snap action design is generally preferred
to obtain rapid opening and closing of contacts regardless of the
speed of the operating toggle or plunger, thereby minimizing
contact arcing.
Switches are sometimes guarded or wire-locked with fuse wire to

Figure 96 : Switch Guard prevent inadvertent operation. Some switch designs have to be
pulled out of a detent position before the position can be changed.
They are designed to be operated in a number of ways, e.g. toggle,
push/pull, rocker or rotary selectors etc. These switches are
designed with multiple contacts; they can be arranged as
permanent or momentary contacts. The nominal current rating of
the conventional aircraft switch is usually stamped on the switch
housing. This rating represents the continuous current rating with
the contacts closed. Switches should be derated from their
nominal current rating for the following types of circuits:

1. High rush-in circuits—contain incandescent lamps that can

draw an initial current 15 times greater than the continuous
current. Contact burning or welding may occur when the
switch is closed.
2. Inductive circuits—magnetic energy stored in solenoid coils or

relays is released and appears as an arc when the control
switch is opened.
Figure 97 : (a) Internal Schematic Toggle Switch
3. Motors—DC motors draw several times their rated current
during starting, and magnetic energy stored in their armature
and field coils is released when the control switch is opened.
Table 2 is used for selecting the proper nominal switch rating

when the continuous load current is known. This election is
essentially a derating to obtain reasonable switch efficiency and
service life.
TOGGLE SWITCH
Figure 97 : (b) External Features Toggle Switch
This is a very basic device; Figure 97 illustrates its internal
schematic and external features. Operating the lever/arm opens
and closes switch contacts. Operating levers on toggle switches
are sometimes ganged so that more than one circuit is operated.
The simplest switch has two contact surfaces that provide a link
between circuits; these links are referred to as poles. Switch
contacts can be normally open or closed and this is normally
marked on the switch (NO/NC). The number of circuits that can
be linked by a single switch operation is called the throw. The
simplest form of switch would be single pole, single throw
(SPST). Schematics of switch configurations commonly found in
aircraft are illustrated in Figure 98.

Figure 99 : Rocker Switches

Figure 97 : Aircraft Installed Toggle Switch
Some switches are designed with instinctive tactile features so that
the risk of selecting the wrong system is minimized, e.g. the flap
up/down switch-operating lever would be shaped in the form of an
aerofoil; the undercarriage selection switch-operating lever Would
be shaped in the form of a wheel. Push/pull-operated switches
incorporate a spring to hold the contacts open or closed; the
switch contacts are therefore push-to-make or push-to-break.
ROCKER WITCHES
Figure 99, combine the action of toggle and push/pull devices.

Rotary switches are formed by discs mounted onto a shaft; the
contacts are opened and closed by the control knob.
Modern aircraft panels utilize a combined switch and light

display; the display is engraved with a legend or caption
Figure 98 : Switch Configurations indicating system status. These can be used in a variety of ways
e.g. to show system on/off. The switch portion of the device can
be momentary or continuous; small level signals are sent to a
computer or high-impedance device. Internal backlighting is from

two lights per legend for redundancy; these are projected via
coloured filters. The two captions provide such information as
press to test (P/TEST). Examples of combined switch/light
devices are given in Figure 100 below.
Figure 100 : (a) Typical Installation, (b) Electrical Schematic,

(c) External Features
These are used to sense if a device has moved or has reached its
limit of travel, e.g. flap drive or undercarriage mechanisms. Figure
101, illustrates the internal schematic and electrical contacts of a
typical micro-switch product. The contacts open and close with a
very small movement of the plunger. The distance travelled by the
armature between make/break is measured in thousandths of an
inch, hence the name ‘micro’.

Figure 101 : Typical Micro Switch
A snap action is achieved with a contact mechanism that has a

Figure 101 : Internal Schematic pre-tensioned spring. Micro-switches are attached to the structure
and the wiring is connected into a control circuit. An example of
micro-switch application is to sense when the aircraft is on the
ground; this is achieved by mounting a micro-switch on the oleo
leg. When the aircraft is on the ground, the oleo leg compresses
and the switch is operated. Micro-switches are used to sense the
mechanical displacement of a variety of devices, including:
 Control Surfaces
 Undercarriage
 Pressure Capsules
 Bi-metallic Temperature Sensors
 Mechanical Timers
Figure 101 : External Features
PROXIMITY SWITCHES
They perform the same function as micro-switches; they sense the

presence of an object by the interruption of a magnetic circuit.
There are two types of proximity switch: reed and solid state.
1. REED PROXIMITY SWITCH

This switch device comprises two hermetically sealed sections

as illustrated in Figure 102, One section (the actuator) contains
a magnet; the other section (the sensor) contains a reed
armature with rhodium-plated contacts. The usual arrangement
is for the sensor unit to be fixed to the aircraft structure; the
actuator is attached to the item being monitored, e.g. a door.
When the gap between the actuator and the sensor reaches a
pre-determined distance, the reed contacts close thereby
completing the circuit. They open again when the actuator and
sensor are moved apart.
Figure 102 : Reed Proximity Switch Schematic
2. Solid State Proximity Switch [Figure 103]. This inductance

loop is the input stage of an electronic switch unit
incorporated as part of the actuator. As the target moves
closer to the coil, the inductance of the coil changes. An
electronic circuit determines when the inductance has reached
a pre-determined level. The obvious advantage of this type of
switch is that there are no switch contacts, hence higher
reliability.

provide an on/off control function. Variable resistors are produced

as either:
 Potentiometers
 Preset resistors
 Rheostats.
Figure 104, below, provides some examples of symbols used for

variable resistors. When the intention is for the pilot or
maintenance engineer to adjust the circuit resistance for control
purposes, e.g. audio volume or lighting intensity, the variable
resistor device is used. If the circuit resistance is only intended to
Figure 103 : Proximity Switch (Solid State) Schematic be adjusted in the workshop, a preset device is used.
3. Some aircraft are installed with a proximity switch electronic

unit (PSEU). This unit receives the position of various items,
e.g. flaps, gear, doors, etc and communicates this information
to other systems including:
 Take-off and landing configuration warnings

 Landing gear position indicating and warning
Figure 104 : Variable Resistors : Potentiometers, Preset or
 Air/ground relays
Rheostats
 Air stairs and door warnings.
POTENTIOMETER
The PSEU is integrated with the master caution system, and
used to indicate if a problem exists that has to be corrected
A potentiometer (often called a ‘pot’ for short) is a type of
before flight.
variable resistor that is normally used as a voltage divider; this is
a circuit used to supply a portion of the power supply voltage
Variable resistors are mounted on a linear slider or rotary shaft to
from a resistive contact. The potentiometer is typically a three-
provide a user-adjustable resistance; typical applications include
terminal resistor with a sliding centre contact (the wiper). If all
the control of lighting, audio volume or generator regulator
three terminals are used, it can be used in the voltage divider
trimming. They are sometimes combined with micro-switches to
application. If only two terminals are used (one end of the resistor
and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor.

as mechanical actuators but can also be used for switching large

RHEOSTATS currents. Relays are only used to switch currents.
A Rheostats are the controlling devices containing a resistance the CONTACTORS

magnitude of which can be varied, thereby adjusting the current in
The circuit in which it is connected. A typical example of this They are operate in the same way as that of relay; the difference
method of control is one adopted for varying the intensity of between them is their physical construction and application.
instrument panel and certain cockpit lighting. Rheostats normally Relays are generally used for low current applications; contactors
adjust circuit resistance without opening the circuit, although in (also known as breakers) are used for switching higher currents,
some cases, they are constructed to serve as a combined on/off e.g. for connecting battery power to the aircraft. The features of a
switch and variable resistor. contactor include the main power contacts and auxiliary contacts
used for indication and control of other devices, e.g. lights and
NOTE relays in power distribution.
A rheostat performs the same function as the potentiometer, but is

physically much larger, being designed to handle much higher
voltage and/or current. Rheostats are constructed with a resistive
wire formed as a toroidal coil, with the centre contact/wiper
moving over the surface of the windings.
Relays are used to control the flow of large currents using a small
current. A low-power DC circuit is used to activate the relay and
control the flow of large AC currents. These are
electromechanical devices interrupt or complete a circuit when
activated from a remote source, see Figure 105, Changeover
relays consist of a coil, moving contact (armature) and external Figure 105 : Changeover Relay Schematic & Typical Relay
connections. When the coil has current flowing through it the
electromagnetic effect pulls in the contact armature. The Armature REED RELAYS
is pivoted and is held in position by the spring force; with no
current flowing, the armature returns to its original position by the These are used in control circuit applications; they are generally
spring force. They are used to switch motors and other electrical found within components, e.g. mounted onto printed circuit
equipment on and off and to protect them from overheating. A boards.
solenoid is a special type of relay that has a moving core. The
electromagnet core in a relay is fixed. Solenoids are mostly used SLUGGED RELAYS

These have delayed operating times and are needed in specialized

applications. The delay in opening/closing the contacts is achieved
by a second coil wound around the main coil; the turns are
arranged such that the build up of magnetic flux in the main coil is
opposed by the build up of magnetic flux in the secondary coil.
Figure 106 : Reed Relay Schematic (a) External Schematic, (b)

Internal Schematic Figure 107 : Relay Configurations
The simplest relay has two contact surfaces that provide a link Typical relay installations on a general aviation aircraft are shown
between circuits; these links are referred to as poles. Relay in Figure 108,
contacts can be normally open or closed (NO/NC) and this is
normally marked on the body of the relay. The number of circuits
that can be linked by a single relay operation is called the throw.
The simplest form of relay would be single pole, single throw
(SPST). Relay configurations commonly found in aircraft are
illustrated in Figure 107.
Figure 108 : Relay Installation (GA Aircraft)

These are used in control circuits with very low voltages or

currents; the relay is extremely sensitive and can respond to levels
in the order of mA/mV. This low level is often not suitable for the
conventional spring loaded armature device since (at very low
pull-in/ drop-out voltages) the contacts would chatter leading to
spark erosion. Polarized relays use magnetic forces to attract and
repel the armature instead of a spring force. The armature is a
permanent magnet, pivoted between two pole faces formed by the Figure 109 : Solenoid
frame of high permeability material. When current flows, the
poles change and the frame becomes an electromagnet; this Conductors should be protected with circuit breakers or fuses
exceeds the force exerted by the permanent magnet and the located as close as possible to the electrical power source bus.
armature changes position. In this position the N-S poles form a Normally, the manufacturer of the electrical equipment specifies
strong attractive force and the armature is retained in position. If the fuse or circuit breaker to be used when installing equipment.
the supply is interrupted the electromagnetic force is reduced to The circuit breaker or fuse should open the circuit before the
less than the permanent magnet and the armature returns to its conductor emits smoke. To accomplish this, the time current
original position. characteristic of the protection device must fall below that of the
associated conductor. Circuit protector characteristics should be
The solenoid is a type of transducer that converts electrical energy matched to obtain the maximum utilization of the connected
into linear displacement. Solenoids are used as switching devices equipment. Table-3, shows a chart used in selecting the circuit
where a weight reduction can be achieved or electrical controls breaker and fuse protection for copper conductors. This limited
can be simplified. Typical applications include the actuation of chart is applicable to a specific set of ambient temperatures and
pneumatic or hydraulic valves. They are also a electromechanical wire bundle sizes and is presented as typical only. It is important
devices, consisting of an inductive coil wound around a steel or to consult such guides before selecting a conductor for a specific
iron armature. The coil is formed such that the armature can be purpose. For example, a wire run individually in the open air may
moved in and out of the solenoid’s body. The armature is used to be protected by the circuit breaker of the next higher rating to that
provide the mechanical force required to the item being moved shown on the chart.
Figure 109.

and the spring will pull the link in two, opening the circuit. The
regular fuse has a simple narrow strip of low-melting-point
material that will melt as soon as an excess of current flows
through it.
Table 3 : Wired & Circuit Protection Chart Figure 110 : The Fuse
FUSES
A fuse is placed in series with the voltage source and all current
must flow through it. Figure-16, the fuse consists of a strip of
metal that is enclosed in a glass or plastic housing. The metal strip
has a low melting point and is usually made of lead, tin, or copper.
When the current exceeds the capacity of the fuse the metal strip
heats up and breaks. As a result of this, the flow of current in the
circuit stops. There are two types of fuses used in aircraft circuits-
the regular glass tubular fuse and the slow-blow fuse This is
important for electric devices that can quickly be destroyed when
too much current flows through them for even a very small
amount of time The slow-blow fuse has a larger fusible element Figure 111
that is held under tension by a small coil spring inside the glass
tube. This fuse will pass a momentary surge of high current such According to the flight regulations aircraft that are equipped with
as you have when the switch in a lighting circuit is closed, but it fuses are required to carry at least 50% of any one type of fuse
will soften under a sustained current flow in excess of its rating, installed on the aircraft. If one fuse of a particular type is installed,

one spare of the same rating must be carried on the aircraft at all
times. Fuses which are accessible by maintenance personnel only
are found on some aircraft. These fuses, commonly called current
Limiter, are often used to isolate a complete distribution bus in the
event of a short to that bus. The pilot would simply continue the
flight without use of the isolated bus and the have problem
corrected upon landing.
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch

designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by an
overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a fault
condition and immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a Figure 112 : Circuit Breaker Panel : Typical CB Panel
fuse that operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset to resume normal operation. All resettable
circuit breakers should open the circuit in which they are installed
regardless of the position of the operating control when an
overload or circuit fault exists. Such circuit breakers are referred
to as trip-free. Automatic reset circuit breakers automatically reset
themselves. They should not be used as circuit protection devices
in aircraft. a circuit breaker trips, the electrical circuit should be
checked and the fault removed before the circuit breaker is reset.
Sometimes circuit breakers trip for no apparent reason, and the
circuit breaker can be reset one time. If the circuit breaker trips
again, there exists a circuit fault and the technician must
troubleshoot the circuit before resetting the circuit breaker. Figure
112. Figure 112 : Circuit Breaker Panel : Standard Cicuit Breaker

Figure 112 : Circuit Breaker Panel : Specific Circuit Breakers
DIFFERENTIAL CURRENT PROTECTION

Figure 113
There is a danger of short circuit between two generator lines or
one generator line and ground. Also an insulation failure of the
generator feeders is dangerous. The differential protection
prevents the damages of the electrical wiring and the generator
windings between the two detection current transformers. One 3-
phase current-transformer is located inside the generator and
reads the current. If the difference between the current at the
generator and the current to the power consumers differs a certain
amount, the Generator Line Contactor will open and the generator
excitation field is turned off. The three-hole current transformer
contains 3 toroidal transformers, one for the each of the power
feeder cables. The current ransformer sends its signal who is
proportional to the current in its feeder cables to the Generator
control unit. If the current from the generator is not equal to the
current who flows to the power consumers, that means there must Figure 114
be a failure inside the generator windings or the generator feeder
cables who brings the power from the generator to the power OTHER PROTECTIONS
distribution center inside the aircraft.
In commercial aircrafts there are additional electrical protection
devices in the generator and power supply system such as:

coil and is dissipated. The induced current will flow in the same
• Over and Under Frequency direction as the flow of current that produced the magnetic field.
• Over and Under Voltage
• Incorrect Phase Sequence
• Open Phase
• Generator Overload
• Real and Reactive Load Division
• Over and Under Excitation
• Reverse Power
In modern aircrafts the protections are controlled via GCU

through opening the GCR and GR (GLC). Through opening the
GCR the excitation field will be turned OFF.
INDUCED CURRENT PROTECTION
When current begins to flow through the contactor coil, a strong

magnetic field builds up around the coil. But as soon as the switch Figure 115
between the coil and ground is opened, current stops flowing in
the coil, and as it stops, the magnetic field collapses across all of
the turns of wire in the coil. The collapsing magnetic field
produces in the coil a short pulse, or spike, of very high voltage
whose polarity is opposite to that of the battery. The amount of
induced voltage is determined by the rate at which the magnetic
field cuts across the conductor. The faster the current changes, the
greater the induced voltage. This voltage spike can damage any
electronic equipment connected to the system when the master
switch is opened. It can also damage the master switch by causing
an arc to jump across the contacts as they are opening. To prevent
this kind of damage, a reverse-biased diode or freewheel-diode is
connected across the contactor coil. During normal operation, no
current can flow through it, but the high-voltage spike that is
produced when the master switch is opened forward-biases the
diode, and the induced current flows back through the contactor

power the crew’s essential flight instruments and a few other

critical services – see Figure
Emergency Power Generation Typical RAT generator sizing may vary from 5 to 15 kVA
depending upon the aircraft. The RAT also powers a small
In certain emergency conditions the typical aircraft power hydraulic power generator for similar hydraulic system emergency
generation system already described may not meet all the power provision. Once deployed then the RAT remains extended
airworthiness authority requirements and additional sources of for the duration of the flight and cannot be restowed without
power generation may need to be used to power the aircraft maintenance action on the ground. The RAT is intended to furnish
systems. The aircraft battery offers a short-term power storage the crew with sufficient power to fly the aircraft while attempting
capability, typically up to 30 minutes. However, for longer to restore the primary generators or carry out a diversion to the
periods of operation the battery is insufficient. The operation of nearest airfield. It is not intended to provide significant amounts of
twin- engine passenger aircraft on Extended Twin operations power for a lengthy period of operation.
(ETOPS) flights now means that the aircraft has to be able to
operate on one engine while up to 180 minutes from an alternative
or diversion airfield. This has led to modification of some of the
primary aircraft systems, including the electrical system, to ensure
that sufficient integrity remains to accomplish the 180 minute
diversion while still operating with acceptable safety margins. The
three standard methods of providing backup power on civil
transport aircraft are:
• Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
• Backup power converters
• Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs)
Ram Air Turbine
The Ram Air Turbine or RAT is deployed when most of the

conventional power generation system has failed or is unavailable
for some reason. The RAT is an air-driven turbine, normally
stowed in the aircraft ventral or nose section that is extended Figure - Ram Air Turbine (RAT)
either automatically or manually when the emergency Backup Power Converters
commences. The passage of air over the turbine is used to power a
small emergency generator of limited capacity, usually enough to The requirements for ETOPS have led to the need for an
additional method of backup power supply, short of deploying the

RAT that should occur in only the direst emergency. The use of The outcome is an alternative means of AC power generation
backup converters satisfies this requirement and is used on the which may power some of the aircraft AC bus bars; typically the
B777. Backup generators are driven by the same engine 115 VAC transfer buses in the case of the Boeing 777. In this way
accessory gearbox but are quite independent of the main IDGs. substantial portions of the aircraft electrical system may remain
See Figure below. powered even though some of the more sizeable loads such as the
galleys and other non-essential loads may need to be shed
by the Electrical Load Management System (ELMS).
Tenning presents the entire Boeing 777 electrical system [6].
Figure Simplified backup VSCF converter system
The backup generators are VF and therefore experience significant

frequency variation as engine speed varies. The VF supply is fed
into a backup converter which, using the DC link technique, first
converts the AC power to DC by means of rectification. The
converter then synthesises three-phase 115 VAC 400 Hz power by Permanent Magnet Generators (PMGs)
means of sophisticated solid state power switching techniques.

The use of PMGs to provide emergency power has become

prominent over the last decade or so. PMGs may be single phase
or multi-phase devices. Figure below shows a three-phase PMG
with converter, obviously within reason the more phases used the
easier the task to convert the power to regulated 28 VDC.
As can be seen, the backup converter hosts PMGs which may
supply several hundred watts of independent generated power to
the flight control DC system where the necessary conversion to 28
VDC is undertaken. It was already
Total PMGs used on B777: 13

Figure Boeing 777 PMG/PMA Complement
Recent Systems Developments

In recent years a number of technology advances have taken place
in the generation, switching and protection of electrical power.
These new developments are beginning to have an impact upon
the classic electrical systems that have existed for many years,
Figure Three phase PMG with converter
probably for the first time since WWII. This has resulted in the
explained earlier in the chapter that AC generators include a PMG availability of new devices that in turn have given credibility
to bootstrap the excitation system. Also PMGs – also called to new system concepts, or at least provide the means for
Permanent Magnet Alternators (PMAs) – are used to provide dual advanced systems concepts that could not previously be
independent on-engine supplies to each implemented. These techniques and concepts embrace the
lane of the FADEC. As an indication of future trends it can following:
therefore be seen that on an aircraft such as the B777 there are a •Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
total of 13 PMGs/PMAs across the aircraft critical control systems •Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF) – Cycloconverter
– flight control, engine control and electrical systems. See Figure • 270 VDC systems
• More-Electric Aircraft (MEA)
below
Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
The Boeing 777 Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)

developed and manufactured by GE Aviation set new standards
for the Industry in terms of electrical load management. The

general layout of the ELMS is shown in Figure 5.26. The system • P200 – Right Primary Power Panel distributes and protects the
represents the first integrated electrical power distribution right primary loads
and load management system for a civil aircraft. • P300 – Auxiliary Power Panel distributes and protects the
auxiliary primary loads
The secondary power distribution is undertaken by four secondary
power panels:
• P110 – Left Power Management Panel distributes and protects
power, and controls loads associated with the left channel
• P210 – Right Power Management Panel distributes and protects
power, and controls loads associated with the right channel
• P310 – Standby Power Management Panel distributes and
protects power, and controls loads associated with the standby
channel
• P320 – Ground Servicing/Handling Panel distributes and
protects power associated with ground handling
Load management and utilities systems control is exercised by
mean of
Electronic Units (EUs) mounted within the P110, P210 and P310
power management panels. Each of these EUs interfaces with the
left and right aircraft systems ARINC 629 digital data buses and
contain a dual redundant architecture for reasons of dispatch
availability. The EUs contain a modular suite of
Line Replaceable Modules (LRMs) that can readily be replaced
Figure B777 Electrical Load Management System (ELMS)
when the door is open. A total of six module types is utilised to
build a system comprising an overall complement of 44 modules
across the three EUs. This highly modular construction with
multiple use of common modules reduced development risk
and resulted in highly accelerated module maturity at a very early
stage of airline service. LRMs typically have mature in-service
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) ~ 200 000 . See Figure for
The system comprises seven power panels, three of which are a diagrammatic portrayal of the modular concept.
associated with primary power distribution: The load management and utilities control features provided by
• P100 – Left Primary Power Panel distributes and protects the left ELMS are far in advance of any equivalent system in airline
primary loads service today. Approximately 17–19 Electrical Load Control

Units (ELCUs) – depending upon aircraft configuration – supply weight, relays and circuit breakers. Due to the inbuilt intelligence,
and control loads directly from the aircraft main AC buses. These use of digital data buses, maintainability features and extensive
loads can be controlled by the intelligence embedded within the system Built-In Test (BIT), the system build and on-aircraft test
ELMS EUs. A major advance is the sophisticated load shed/load time turned out to ~ 30 % of that experienced by contemporary
optimisation function which closely controls the availability of systems.
functions should a major electrical power source fail or become A large number of utilities management functions are embedded
unavailable. The system is able to reconfigure the loads to give the in the system making it a true load management rather than
optimum distribution of the available power. In the event that merely an electrical power distribution system. Key functions are
electrical power is restored, the system is able to re-instate loads the load optimisation function already described, fuel jettison,
according to a number of different schedules. The system is automatic RAT deployment and many others. Figure below
therefore able to make the optimum use of power at all times presents an overview of some of the more important functions.
rather than merely shed loads in an emergency.
Figure B777 ELMS EU concept
The benefits conferred by ELMS have proved to be significant Figure B777 ELMS subsystem functional overview
with substantial reduction in volume, wiring and connectors,
Variable Speed Constant Frequency (VSCF)

The principle of VSCF has already been outlined in the backup

converter description earlier in the chapter. There are considerable
benefits to be accrued by dispensing with the conventional AC
power generation techniques using IDGs to produce large
quantities of frequency stable 400 Hz 115 VAC power.
The constant speed element of the IDG is generally fairly
unreliable compared to the remainder of the generation system.
The techniques are now available through the use of VSCF to
produce significant quantities of primary AC by means of
frequency-wild power generation accompanied by suitable
power conversion. In particular, the VSCF Cycloconverter version
developed by Leland Electro systems, a part of GE Aviation Figure Simplified VSCF cycloconverter system diagram
Generator Operation
Theory of VSCF Cycloconverter System Operation
The function of the generator is to convert mechanical power from
The VSCF system consists of a brushless generator and a solid the aircraft turbine engine to electrical power suitable for
state frequency converter. The converter assembly also has a filter electronic conversion. The electronic converter processes the
capacitor assembly and control and protection circuit. A simplified generator output electrical power into high quality 400 Hz
block diagram for the VSCF system is shown in Figure below. electrical power. See Figure.
The generator is driven by the accessory gearbox and produces The brushless, self-excited generator comprises three AC
AC output voltage at variable frequency proportional to the machines:
gearbox speed. The converter converts the variable frequency into • Permanent magnet generator
constant 400 Hz, three-phase power by using an SCR-based • Exciter generator
cycloconverter. The filter assembly filters out high frequency • Main generator
ripple in the output voltage. The GCU regulates the output voltage
and provides protection to the system.

The exciter is a brushless synchronous machine with a DC excited

stator and a three-phase wound rotor. The exciter stator winding
receives controlled DC current from the rectified PMG output
through the generator voltage regulator. This in turn develops the
AC power in the three-phase rotor windings as they rotate past the
exciter generator stator winding, inducing an AC voltage in the
three-phase windings of the exciter’s rotor. The magnitude of this
rectified AC voltage is proportional to the speed of the shaft and
to the DC excitation current on the exciter’s stator winding. The
rotor output is rectified with three silicon rectifiers mounted inside
the rotor shaft. The exciter and rectifiers are used to eliminate
Figure VSCF generator electrical schematic brushes anywhere in the generator. The rectified exciter output
supplies field current for the main generator.
The Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG) provides electrical
power for all control circuitry and the exciter field as soon as the The main generator is a wound rotor, synchronous machine with a
rotor is rotating at minimum speed. The PMG also provides raw 16pole rotor and a six-phase stator. The connections between the
electrical power for the Main Line Contactors (MLC). The exciter rotor windings, three rectifier diodes and the main rotor
integral PMG makes the generator self-contained; thus, it does not field winding are all on the rotor. The six-phase stator output
require any external power for excitation. The PMG is a winding is star connected. All six phase leads and the neutral
synchronous machine with flux excitation provided by the connection are brought out to the terminal block. The wound
permanent magnets contained inside the rotor assembly. The PMG rotor, when excited with DC current supplied by the exciter,
stator contains two separate and electrically isolated windings in a establishes magnetic flux in the air gap between the rotor and the
laminated, slotted, magnetic steel core. AC voltages are induced stator. This magnetic flux, when driven by the gearbox’s shaft,
in the stator windings as the flux provided by the PM rotor sweeps induces alternating voltage into the six-phase windings of the
past the stator. The PM rotor is driven directly by the gearbox stator. The magnitude of this AC stator voltage is proportional to
output shaft. the speed of the rotor and the DC current supplied by the
The output of one of the single-phase windings of the PMG stator exciter rotor. The magnitude of the rotor DC current in turn
is fed into the generator voltage regulator. The generator voltage depends upon the excitation current provided by the generator
regulator rectifies and modulates the PMG output. This output voltage regulator to the exciter’s stator. Therefore, the magnitude
provides proper current for the exciter field winding, allowing of the exciter’s stator current determines the magnitude of the
generation of AC voltage on the exciter rotor. main generator stator’s AC voltage output. The frequency of
The output of the second single-phase winding is used for the the main generator’s output is dependent upon the shaft speed.
converter power supply. With 16 poles, the frequency of the main generator varies from

1660 Hz to 3500 Hz as the input speed is varied from 12 450 to 26 Figure - VSCF cycloconverter principle
250 rpm. The main generator output supplies a variable frequency,
six-phase AC power to the cycloconverter for further processing.
This section describes the Cycloconverter design and operation as
configured for a 30/40 kVA rating. This review concentrates on
The neutral ends of each of the six stator windings are connected the most critical aspects of a variable speed constant frequency
to the neutral through Current Transformers (CTs). The CTs sense (VSCF) system, i.e. the power flow section and switch module
the current in each winding and compare it with the current in control circuits.
each phase in the converter. If any current differential is detected
in the zone between the generator neutral and the converter, the The frequency conversion system consists of three frequency
system de-energises quickly by means of the High Frequency converters, one for each phase (Figure 5.31). The generator
Differential Protection (HFDP) circuit, preventing damage to any delivers six-phase, variable frequency power to each converter.
of the generator windings. Each frequency converter consists of a cycloconverter (12 silicon
controlled rectifiers) and its associated control circuits:
All connections between the generator and frequency converter modulators, mixer, firing wave generator, reference wave
are internal to the VSCF package so the converter cannot be generator, feedback control circuit, and low-pass filter. The SCRs
subjected to abnormal phase rotation unless the generator rotation are controlled by the modulators. They compare the cosine firing
is reversed. The Generator Over-Current (GOC) protection will wave with the processed reference wave to generate appropriately
de-energise the system in the event of reversed generator timed SCR gating signals. The low-pass output filter attenuates
rotation. the ripple frequency components.
The electrical schematic for the generator is shown in Figure
below Negative feedback is used to improve the linearity of the
. cycloconverter and to reduce the output impedance. Thus, the
cycloconverter is a high power amplifier producing an output
wave that is a replica of the reference sine wave. The actual
feedback loop has multiple feedback paths to improve the
waveform, reduce the DC content, and lower the output
impedance. The mixer amplifier adds the feedback signals in the
correct proportions.
The 400 Hz output voltage is regulated with individual phase

voltage regulators that adjust the 400 Hz reference wave
amplitudes. Consequently, the voltage unbalance in the line-to-

neutral output voltages is negligible even with large unbalanced

loads.
The unfiltered output of the two rectifier banks – solid jagged lines
in Figure below – shows the conduction period where the
rectifiers are connected to the generator lines. The heavy, smooth
lines are the filtered output of the cycloconverter.
Both rectifier banks are programmed to operate over the entire

360° of the output wave, and each bank can supply either voltage
polarity. The positive half of the output voltage wave is formed by
operating either the positive bank in the rectifying mode or the
negative bank in the inverting mode.
Figure- Leland VSCF cycloconverter assemblies (Courtesy

of GE Aviation)
The negative half of the output wave is formed in reverse fashion.

The rectifying and inverting modes define the direction of power
flow; towards the load in the rectifying mode and toward the
source in the inverting mode
.
Some of the physical attributes of the 60/65 kVA machine are
shown in Figures This particular version also embodies PMGs
capable of supplying three independent channels of 28 VDC
regulated power to feed flight control and other essential loads. A
Figure - VSCF 400 Hz waveform formulation simplified version of the F-18E/F electrical system is shown in
Figure.

270 VDC Systems

An initiative which has been underway for a number of years in
the US military development agencies is the 270 VDC system.
The US Navy has championed this concept and the technology
has developed to the point that some of the next generation of US
combat aircraft will have this system imposed as a tri Service
requirement. The aircraft involved are the US Air Force Advanced
Figure - Leland VSCF cycloconverter – dimensions Tactical Fighter (ATF) (now the Lockheed F-22 Raptor), the
former US Navy Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) or A-12, and
the US Army Light Helicopter (LHX or LH) (now known as
RAH-66 Comanche). More recent projects noted in Table 5.1
included the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) offerings from Lockheed
Martin (X-35A/B/C) and the Boeing (X-32A/B/C), although the
latter was reportedly a predominantly VF 115 VAC system with
some power conversion for 270 VDC loads. The selected version
of JSF – the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II uses 270 VDC
for the primary electrical system.
The use of 270 VDC is an extrapolation of the rationale for
moving from 28 VDC to 115 VAC: reduction in the size of
current carrying conductors thereby minimising weight, voltage
drop and power dissipation. There are, however, a number of
disadvantages associated with the use of 270 VDC. 270 VDC
components are by no means commonplace; certainly were not so
at the beginning of development and even now are not
inexpensive. Also, a significant number of aircraft services will
still require 28 VDC or 115 VAC supplies and the use of
higher voltages places greater reliance on insulation techniques to
avoid voltage breakdown. The US military addressed these
technical issues through a wide range of funded technology
Figure - Simplified F-18E/F electrical power system
development and demonstrator programmes. Some

of these are also directed at the greater use of electrical power on

the combat aircraft, possibly to supplant conventional secondary
power and hydraulic power systems or at least to augment them to
a substantial degree. The term for these developments is the More-
Electric Aircraft (MEA), implying a much greater if not total use
of electrical power for aircraft systems. The high DC voltage
poses a risk in military aircraft of increased possibility of fire
resulting from battle damage in carbon-fibre composite aircraft.
Care must be taken to reduce the risk of arcing at high altitudes or
in humid salt laden air conditions such as tropical or maritime
environments. There is also a potential lethal hazard to ground
crew during servicing operations. All these must be taken into
account in design.
One of the problems in moving to 270 VDC is that there is still a

need for the conventional 115 VAC and 28 VDC voltages for
some equipment as mentioned above. The 270 VDC aircraft Figure- Simplified F-22 electrical system
therefore becomes a somewhat hybrid system as shown in Figure
5.36 that may lose some of the original 270 VDC advantages.
More-Electric Aircraft (MEA)
Introduction -
For at least the last twenty years a number of studies have been
under way in the US that have examined the all-electric aircraft.

As stated earlier, aircraft developed in the UK in the late The three key methods or extracting energy from the engine have
1940s/early 1950s, such as the V-Bombers, utilised electric power been:
to a greater extent than present day aircraft. In the 1980s, a
number of studies promoted by NASA, the US Navy, US Air • Electrical power by means of an accessory gearbox driven
Force development agencies, and undertaken by Lockheed and generator
Boeing, addressed the concept in detail. • Hydraulic power by means of Engine Driven Pumps (EDPs) also
Advanced Systems, since the implications of the MEA are more run off the accessory gearbox but also by electrical and air driven
embracing than merely organising the aircraft electrical system in means
a different manner. • Pneumatic power achieved by bleeding air off the intermediate
or HP compressor to provide energy for the environmental control
The concept addresses more energy-efficient ways of converting system, cabin pressurisation and wing anti-icing system among
and utilising aircraft power in the broadest sense and therefore has others. High pressure air has also provided the means by which
a far-reaching effect upon overall aircraft performance . the engine is started with the air taken from a ground air start
More-electric technology has progressed tremendously over the trolley, APU or another engine already running
past decade and More-Electric Aircraft (MEA) and More-Electric
Engines (MEE) developments are described in full below. While the engine is in effect a highly optimised gas generator,
there are penalties in extracting bleed air which are
disproportionate when compared to the power being extracted.
This becomes more acute as the bypass ratio increases:

original turbofans had relatively low bypass ratios of ~1.4
(bypass) to 1 (engine core); more recent designs ~4:1 and next
generation turbofans such as the GE ,GEnex and Rolls-Royce
Trent 1000 are close to 10:1. Modern engines have pressure
ratios of the order of 30 to 35:1 and are more sensitive to the
extraction of bleed air from an increasingly smaller and much
More-Electric Aircraft more highly tuned engine central core.
The outcome is that to realise fully the benefits of emerging
Engine Power Off takes engine technology, a different and more efficient means of
extracting power or energy for the aircraft systems becomes
For the past few decades the way in which aircraft have extracted necessary. Efficient energy extraction for the aircraft without
power from the engine has changed little though long standing adversely affecting the performance of the engine core and the
studies exist which examine more – electric means . engine as a whole becomes an imperative reason for changing the
architectures and technology utilised. Figure below illustrates the

differences between conventional power extraction using bleed air

on the left versus a more-electric version on the right.
These architectures broadly represent the difference between the
Boeing 767 (left) and its successor, the Boeing 787 (right). The
main differences between the more-electric and conventional
configurations are:
• Reduced bleed air off take: the only bleed air off take for the
B787 is for engine cowl anti-icing – this can be fan air that may
be used with much lower penalty than that extracted from the
engine compressor
• Increased electrical power generation. The B787 system

generates 500 kVA per channel instead of 120 kVA (B767-400).
This increased electrical power is required in the main to provide
energy to those systems no longer powered by bleed air
• Electric engine start: The B787 uses electric start since bleed
air is no longer available for this purpose Figure Comparison of conventional and more-electric power
off takes
Boeing 787 (More-Electric) Electrical System

The B787 electrical power system is portrayed at a top-level in
Figure . A key feature is the adoption of three-phase 230 VAC
electric power compared with the conventional three-phase 115
VAC solution universally adopted by the Industry to date. The
increase in voltage by a factor of 2:1 decreases feeder losses in the
electrical distribution system and allows significant wiring weight
reduction. The use of higher 230 VAC phase voltage, or 400 VAC
line-to-line, does require considerable care during design to avoid
the possible effects of partial discharge, otherwise known as
‘corona’.

28 VDC power to feed many of the legacy subsystems that require

these more conventional supplies The key features of the B787
electrical loads are given in Figure below.
As bleed air is no longer used within the airframe there are no air
feeds to the environmental control system, cabin pressurisation
system, wing anti-icing system as well as other air-powered
subsystems. The only bleed air taken from the engine is low
pressure fan air used to perform an anti-icing function for
the engine cowl. Tapping bleed air off the engine compressor is
extremely wasteful, especially as engine pressure ratios and
bypass ratios increase on modern engines such as the General
Electric GeNex and Rolls-Royce Trent 1000. An additional saving
is removal of the overhead of providing large ducts throughout the
airframe to transport the air; typically 8 inch diameter
air ducts are required between engine and airframe and 7 inch
ducts between APU and airframe and in the Air Driven Pump
(ADP) feed. In some parts of the airframe the presence of these
Figure - B787 (More-Electric) electrical system large bleed air ducts necessitate overheat detection systems to
warn the flight crew of hot gas leaks.
A brief description of the B787 electrical system is given below The main more-electric loads in the B787 system are:
The salient features of the B787 electrical power system are:
• Environmental Control System (ECS) and pressurisation.
• 2×250 kVA starter/generators per engine, resulting in 500 kVA The removal of bleed air means that air for the ECS and
of generated power per channel The generators are Variable pressurisation systems needs to be pressurised by electrical
Frequency (VF) reflecting recent industry trends in moving away means; on the B787 four large electrically driven compressors
from constant frequency (CF) 400 Hz power are required drawing total electrical power in the region of 500
kVA
• 2×225 kVA APU starter/generators, each starter/generator • Wing anti-icing. Non-availability of bleed air means that wing
starting the APU and then acting as a generator during normal anti-icing has to be provided by electrical heating mats embedded
operation in the wing leading edge. Wing anti-icing requires in the order of
• Each main generator feeds its own 230 VAC main bus before 100 kVA of electrical power
being fed into the power distribution system. As well as powering • Electric motor pumps. Some of the aircraft hydraulic Engine
230 VAC loads, electrical power is converted into 115 VAC and Driven Pumps (EDPs) are replaced by electrically driven pumps.

The four new electrical motor pumps require ~100 kVA each Recent Electrical System Developments
giving a total load requirement of 400 KVA
Three major aircraft programmes under way illustrate in different
A further outcome of the adoption of the ‘bleed less engine’ is that ways the architectures and concepts that have evolved since the
the aircraft engines cannot be started by the conventional means: turn of the millennium. These projects are:
high pressure air. The engines use the in-built starter/generators • Airbus A380
for this purpose and require ~180 kVA to start the engine. • Airbus 400M
• Boeing 787
Each of these systems is described below.
Airbus A380 Electrical System Overview
The A380 was the first large civil aircraft in recent times to re-
adopt variable frequency (VF), or ‘frequency wild’ as it was
formerly called, since some of the turboprop airliners of the 1950s
and early 1960s.
A380 Power Generation System Overview AC power

generation
The key characteristics of the A380 electrical power generation

systems are as follows:
• 4 ×150 kVA VF Generators (370–770 Hz). VF generators are
reliable but do not offer a no-break power capability
• 2 ×120 kvA CF APU Generators (nominal 400 Hz)
• 4 ×External Power Connections (400 Hz) for ground power
• 1 ×70 kVA Ram Air Turbine for emergency use
Figure - Boeing 787 electrical loads

Figure - A380 – power system components Figure - A380 AC electrical power architecture
The 150 kVA per primary power channel represented an increase The aircraft galleys which form a large proportion of the aircraft
over previous civil aircraft. Hitherto the most powerful had been load are split between each of the four AC buses as shown.
the Boeing 777 with 120 kVA (CF) plus 20 kVA (VSCF Backup)
representing 140 kVA per channel. DC System
The AC power system architecture is shown in next Figure . Each The key characteristics of the A380 DC power conversion and
of the main 150 kVA AC generators is driven by the associated energy storage system are outlined below:
engine. The two APU generators are driven by the respective • 3 ×300A Battery Charge Regulator Units BCRU; these are
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). Each main generator supplies power regulated TRUs
to the appropriate AC bus under the control of the GCU. Each • 1 ×300A TRU
main AC bus can also accept a ground power input for servicing • 3 × 50 Ah Batteries
and support activities on the ground. Because the aircraft • 1 ×Static Inverter
generators are variable frequency (VF) and the frequency of the The DC system provides a no-break power capability thereby
AC power depends upon the speed of the appropriate engine, the permitting key aircraft systems to operate without power
primary AC buses cannot be paralled. interruption during changes in system configuration. Most control
computers or IMA cabinets are DC powered and the use of DC
paralleling techniques facilitates the provision of no-break

power for these crucial elements. See next Figure .

The figure shows how the AC buses 1 to 4 (AC1 to AC4) feed the
main DC system power conversion units. The Ram Air Turbine
(RAT) feeds the AC ESS bus as do main AC buses AC1 and AC4. Electrical System Control
The AC ESS bus in turn feeds an AC Emer bus which can also be
powered from the DC ESS bus through a static inverter. The control of the electrical system is vested in a combination of
AC1/AC4, AC2 and AC3 respectively feed the DC ESS, DC1 and dedicated units and some of the IMA CPIOMs as described
DC 2 buses that are regulated to 28Vdc since the BCRUs are below:
effectively regulated TRUs. Each of these buses has an associated Control resident in dedicated control units:
50Ah battery whose charge is maintained by the charging function • 4 ×Main generator GCUs
of the BCRU. • 2 X APU generator GCUs
• 1 X RAT generator GCU
Control resident in IMA CPIOMs:
• Electrical load management function – controlling load shed
• Secondary load monitoring function – monitoring the status of
secondary power distribution devices
System Segregation
In broad terms the total aircraft electrical system is segregated as
shown in Figure below into four main channels:
• E1 Channel powered by AC generators 1 and 2
• E2 Channel powered by AC generators 3 and 4
• E3 Channel powered by the RAT and the static inverter
• APU Channel associated with APU start
The E1, E2, and E3, channels each have an associated main
generator, BCRU and 50Ah battery associated with them to give
effectively three independent channels of power:
• E1 Channel: AC2 + BCRU1 + Battery 1
Figure - A380 DC electrical power architecture • E2 Channel: AC3 + BCRU2 + Battery 2
• E3 Channel: AC2(AC4) + ESS BCRU + ESS Battery
For APU Starting the following dedicated subsystem is provided: The effect of this electrical channel segregation may be better
understood by cross-referring to the A380 FCS description in
• 1 × 300 A APU TRU Flight Controls.
•1 × 50 Ah TRU Battery

Power Distribution System
The power switching and protection devices that form the aircraft
power distribution system are vested in the following electrical
panels:
• 1 ×Integrated Primary Electrical Power Distribution Centre
(PEPDC)
• 2 × Secondary Electrical Power Distribution Centres (SEPDCs)
for aircraft loads; these panels are used to distribute power to
smaller electrical loads consuming < 15A per phase or less than 5
kVA
• 6 ×Secondary Electrical Power Distribution Boxes (SEPDBs)
distributing power to domestic loads; domestic loads are those
associated with the cabin and passenger comfort as opposed to
aircraft systems and are described below; these units are
geographically dispersed within the aircraft to be close to their
respective loads, thereby minimising feeder weight
• Solid State Power Controllers (SSPCs) are used in preference to
thermal circuit breakers for secondary power distribution
Domestic loads include: cabin lighting ~ 15 kVA; galleys ~ 120 -
240 kVA, intermittent load depending upon the meal service);
galley cooling ~90 kVA, permanent load; In Flight Entertainment
(IFE) ~ 50 -60 kVA or about 100 W/seat permanent load
•The power distribution functions embedded in the appropriate
CPIOM IMA modules are:
– Electrical load management function assuring optimum loading
of the aircraft buses according to the electrical power resource
available and shedding load as appropriate
– Circuit breaker monitoring function where circuit breakers are
used

The A400M is a European joint project to develop a military

transport to replace a number of platforms. The A400M borrows
much of the electrical power technology from the A380 and also
uses the common avionics IMA/CPIOM architecture.
The key points of the A400M AC architecture are:

• 4 ×75 kVA VF generators operating over 390–620 Hz frequency
range
• 1 ×90 kVA APU generator operating at a nominal 400 Hz
• 1 ×43 kVA RAT
• 1 ×90 kVA ground power connection
The DC system has almost identical features to the A380 system:

• 3 ×Battery Charger Rectifier Units (BCRUs) rated at 400 A
• 1 ×300 A TRU which also supports APU starting
• 3 ×40 Ah Ni-Cd batteries
The higher rating of the BCRUs (400 A versus 300 A) results
from the higher DC loads on the military platform. DC paralleling
techniques provide DC no-break power as for the A380.
B787 Electrical Overview

The Boeing 787 now in the late stages of prototype build has
many novel more electric aircraft features. The aircraft is a large
step towards the all-electric airplane – one in which all systems
are run by electricity. Bleed air from the engines has essentially
been eliminated and while hydraulic actuators are still used, the
majority of their power comes from electricity.
Figure -A380 total electrical system showing segregation In breaking with five decades of practice, Boeing claims that
electric compressors are better suited for the cabin than engine
bleed and have many savings.
A400M

Boeing 787 Electrical Power System

The salient features of the B787 electrical power system are:
The B787 electrical power system is portrayed at a top-level in
Figure below • 2 ×250 kVA starter/generators per engine, resulting in 500 kVA
A key feature is the adoption of three-phase 230 VAC electric of generated power per channel. The generators are variable
power compared with the conventional three-phase 115 VAC frequency (VF) reflecting recent industry traits in moving away
arrangement usually used. The increase in voltage by a factor of from constant frequency (CF) 400 Hz power
2:1 decreases feeder losses in the electrical distribution system • 2 ×225 kVA APU starter/generators, each starter/generator
and allows significant wiring reduction. The use of higher driven the APU.
230 VAC phase voltage, or 400 VAC line-to-line, does require
considerable care during design to avoid the possible effects of Each main generator feeds its own 230 VAC main bus before
partial discharge, otherwise known as ‘corona’. being fed into the power distribution system. As well as powering
230 VAC loads, electrical power is converted into 115 VAC and
28 VDC power to feed many of the legacy subsystems that require
these more conventional supplies
A summary of the B787 electrical loads is given in Figure below.

As bleed air is no longer used within the airframe there are no air
feeds to the environmental control system, cabin pressurisation
system, wing anti-icing system as well as other air-powered
subsystems. The only bleed air taken from the engine is low-
pressure fan air used to anti-ice the engine cowl. Tapping bleed air
off the engine compressor is extremely wasteful, especially as
engine pressure ratios and bypass ratios increase on modern
engines such as the General Electric GeNex and Rolls-Royce
Trent 1000. An additional saving is removal of the overhead of
providing large ducts throughout the airframe to transport the air;
typically 8 inch diameter ducts are required between engine and
airframe and 7 inch ducts between APU and airframe and in the
Air Driven Pump (ADP) feed. In some parts of the airframe
Figure - Boeing 787 top-level electrical system overheat detection systems are required to warn the flight crew of
hot gas leaks.

• Electric Motor Pumps. Some of the aircraft hydraulic Engine

Driven Pumps (EDPs) are replaced by electrically driven pumps.
The four new electrical motor pumps require ~ 100 kVA each
giving a total load requirement of 400 kVA
A further outcome of the adoption of the ‘bleed less engine’ is that
the aircraft engines cannot be started by the conventional means:
high pressure air.
The engines use the in-built starter/generators for this purpose and
require ~ 180 kVA to start the engine
The introduction of such high-powered electrical machines has a
significant impact upon the aircraft electrical distribution system.
The electrical power distribution system is shown in Figure .
Primary power electrical power distribution is undertaken by four
main distribution panels, two in the forward electrical equipment
bay and two others
Figure - Boeing 787 electrical loads
The main more-electric loads in the B787 system are:
• Environmental Control System (ECS) & Pressurisation.

The removal of bleed air means that air for the ECS and
pressurisation systems needs to be pressurised by electrical
means; on the B787 four large electrically driven compressors
are required drawing in the region of 500 kVA
• Wing Anti-Icing. Non-availability of bleed air means that wing
anti-icing has to be provided by electrical heating mats embedded
in the wing leading edge. Wing anti-icing requires in the order of Figure - Boeing 787 electrical power distribution system
100 kVA of electrical power

in the aft electrical equipment bay. The aft power distribution • Maintenance pages
panels also contain the motor controllers for the four Electrical These displays show in graphic form the system operating
Motor Pumps (EMPs); two of the associated pumps are located in configuration together with the status of major system
the engine pylons and two in the aircraft centre section. Also components, key system operating parameters and any degraded
located within the aft distribution panels are the engine starter or failure conditions which apply. The maximum use of colour
motor controllers (4) and APU starter motor controller (1). The will greatly aids the flight crew in assimilating the information
high levels of power involved and associated power dissipation displayed. The overall effect is vastly to improve the flight
generate a lot of heat and the primary power distribution panels crew/system interface giving the pilots a better understanding of
are liquid cooled. the system operation while reducing the crew workload.
The electrically powered air conditioning packs are located in the
aircraft centre section.
Secondary power distribution is achieved by using Remote Power
Distribution Units (RPDUs) located at convenient places around
the aircraft. In all there are a total of 21 RPDUs located in the
positions indicated in Figure .
Electrical Systems Displays
The normal method of displaying electrical power system

parameters to the flight crew has been via dedicated control and
display panels. On a fighter or twin-engined commuter aircraft the
associated panel is likely to be fairly small. On a large transport
aircraft the electrical systems control and display would have been
achieved by a large systems panel forming a large portion of the
flight engineer’s panel showing the status of all the major
generation and power conversion equipment. With the advent of
two crew flight deck operations, of which the Boeing 757, 767,
747-400 and Airbus A320 and indeed most modern aircraft are
typical examples, the electrical system selection panel was moved
into the flight crew overhead panel. EICAS or ECAM systems
now permit the display of a significant amount of information by
the use of:
• Synoptic displays
• Status pages

horsepower output, operating voltage, full load current, speed,

number of phases, and frequency. Whether the motors operate
continuously or intermittently (for short intervals) is also
considered in the rating.
AC Motors
Types of AC Motors
Because of their advantages, many types of aircraft motors are There are two general types of AC motors used in aircraft
designed to operate on alternating current. In general, AC motors systems: induction motors and synchronous motors. Either type
are less expensive than comparable DC motors. In many may be single phase, two phase, or three phase. Three phase
instances, AC motors do not use brushes and commutators so induction motors are used where large amounts of power are
sparking at the brushes is avoided. AC motors are reliable and required. They operate such devices as starters, flaps, landing
require little maintenance. They are also well suited for constant gears, and hydraulic pumps. Single phase induction motors
speed applications and certain types are manufactured that have, are used to operate devices such as surface locks, intercooler
within limits, variable speed characteristics. Alternating current shutters, and oil shutoff valves in which the power requirement is
motors are designed to operate on poly phase or single phase lines low. Three phase synchronous motors operate at constant
and at several voltage ratings. synchronous speeds and are commonly used to operate flux gate
compasses and propeller synchronizer systems. Single phase
The speed of rotation of an AC motor depends upon the number synchronous motors are common sources of power to operate
of poles and the frequency of the electrical source of power: electric clocks and other small precision equipment.
They require some auxiliary method to bring them up to
synchronous speeds; that is, to start them. Usually the starting
winding consists of an auxiliary stator winding.
Three Phase Induction Motor

Since airplane electrical systems typically operate at 400 cycles, The three phase AC induction motor is also called a squirrel cage
an electric motor at this frequency operates at about seven times motor. Both single phase and three phase motors operate on the
the speed of a 60 cycle commercial motor with the same number principle of a rotating magnetic field. A horseshoe magnet held
of poles. over a compass needle is a simple illustration of the principle of
Because of this high speed of rotation, 400-cycle AC motors are the rotating field. The needle will take a position parallel to the
suitable for operating small high-speed rotors, through reduction magnetic flux passing between the two poles of the magnet. If the
gears, in lifting and moving heavy loads, such as the wing flaps, magnet is rotated, the compass needle will follow. A rotating
the retractable landing gear, and the starting of engines. The 400- magnetic field can be produced by a two or three phase current
cycle induction type motor operates at speeds ranging from 6,000 flowing through two or more groups of coils wound on inwardly
rpm to 24,000 rpm. Alternating current motors are rated in projecting poles of an iron frame. The coils on each group of

poles are wound alternately in opposite directions to produce per second, or 3,600 rpm. This speed is known as the
opposite polarity, and each group is connected to a separate phase synchronous speed of the rotating field.
of voltage. The operating principle depends on a revolving, or
rotating, magnetic field to produce torque. The key to
understanding the induction motor is a thorough understanding
of the rotating magnetic field.
Rotating Magnetic Field
The field structure shown in Figure below has poles

whose windings are energized by three AC voltages,
a, b, and c. These voltages have equal magnitude but
differ in phase, as shown in Figure below : at the
instant of time shown as 0, the resultant magnetic field
produced by the application of the three voltages has
its greatest intensity in a direction extending from pole
1 to pole 4. Under this condition, pole 1 can be considered
as a north pole and pole 4 as a south pole. At the
instant of time shown as 1, the resultant magnetic field
will have its greatest intensity in the direction extending from pole
2 to pole 5; in this case, pole 2 can be considered as a north pole
and pole 5 as a south pole.
Thus, between instant 0 and instant 1, the magnetic
field has rotated clockwise. At instant 2, the resultant
magnetic field has its greatest intensity in the direction
from pole 3 to pole 6, and the resultant magnetic field
has continued to rotate clockwise. At instant 3, poles
4 and 1 can be considered as north and south poles,
respectively, and the field has rotated still farther.
At later instants of time, the resultant magnetic field
rotates to other positions while traveling in a clockwise
direction, a single revolution of the field occurring in
one cycle. If the exciting voltages have a frequency
of 60 cps, the magnetic field makes 60 revolutions

Construction of Induction Motor

The stationary portion of an induction motor is called a
stator, and the rotating member is called a rotor. Instead
of salient poles in the stator, as shown in A of Figure
10-292, distributed windings are used; these windings
are placed in slots around the periphery of the stator.
It is usually impossible to determine the number of
poles in an induction motor by visual inspection, but
the information can be obtained from the nameplate of
the motor. The nameplate usually gives the number of
poles and the speed at which the motor is designed to
run. This rated, or nonsynchronous, speed is slightly
less than the synchronous speed. To determine the
number of poles per phase on the motor, divide 120
times the frequency by the rated speed. Written as an
equation, it is:
Where:
P is the number of poles per phase,
f is the frequency in cps,
N is the rated speed in rpm, and
120 is a constant.
The result will be very nearly equal to the number of poles per
phase. For example, consider a 60 cycle, three phase motor with a
rated speed of 1,750 rpm.
In this case:

Therefore, the motor has four poles per phase. If the number of the rotor revolves at very nearly the synchronous speed of the
poles per phase is given on the nameplate, the synchronous speed stator field, the difference in speed being just sufficient enough
can be determined by dividing 120 times the frequency by the to induce the proper amount of current in the rotor to overcome
number of poles per phase. In the example used above, the the mechanical and electrical losses in the rotor. If the rotor were
synchronous speed is equal to 7,200 divide d by 4, or 1,800 rpm. to turn at the same speed as the rotating field, the rotor conductors
The rotor of an induction motor consists of an iron core having would not be cut by any magnetic lines of force, no emf would
longitudinal slots around its circumference in which heavy copper be induced in them, no current could flow, and there would be no
or aluminium bars are embedded. torque. The rotor would then slow down.
These bars are welded to a heavy ring of high conductivity on For this reason, there must always be a difference in speed
either end. The composite structure is sometimes called a squirrel between the rotor and the rotating field. This difference in speed is
cage, and motors containing such a rotor are called squirrel called slip and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous
cage induction motors. speed. For example, if the rotor turns at 1,750 rpm and the
synchronous speed is 1,800 rpm, the difference in speed is 50
Induction Motor Slip rpm. The slip is then equal to 50/1,800 or 2.78 per cent.
Single Phase Induction Motor

When the rotor of an induction motor is subjected to the The previous discussion has applied only to poly- phase motors. A
revolving magnetic field produced by the stator windings, a single-phase motor has only one stator winding. This winding
voltage is induced in the longitudinal bars. The induced voltage generates a field, which merely pulsates, instead of rotating. When
causes a current to flow through the rotor is stationary, the expanding and collapsing stator field
Induces currents in the rotor. These currents generate a rotor field
opposite in polarity to that of the stator.
The opposition of the field exerts a turning force on the upper and
lower parts of the rotor trying to turn it 180° from its position.
Since these forces are exerted through the centre of the rotor, the
turning force is equal in each direction. As a result, the rotor does
not turn. If the rotor has started turning, it will continue to rotate
in the direction in which it is started, since the turning force in that
direction is aided by the momentum of the rotor.
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

the bars. This current, in turn, produces its own magnetic field, The first effort in the development of a self-starting, single-phase
which combines with the revolving field so that the rotor assumes motor was the shaded pole induction motor. [Figure 10-294] This
a position in which the induced voltage is minimized. As a result,

motor has salient poles, a portion of each pole being encircled by A low resistance, short-circuited coil or copper band is placed
a heavy copper ring. The presence of the ring causes the magnetic across one tip of each small pole, from which, the motor gets the
field through the ringed portion of the pole face through the ringed name of shaded pole. The rotor of this motor is the squirrel cage
portion of the pole face to lag appreciably behind that through the type. As the current increases in the stator winding, the flux
other part of the pole face. The net effect is the production of a increases. A portion of this flux cuts the low resistance shading
slight component of rotation of the field, sufficient to cause the coil. This induces a current in the shading coil, and by Lenz’s law,
rotor to revolve. As the rotor accelerates, the torque increases until the current sets up a flux that opposes the flux inducing the
the rated speed is obtained. Such current. Hence, most of the flux passes through the un shaded
portion of the poles, as shown in Figure.
When the current in the winding and the main flux reaches a
maximum, the rate of change is zero; thus, no emf is induced in
the shading coil. A little later, the shading coil current, which
causes the induced emf to lag, reaches zero, and there is no
opposing flux.
Therefore, the main field flux passes through the shaded portion
of the field pole. The main field flux, which is now decreasing,
induces a current in the shading coil.
Figure - Shaded pole induction motor
motors have low starting torque and find their greatest application
in small fan motors where the initial torque required is low.
In Figure a diagram of a pole and the rotor is shown. The poles of Figure - Diagram of a shaded pole motor.
the shaded pole motor resemble those of a DC motor.

at a voltage rating of 115 volts for the smaller sizes and 110 to
220 volts for one-fourth hp and up. For even larger power ratings,
This current sets up a flux that opposes the decrease of the main poly phase motors generally are used, since they have excellent
field flux in the shaded portion of the pole. The effect is to starting torque characteristics.
concentrate the lines of force in the shaded portion of the pole
face. In effect, the shading coil retards, in time phase, the portion
of the flux passing through the shaded part of the pole. This lag in Direction of Rotation of Induction Motors
time phase of the flux in the shaded tip causes the flux to produce
the effect of sweeping across the face of the pole, from left to The direction of rotation of a three phase induction motor can be
right in the direction of the shaded tip. This behaves like a very changed by simply reversing two of the leads to the motor. The
weak rotating magnetic field, and sufficient torque is produced to same effect can be obtained in a two phase motor by reversing
start a small motor. The starting torque of the shaded pole motor is connections to one phase. In a single phase motor, reversing
exceedingly weak, and the power factor is low. Consequently, it connections to the starting winding will reverse the direction of
is built in sizes suitable for driving such devices as small fans. rotation.
Capacitor Start Motor
With the development of high capacity electrolytic capacitors, a

variation of the split phase motor, known as the capacitor start
motor, has been made. Nearly all fractional horsepower motors in
use today on refrigerators and other similar appliances are of this
type [Figure 10-296] In this adaptation, the starting winding and
running winding have the same size and resistance value. The
phase shift between currents of the two windings is obtained by
using capacitors connected in series with the starting winding.
Capacitor start motors have a starting torque comparable

to their torque at rated speed and can be used in applications Figure - Single phase motor with capacitor starting
where the initial load is heavy. Again, a centrifugal switch is winding.
required for disconnecting the starting winding when the rotor
speed is approximately 25 per cent of the rated speed. Most single phase motors designed for general application have
provision for readily reversing connections to the starting
Although some single phase induction motors are rated as high as winding. Nothing can be done to a shaded pole motor to reverse
2 horsepower (hp), the major field of application is 1 hp, or less, the direction of rotation because the direction is determined by the

physical location of the copper shading ring. If, after starting, one field but, thereafter, will continue to rotate with the field at the
connection to a three phase motor is broken, the motor will same speed, as long as the load remains constant. If the load is too
continue to run but will deliver only one-third the rated power. large, the rotor will pull out of synchronism with the rotating field
Also, a two phase motor will run at one-half its rated power if one and, as a result, will no longer rotate with the field at the same
phase is disconnected. Neither motor will start under these speed. Thus the motor is said to be overloaded.
abnormal conditions. Such a simple motor as that shown in Figure below is never used.
The idea of using some mechanical means of rotating the poles is
Synchronous Motor impractical because another motor would be required to perform
this work. Also, such an arrangement is unnecessary because a
The synchronous motor is one of the principal types of AC rotating magnetic field can be produced electrically by using
motors. Like the induction motor, the synchronous motor makes phased AC voltages. In this respect, the synchronous
use of a rotating magnetic field. Unlike the induction motor, motor is similar to the induction motor.
however, the torque developed does not depend on the induction The synchronous motor consists of a stator field winding similar
of currents in the rotor. Briefly, the principle of operation of the to that of an induction motor. The stator winding produces a
synchronous motor is as follows: rotating magnetic field. The rotor may be a permanent magnet, as
in small single phase synchronous motors used for clocks and
A multiphase source of AC is applied to the stator windings, and a other small precision equipment, or it may be an electromagnet,
rotating magnetic field is produced. A direct current is applied to energized from a DC source of power and fed through slip rings
the rotor winding, and another magnetic field is produced. The into the rotor field coils, as in an alternator.
synchronous motor is so designed and constructed that these two In fact, an alternator may be operated either as an alternator or a
fields react to each other in such a manner that the rotor is dragged synchronous motor.
along and rotates at the same speed as the rotating magnetic field Since a synchronous motor has little starting torque, some means
produced by the stator windings. must be provided to bring it up to synchronous speed. The most
common method is to start the motor at no load, allow it to reach
An understanding of the operation of the synchronous motor can full speed, and then energize the magnetic field. The magnetic
be obtained by considering the simple motor of Figure below. field of the rotor locks with the magnetic field of the stator
Assume that poles A and B are being rotated clockwise by some and the motor operates at synchronous speed.
mechanical means in order o produce a rotating magnetic field,
they induce poles of opposite polarity in the soft iron rotor, and
forces of attraction exist between corresponding north and south
poles.
Consequently, as poles A and B rotate, the rotor is dragged along
at the same speed. However, if a load is applied to the rotor shaft,
the rotor axis will momentarily fall behind that of the rotating

reason, all synchronous motors have some kind of starting device.

One type
Figure - Synchronous motor.
Figure - Illustrating the operation of a synchronous of simple starter is another motor, either AC or DC, which brings
motor. the rotor up to approximately 90 per cent of its synchronous
speed. The starting motor is then disconnected, and the rotor locks
The magnitude of the induced poles in the rotor shown in Figure in step with the rotating field. Another starting method is a second
10-298 is so small that sufficient torque cannot be developed for winding of the squirrel cage type on the rotor. This induction
most practical loads. To avoid such a limitation on motor winding brings the rotor almost to synchronous speed, and when
operation, a winding is placed on the rotor and energized with DC. the DC is connected to the rotor windings, the rotor pulls into step
A rheostat placed in series with the DC source provides the with the field. The latter method is the more commonly used.
operator of the machine with a means of varying the strength of
the rotor poles, thus placing the motor under control for varying
loads The synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor. The
rotor is heavy and, from a dead stop, it is impossible to bring the
rotor into magnetic lock with the rotating magnetic field. For this

of a 28-volt system connected in the field circuit of the exciter. A

Voltage Regulation of Alternators regulator controls the exciter field current and thus regulates the
exciter output voltage applied to the alternator field.
The problem of voltage regulation in an AC system does not
differ basically from that in a DC system. In each case, the Alternator Transistorized Regulators
function of the regulator system is to control voltage, maintain a
balance of circulating current throughout the system, and Many aircraft alternator systems use a transistorized voltage
eliminate sudden changes in voltage (anti-hunting) when a load is regulator to control the alternator output. Before studying this
applied to the system. However, there is one important difference section, a review of transistor principles may be helpful.
between the regulator system of DC generators and alternators
operated in a parallel configuration. The load carried by any A transistorized voltage regulator consists mainly of transistors,
particular DC generator in either a two or four generator system diodes, resistors, capacitors, and, usually, a thermistor. In
depends on its voltage as compared with the bus voltage, while operation, current flows through a diode and transistor path to the
the division of load between alternators depends upon the generator field. When the proper voltage level is reached, the
adjustments of their speed governors, which are controlled by the regulating components cause the transistor to cut off conduction to
frequency and droop circuits discussed in the previous section on control the alternator field strength. The regulator operating range
alternator constant-speed drive systems. is usually adjustable through a narrow range. The thermistor
When AC generators are operated in parallel, frequency and provides temperature compensation for the circuitry. The
voltage must both be equal. Where a synchronizing force is transistorized voltage regulator shown in Figure will be referred to
required to equalize only the voltage between DC generators, in explaining the operation of this type of regulator.
synchronizing forces are required to equalize both voltage and
speed (frequency) between AC generators. On a comparative The AC output of the generator is fed to the voltage regulator,
basis, the synchronizing forces for AC generators are much where it is compared to a reference voltage, and the difference is
greater than for DC generators. When AC generators are of applied to the control amplifier section of the regulator. If the
sufficient size and are operating at unequal frequencies and output is too low, field strength of the AC exciter generator is
terminal voltages, serious damage may result if they are suddenly increased by the circuitry in the regulator. If the output is too high,
connected to each other through a common bus. To avoid this, the the field strength is reduced.
generators must be synchronized as closely as possible before The power supply for the bridge circuit is CR1, which provides
connecting them together. full-wave rectification of the three phase output from transformer
Regulating the voltage output of a DC exciter, which supplies T1. The DC output voltages of CR1 are proportional to the
current to the alternator rotor field, best controls the output average phase voltages. Power is supplied from the negative end
voltage of an alternator. This is accomplished by the regulation of the power supply through point B, R2, point C, zener diode
(CR5), point D, and to the parallel hook up of V1 and R1. Take
off point C of the bridge is located between resistor R2 and the

zener diode. In the other leg of the reference bridge, resistors R9, the generator output voltage drops, point C will be negative with
R7, and the temperature compensating resistor RT1 are connected respect to the wiper arm of R7. Conversely, if the generator
in series with V1 and R1 through points B, A, and D. The output voltage output increases, the polarity of the voltage between
of this leg of the bridge is at the wiper arm of R7. As generator the two points will be reversed.
voltage changes occur, for example, if the voltage lowers, the The bridge output, taken between points C and A, is connected
voltage across R1 and V1 between the emitter and the base of transistor Q1. With the
generator output voltage low, the voltage from the bridge will be
negative to the emitter and positive to the base. This is a forward
bias signal to the transistor, and the emitter to collector current
will therefore increase. With the increase of current, the voltage
across emitter resistor R11 will increase. the transistor, and the
emitter to collector current will therefore increase. With the
increase of current, the voltage across emitter resistor R11 will
increase.
This, in turn, will apply a positive signal to the base
of transistor Q4, increasing its emitter to collector current
and increasing the voltage drop across the emitter resistor
R10.
This will give a positive bias to the base of Q2, which will
increase its emitter to collector current and increase the voltage
drop across its emitter resistor R4. This positive signal will control
output transistor Q3. The positive signal on the base of Q3 will
increase the emitter to collector current.
The control field of the exciter generator is in the collector circuit.
Figure. Transistorized voltage regulator. Increasing the output of the exciter generator will increase the
field strength of the AC generator, which will increase the
(once V2 starts conducting) will remain constant. The total generator output.
voltage change will occur across the bridge circuit. Since the To prevent exciting the generator when the frequency is at a low
voltage across the zener diode remains constant (once it starts value, there is an under speed switch located near the F+ terminal.
conducting), the total voltage change occurring in that leg of the When the generator reaches a suitable operating frequency, the
bridge will be across resistor R2. In the other leg of the bridge, the switch will close and allow the generator to be excited.
voltage change across the resistors will be proportional to their
resistance values. Therefore, the voltage change across R2 will be Another item of interest is the line containing resistors R27, R28,
greater than the voltage change across R9 to wiper arm of R7. If and R29 in series with the normally closed contacts of the K1

relay. The operating coil of this relay is found in the lower left- energy-to-weight ratios, no memory effect, and a slow discharge
hand part of the schematic. Relay K1 is connected across the charge rate when not in use. They are being introduced for aircraft
power supply (CR4) for the transistor amplifier. When the applications (e.g. in smoke detectors) on a cautious basis because
generator is started, electrical energy is supplied from the 28-volt they are significantly more susceptible to thermal runaway.
DC bus to the exciter generator field, to “flash the field” for initial Applications on aircraft now include engine start and emergency
excitation. When the field of the exciter generator has been back-up power, the first such application of the devices in the
energized, the AC generator starts to produce, and as it builds up, business aviation sector.
relayK1 is energized, opening the “field flash” circuit. In the longer term, they are being developed for main battery
applications in fact they are being used in B-787 aircraft. They
offer several advantages compared to lead-acid and nickel-
Lithium batteries cadmium
products, including:
Lithium batteries include a family of over 20 different products - longer life
with many types of anodes, cathodes and electrolytes. The type of - less weight
materials selected depends on many factors, e.g. cost, capacity, - low maintenance
temperature life etc.; these are all driven by what the application - reduced charging time.
requirements are. Disadvantages are the higher product cost and the fact that the
Applications range from consumer products (accounting for the electrolyte is extremely flammable. They can lose up to 10% of
largest market requirement) through to specialist applications their storage capacity every year from when they are
including communications and medical equipment. Aircraft are manufactured, irrespective of usage. The rate at which the ageing
often equipped with systems requiring an autonomous source of process occurs is subject to temperature; higher temperatures
energy, e.g. emergency locator beacons, life rafts and life jackets. results in faster ageing.
Lithium (Li) is one of the alkali group of reactive metals it is one
of the lightest elements, giving it an immediate advantage for The lithium-ion main aircraft battery will not be
aircraft applications. a ‘ drop-in ’ replacement for main battery applications.
It has a single valence electron with low combining power, Safety features are required within the aircraft as well as in the
therefore readily becoming a positive ion. The materials used in battery. These features include protection circuits and hardware to
these cells are: maintain voltage and Current within safe limits. The nominal cell
electrolyte: lithium-ion voltage is 3.6V, charging requires a constant voltage of 4.2V with
cathode: cobalt associated current limiting. When the cell voltage age reaches 4.2
anode: graphite. V, and the current drops to approximately 7% of the initial
Lithium-ion is a fast-growing and promising battery technology. charging current, the cell is fully recharged.
This type of battery is often found in consumer products (mobile Figure illustrates the typical discharge curve of a lithium-ion cell
phones and laptop computers) because they have very high when discharged at the 0.2 C rate. Lithium-ion cells have a very

flat discharge curve, and cell voltage cannot be used to determine

the state of charge. The effective capacity of the lithium-ion cell is
increased with low discharge rates and reduced if the cell is
discharged at higher rates.
How lithium-ion batteries work
Software -based monitoring and alarms are needed for safe
operation during charging. Specific design and maintenance Like any other battery, a rechargeable lithium-ion battery is
considerations for these batteries in aircraft include: made of one or more power-generating compartments
called cells. Each cell has essentially three components:
- maintaining safe cell temperatures and pressures a positive electrode (connected to the battery's positive or
- mitigating against explosion + terminal), a negative electrode (connected to the
- preventing the electrolyte escaping from the negative or − terminal), and a chemical called
battery an electrolyte in between them. The positive electrode is
-disconnecting the charging source in the event of typically made from a chemical compound called lithium-
over-temperature cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or, in newer batteries, from lithium
- providing a low battery charge warning. iron phosphate (LiFePO4). The negative electrode is
generally made from carbon (graphite) and the electrolyte
(most commonly used electrolyte is comprised
of lithium salt, such as LiPF6 in an organic solution) varies
from one type of battery to another—but isn't too important
in understanding the basic idea of how the battery works.
All lithium-ion batteries work in broadly the same way. When

the battery is charging up, the lithium-cobalt oxide, positive
electrode gives up some of its lithium ions, which move
through the electrolyte to the negative, graphite electrode
and remain there. The battery takes in and stores energy
during this process. When the battery is discharging, the
lithium ions move back across the electrolyte to the positive
electrode, producing the energy that powers the battery. In
both cases, electrons flow in the opposite direction to the
ions around the outer circuit. Electrons do not flow through
Figure - Lithium-ion cell discharge characteristics the electrolyte: it's effectively an insulating barrier, so far as
electrons are concerned.

The movement of ions (through the electrolyte) and

electrons (around the external circuit, in the opposite
direction) are interconnected processes, and if either stops
so does the other. If ions stop moving through the
electrolyte because the battery completely discharges,
electrons can't move through the outer circuit either—so you Lithium-ion Battery used in B-787 Aircraft
lose your power. Similarly, if you switch off whatever the
battery is powering, the flow of electrons stops and so does
the flow of ions. The battery essentially stops discharging at Main Battery and APU battery
a high rate (but it does keep on discharging, at a very slow
rate, even with the appliance disconnected). 1. The main battery supplies power to the captain and first
officer instrument buses through the main battery relay
Unlike simpler batteries, lithium-ion ones have built (MBR).
in electronic controllers that regulate how they charge and
discharge. They prevent the overcharging and overheating 2. Battery power is supplied when the aircraft is on the
that can cause lithium-ion batteries to explode in some ground and:
circumstances. - The BATTERY switch is selected ON with no other
source of power connected to the airplane
- A remote switch (refuelling switch, for example) is
selected ON.
3. Battery power is also supplied during airplane shutdown

- Lets systems complete their power down sequence.
4. The main battery supplies power to the hot battery bus

(HBB)
- The HBB is in the P300 panel.
5. The main battery is in the forward EE bay.
6. The APU battery supplies 28v dc power for:

- APU start
- Navigation lights (during towing operations)

7. The APU battery and APU hot battery bus are in the aft loads during emergency aircraft operations until the RAT
EE bay. generator is deployed. The main battery can also provide
- The APU hot battery bus is part of the P49 panel. braking power after landing. The main battery is always
connected to the main hot battery bus (HBB) through the
System Description - battery diode module (BDM), and through the main battery
The main battery supplies standby power for: relay (MBR).
- Flight critical components and loads until the ram air
turbine (RAT) extends It will supply power to the captain or first officer instrument
- Electric brakes when all other 28v dc sources are not bus for one of these conditions:
available -On the ground with the battery switch in the ON position
- Refueling the left main tank (15 minutes maximum and no other source of power available (on-ground battery-
- Hot battery bus (hot BB) only mode)
- Towing - Refueling panel power switch is in BATT
- Ground operations initial power. - In the air and a loss of power to the captain instrument
bus.
The auxiliary power unit (APU) battery can supply 28v dc
to the APU start power unit (SPU) for APU start. The APU APU Battery
battery can also supply 28v dc to lights during towing
operations. The main battery is the same as the APU The APU battery can supply power to start the APU from
battery. The battery is a 28v dc lithium-ion battery with a the APU hot battery bus.
capacity of 50 ampere-hours. During a battery start of the APU, the start power unit (SPU)
The battery has an internal battery monitoring unit (BMU) changes 28v dc from the APU hot battery bus to 115v ac.
that does these functions: The autotransformer rectifier unit (ATRU) that usually gets
- Supplies battery status 235v ac power from R2 235v ac bus changes the 115v
- Controls cell voltage balance ac to +/-135v dc for the CMSC that starts the APU using the
- Makes the battery built-in test and failure annunciation to right APU starter generator (ASG). In a 5-minute period,
the battery charger the APU battery can do 2 tries that do not start the APU
- Gives protection for overcharge and overheat. (45 seconds each) and then one more 45-second try
that starts the APU. The APU battery also supplies power
Main Battery (from the APU HBB) to loads necessary for APU start, such
as APU controller (APUC) and the APU inlet door actuator.
-The main battery provides emergency power if all AC is
lost. It has sufficient capacity to supply power to all standby Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM)
Main Battery Disconnect

Wait 30 minutes if you deactivate the forward external left - BMU4: BMU4 has its initial BITE and monitoring for cell
and right electrical power sources on the airplane. The deep over-discharge and battery high current charge from
wireless emergency light system (WELS) comes on if you airplane systems. BMU4 latches inhibit output signals when
disconnect the main battery before 30 minutes. If the WELS cell deep over-discharge and/or battery high current
Comes on, you will discharge its battery units in charge are detected. In addition, these latched signals are
approximately 15 minutes. The charging time for the WELS used also as signals for battery GSE. BMU 4 sends inhibit
battery units takes a minimum of two hours. If you must tow signals to the BCU when it detects a failure.
the airplane using towing power it should be noted that the
main battery energizes the brakes for the main landing gear. The battery has these external electrical connections on its
If the parking brake is set and you disconnect or remove the front face:
main battery, you cannot release the parking brake. - Ground Stud
Component Maintenance Manual (CMM) Battery uses Li-ion - Power connector J3
technology to provide stable DC power source. It contains - Auxiliary connector J1.
lithium oxide positive electrode, carbon negative electrode,
plastic separator, and organic electrolyte. It is an 8-cell Battery details:
assembly composed of 4 cell assembly A and 4 cell - Nominal voltage: 28.8v dc
assembly B. The Battery is also protected from overcharge - Open Circuit Voltage (Fully Charged): 32.2v dc +/- 0.35v
by a built-in contactor. Internal to the battery are 2 battery dc
monitoring units (main BMU and sub BMU). Their output - Weight: 29.3 kg (64.6 lbs)
discrete signals are used by the battery charger unit (BCU) - Nominal capacity: 65 AH (@ 1 hour rate)
and airplane systems for safety protections. The main BMU - End of life capacity: 50 AH (@ 1 hour rate)
has 2 monitoring units, BMU1 and BMU 2. SUB BMU is has - Electrolytes: carbonates.
2 monitoring units, BMU3 and BMU 4.
- BMU 1: BMU1 has its initial BITE and monitoring unit for WARNING: THE LI-ION CELLS AND BATTERIES
cell overcharge, cell over discharge, cell overheat or DELIVER HIGH ENERGY DISCHARGE.
overcooling, and cell imbalance. BMU1 sends inhibit signals USE CAUTION WHEN HANDLING THE CELLS
to the BCU when it detects a failure. PROPERLY TO AVOID SHORTING OR MISUSE THAT
- BMU 2: BMU 2 has its initial BITE and monitoring for cell COULD RESULT IN RAPID UNCONTROLLED
overcharge. BMU2 sends inhibit signals to the BCU when it ELECTRICAL, CHEMICAL, OR THERMAL ENERGY
detects a failure. RELEASE.
- BMU 3: BMU3 has its initial BITE, contactor initial BITE,
and monitoring unit for battery and cell overcharge. BMU3 WARNING: BE CAREFUL WHEN YOU MOVE THE
sends inhibit signals to the BCU when it detects a failure. In COMPONENT. THE COMPONENT IS HEAVY. INJURIES
addition, BMU3 opens a built-in contactor for an overcharge. TO PERSONS CAN OCCUR.

(M) Disconnect the APU battery (AMM DDG 24-31-01).

CAUTION: WHEN YOU ARE AWARE OF AN AROMATIC - Open and collar the P400 panel circuit breaker APU BAT
OR IRRITATING ODOR BY ELECTROLYTE LEAKAGE, CHGR INPUT.
MOVE THE BATTERY TO A WELL-VENTILATED AREA. - Open and collar the P49 panel circuit breaker APU BAT
OTHERWISE, THIS ODOR WILL DAMAGE YOUR CHGR OUTPUT.
HEALTH SUCH AS A DRY THROAT, HEADACHES, -Disconnect and stow the APU battery signal connector.
VOMITING, OR PAIN IN YOUR CHEST. - Disconnect and stow the electrical connector to the APU
battery.
-If the APU battery shows signs of leakage, the battery and
Safety Precaution: Electrolyte can cause dangerous any leaked material must be removed before dispatch.
damage to the skin when electrolyte leakage from cells Functional schematic
occurs. Electrolyte is very dangerous for eyes when Refer to functional schematics 24-31-11, 24-31-21 sheet 1
electrolyte leakage from cells occurs. The electrolyte & 2 for details on electrical circuit, connection and layout.
compound is caustic and can cause dangerous irritations. If
it touches the skin, rinse the touched part with water. If the
electrolyte touches eyes, rinse them with water for
a minimum of 15 minutes and immediately get a doctor.
Electrolyte ingestion can cause damage to the throat, the
respiratory tract, and alimentary tract.
Do not try to vomit. Mix the solution with a lot of water. Get a
doctor immediately.
Electrolyte fumes can cause dry throat, coughing,
headaches, vomiting, or pain in your chest. Persons that
have breathed electrolyte fumes must get fresh air, oxygen,
or artificial respiration.
Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)

The
Boeing MMEL permits dispatch with the APU Battery
inoperative provided:
- VFSG systems operate normally
- Flight stays within 180 minutes of landing at a suitable
airport.
MAINTENANCE

Main Battery Charger and APU Battery Charger the battery senses a fault and sets one of the inhibit charge
1. The main and APU battery chargers: signals to true.
- Charge the related battery Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)
- Supply overheat protection.
The status message ELEC APU BATTERY CHARGER
2. The main battery charger gets 28v dc from captain shows with an inoperative APU Battery Charger. The
instrument bus. Boeing MMEL dispatch if the APU battery charger is
inoperative provided:
3. The APU battery charger gets 28v dc from the first officer - APU battery voltage is verified
instrument bus. - APU battery charger is deactivated
System Description - APU battery voltage is verified to be sufficient for APU
The main battery charger and APU battery charger receive start before each departure.
unregulated 28v dc from the captain and first officer
instrument bus respectively and change these to regulated, MAINTENANCE (M)
46 amperes, 32.2v dc power output to charge or hold the Deactivate the APU battery charger and verify that the APU
charge of the batteries. The main battery charger and APU battery voltage is sufficient to permit an APU start (AMM
battery charger charge the main and APU battery DDG 24-31-03).
respectively when these conditions are true: - Open and collar the P400 panel circuit breaker APU BAT
- Battery open circuit voltage is less than 32.2 volts (this is CHGR INPUT.
a battery that is not fully charged and will accept more - Open and collar the P49 panel circuit breaker APU BAT
charge) CHGR OUTPUT.
- The first officer instrument bus is energized (APU battery - Before each departure, verify on the ELECTRICAL
only) maintenance page 1 that the APU battery voltage is more
- The main battery relay (MBR) is open than 32v dc.
- The correct signals are available from the battery
monitoring unit (BMU). The Boeing MMEL permits dispatch if if the APU battery
charger is inoperative and the APU cannot be started
The status message, MAIN BATTERY LOW, is set when provided:
the main battery charger sends a signal that the main - APU battery charger is deactivated
battery is less than the minimum state of charge (SOC) for - VFSG systems operate normally
dispatch (less than 31v dc). The time necessary to fully - Flight remains within 180 minutes of landing at a suitable
charge a discharged battery at 20% capacity is 1.5 hours. airport.
Charging stops only if the MBR is closed or the BMU inside
MAINTENANCE (M)

- Deactivate the APU battery charger (AMM DDG 24-31-

03).
- Open and collar the P400 panel circuit breaker APU BAT Inverters
CHGR INPUT.
- Open and collar the P49 panel circuit breaker APU BAT Inverters are used to convert direct current into alternating
CHGR OUTPUT. current. The input is typically from the battery; the output can be a
low voltage (26 V AC) for use in instruments, or high voltage
Component Maintenance Manual (CMM) (115 V AC single or three phase) for driving loads such as pumps.
Older rotary inverter technology uses a DC motor to drive an
The battery charger charges the battery in one of two AC generator, see Fig. 6.6 . A typical rotary inverter has a
modes, constant current or constant voltage. The charger four-pole compound DC motor driving a star-wound AC
automatically operates in the correct mode depending on generator. The outputs can be single- or three phase; 26 V AC,
the battery state of charge. or 115 V AC. The desired output frequency of 400 Hz is
determined by the DC input
Input Power:
- Rated input voltage range: 22 to 32v dc
- Maximum input voltage: 46.3v dc, 100 ms
Output Power:
- Voltage range: 16 to 32.2v dc
- Current range: 0 to 46 amps DC
- Maximum rated power: 1527 watts
Weight: 11 lbs. (4.98 kg)
Power conversion
Equipment used on aircraft to provide secondary
power supplies include:
Figure - Rotary inverter schematic
- inverters
- transformer rectifier units (TRU)
- transformers.

Alternatively they are used to provide power for passenger use,

e.g. lap-top computers. The DC input voltage is applied to an
oscillator that produces a sinusoidal output voltage. This output is
connected to a transformer that provides the required output
voltage.
Frequency and voltage controls are usually integrated within the
static inverter; it therefore has no external means of adjustment.
A typical inverter used on a large commercial aircraft can produce
1 kVA. Static inverters are located in an electrical equipment bay;
a remote on/off switch in the flight compartment is used to isolate
the inverter if required. Figure shows an inverter installation
in a general aviation aircraft.
Figure - Static inverter schematic
voltage. Various regulation methods are employed,

e.g. a trimming resistor (R ) connected in series with the DC
motor field sets the correct speed when connected to the 14 or
28V DC supply.
NOTE - The desired output frequency of a rotary inverter is
determined by the DC input voltage.
Modern aircraft equipment is based on the static inverter ; it

is solid state, i.e. it has no moving parts (see Fig. . The DC power
supply is connected to an oscillator; this produces a low-voltage
400 Hz output. This output is stepped up to the desired AC output
Voltage via a transformer.
The static inverter can either be used as the sole source of AC

Figure - Static inverter installation
power or to supply specific equipment in the event that the main
generator has failed.
Transformer rectifier units

Transformer rectifier units (TRU) convert AC into DC; these are windings). A changing current in the primary windings creates a
often used to charge batteries from AC generators. A schematic changing magnetic field; this magnetic field induces a changing
diagram for a TRU is shown in Fig . voltage in the secondary windings. By connecting a load in series
with the secondary windings, current flows in the transformer.
The output voltage of the transformer (secondary windings) is
determined by the input voltage on the primary and ratio of turns
on the primary and secondary windings. In practical applications,
we convert high voltages into low voltages or vice versa; this
conversion is termed step down or step up. (More transformer
theory is given in earlier chapter.)
Circuits needing only small step-up/down ratios employ auto-
transformers . These are formed from single winding, tapped in a
specific way to form primary and secondary windings. Referring
to Fig. when an alternating voltage is applied to the primary
(P1 –P 2) the magnetic field produces links with all turns on the
windings and an EMF is induced
in each turn. The output voltage is developed across the secondary
The three-phase 115/200 V 400 Hz input is connected to star-

wound primary windings of a transformer. The dual secondary
windings are wound in star and delta configuration. Outputs from
each of the secondary windings are rectified and connected to the
main output terminals. A series ( shunt ) resistor is used to derive
the current output of the TRU Overheat warnings are provided by
locating thermal switches at key points within the TRU.
Transformers
Transformers are devices that convert (or transfer) electrical

energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled Auto-transformer circuit arrangement
electrical conductors. The transformer used as a power supply
source can be considered as having an input (the primary
conductors, or windings) and output (the secondary conductors, or

A. The main battery relay connects the main and APU hot battery
buses to their respective battery buses and switches the main
battery charger into the TR mode when energized.
B. The main battery transfer relay connects the transformer
rectifier unit No. 3 (DC bus 3) to the main and APU battery buses
when energized.
Three phase auto-transformer

Figure (a) Autotransformer principles; (b) three-phase
autotransformer
turns (S1 –S2 ) which can be connected for either step-up or step- Main Battery, Battery Transfer, and APU Battery Transfer Relay
down ratios. In practice, auto-transformers are smaller in size and
weight than conventional transformers. Their disadvantage is that,
since the primary and secondary windings are physically
connected, a breakdown in insulation places the full primary APU Battery Bus Transfer Relay
e.m.f. onto the secondary winding. (Figure )
The arrangement for a three-phase auto-transformer is shown in The APU battery bus transfer relay switches the APU battery bus
Fig. This is a star- connected step-up configuration. Primary from the APU hot battery bus to the main hot battery bus during
input voltage is the 200V AC from the aircraft alternator; multiple APU start.
outputs are derived from the secondary tapping’s: 270, 320, 410
and 480V AC. Applications for this type of arrangement include Charger Operation
windscreen heating . (Figure 1 and Figure 2)
Functional Description
747-400
Main Battery and Battery Transfer Relays
(Figure )

(1) Under normal ac input power characteristics and during charge restart automatically when the fault condition is removed. The
and discharge operations, both of the battery/charger systems battery charger output is current-limited to 65 amps and the
maintain 18.0 to 36.0 volts dc power at the terminals of the battery charger output wiring is rated for 75 amps continuous
utilization loads connected to the hot battery buses. When the current.
battery buses transfer to their respective hot battery buses, 18.0 to
29.5 volts dc power will be maintained at load equipment (7) A discharged battery (20 volts) should completely recharge
terminals supplied from the battery buses and hot battery buses. within 75 minutes. If the charge command continues beyond this
maximum charge time and approaches 100 minutes, the charger
(2) During the TRU mode of operation, the battery/charger system will switch into the constant voltage charge mode (27.75 volts).
will maintain 23.0 to 29.5 volts dc power at load equipment
terminals supplied from the hot battery buses and battery buses. (8) If the battery sensing connector is disconnected, a sensing loop
in the charger will be opened causing the charger to shut down.
(3) When supplied with normal ac input power characteristics, the
system voltage ripple will not exceed 0.5 volt peak to average. (9) The battery charger will not start unless the battery voltage is
above 4 volts when power is first applied to the battery charger.
(4) The system utilizes a thermal sensing device internal to the
battery to monitor the battery temperature. The battery charger (10) These last two protective circuits prevent charger operation,
uses the output of the thermal sensor to adjust the charge voltage if a battery is not connected to the system.
inflection point for the battery overcharge timing, and to prevent
charging if the battery temperature exceeds 1448F. (11) A failure annunciation circuit is incorporated in the battery
charger which opens an internal ground when the charger shuts
down due to battery over temperature, open battery connectors,
(5) In addition to the charge inhibit function when the battery or when input three-phase power is removed. A failure of the
temperature is high, as described above, the system also uses a battery charger is annunciated by an advisory level message BAT
normally open thermal switch located in the battery to shut off the CHARGER MAIN and/or BAT CHARGER APU on EICAS.
ac input power to the battery charger in the event that the
temperature exceeds 1558F. The intent of this protection is to (12) Some battery chargers have two annunciator lights. One light
prevent thermal runaway. AC input power is interrupted by means is used to monitor the battery charger condition. The other light is
of the battery charger disable relay. used to monitor the battery condition. These lights are in addition
to the EICAS message signals. This battery charger operates in the
(6) Two self-protective functions are incorporated into the battery same manner as battery chargers without annunciator lights.
charger which will interrupt charger operation when overvoltage
(135 volts) and under voltage (94 volts) input power is applied, or
when an overcurrent fault condition exists. The charger will

(13) The battery cells have an initial acceptance capacity of 47 (21) A half-wave bridge inverter transforms the 270-volt dc power
ampere-hours and a minimum return to service capacity of 40 into a 20 kHz pulse-width modulated quasi-square wave.
ampere-hours. The battery is capable of supplying 70 amps for a
minimum of 30 minutes to a cut off voltage of 20 volts when cold (22) A power rectifier assembly rectifies the half-wave bridge
soaked at a temperature of 08F. inverter output and provides a 40-kHz train of pulse-width
modulated pulses at nominal 28 volts dc.
(14) During standby conditions, the voltage at the battery
terminals will not be less than 20 volts. (23) Output filtering L-C components is used for EMI emission
suppression. An integrated circuit is used in the logic part of the
(15) The battery charger is installed in the airplane to perform two inverter drive circuit.
different functions, namely, to provide a dc output of 18.0 to 36.0
volts for regulated charging of the battery, and to operate as a (24) A "soft start" circuit is included in the charger basic control
transformer-rectifier to supply 23.0 to 29.5 volts power should loop. When the "soft start" circuit is not in its inhibit mode, the
three or more TRUs fail. regulator loop controls the converter (input ac power to 270-volt
dc power), via the pulse-width modulator and drive circuit,
(16) During APU starting, the APU battery charger is disabled. allowing the input current to build up gradually.
(17) The battery chargers are energized from the 115-volt ac (25) The battery charger is designed for continuous operation with
ground service bus through 3-phase thermal circuit breakers. both natural convection and forced air cooling. Blow-through
cooling air flow is provided.
(18) The battery charger has three distinct modes of operation, the
constant current charge mode, the constant voltage charge (26) Both the APU and main battery are charged at a constant
mode, and the T-R mode. current to a 12 per cent overcharged condition based on time to
(19) The battery charger design uses a switching mode high reach a temperature compensated voltage inflection point.
frequency (20 kHz) power inversion technique as described (27) The battery charger is capable of recharging a completely
below. discharged battery to a 100 per cent state of charge within 75
minutes.
(20) A full wave rectifier circuit converts the three-phase, 400-Hz, The battery charger has two charging modes:
115-volt power input into nominal 270-volt dc power. EMI
filtering components consisting of capacitors and inductors are (a) Constant Current Charging Mode
included in the charger input circuit to attenuate audio and radio 1) The battery terminal voltage is sensed and if the voltage level
frequency currents and voltages. falls below 23 ±0.1 volt, a constant current charge of 38 amps is
initiated. As charging progresses, the battery voltage will rise and
will reach a temperature compensated inflection voltage level

(which for normal ambient temperature is about 31 volts dc). The (28) When an external normally closed circuit to ground is opened
inflection voltage level is automatically adjusted for battery (pin 8 of the battery charger connector), the battery charger will
temperature as measured by the temperature sensor inside the operate in the T-R unit mode with a regulated output voltage
battery. The time, from start of charge to reach this level, is of 27.75 volts.
"memorized" by the charger. The charger then continues to charge This mode of operation occurs whenever the battery buses transfer
the battery for a selected percentage of the time required to reach to the hot battery buses when input power to the battery chargers
this temperature-compensated voltage inflection point. After is present.
elapse of the overcharge period, the constant current charging
cycle is terminated and a constant voltage charge mode is (29) In this mode, the unit is rated for a continuous output load of
initiated. 60 amps with forced air cooling. With natural convection cooling
2) The battery charger will also start a charge cycle independently only, the unit can supply an output load of 50 amps for at least 30
of the battery terminal voltage whenever power to the charger is minutes.
initially applied or power to the charger is interrupted for longer
than 0.5 seconds. (30) The unit efficiency and power factor are a minimum of 82
3) If the battery is at a very low temperature, the voltage per cent and 0.92, respectively, for all loads between 50 and 100
temperature-compensated inflection point is shifted upwards to a per cent of full load.
maximum of 36 volts dc.
(b) Constant Voltage Charge Mode

1) Upon completion of the overcharge cycle the charger will
assume a constant voltage mode of operation, holding the voltage
level at 27.75 volts. In this mode the charger is also current
limited at 38 amps. The purpose of this floating mode is to assure
that small load demands on the battery will not deplete its
capacity.
2) The model 4-254-03 battery charger operates in a hysteresis
mode when it is in the constant voltage mode and at low current
(less than approximately 3A). The charger will shut down and
restart in a cyclic operation. The battery voltage will change in a
Saw tooth fashion by up to 100 mV p-p. The period of the off-on
operation varies with the condition of the battery, but is
approximately 10 seconds.

Main Battery/Charger Simplified Schematic
APU Battery/Charger Simplified Schematic

NO BREAK POWER TRANSFER (NBPT)
A330/A340 Electrical generation No Break Power Transfer

Electrical power can be supplied to an aircraft’s AC bus bar from
a variety of sources: from the Integrated Drive Generators (IDG)
on the engines, the generator on the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU),
or externally, from the Ground Power Unit (GPU). On previous
aircraft, when transferring from one power source to the other
there is a momentary break in supply. Momentarily blank screens
in the cockpit during engine start and cabin lights switching off
then on are the most visible signs of break power transfers.
System description & function
The electrical generation system has several generating channels

ensuring segregation in the electrical distribution system and
redundancy in case of generator failure. Generators are capable
of taking over the loads from other electrical channels following a
chain of priorities that are managed by the Electrical Contactor
Management System (ECMS). The ECMS manages the electrical
transfer when generators are successively connected to the
electrical network.
NBPT-
An electrical transfer without a break requires that the two
power sources are momentarily connected in parallel, i.e. they
are connected simultaneously to the same bus bar
1 - One source supplies both channels. On request for connection
of the second power source a synchronisation is initiated
2 - Upon synchronisation, power sources are paralleled during a
few milliseconds

3 - Paralleling is then stopped. Power sources supply their own contactors of side 1 of the electrical generation system and
channels ECMU 2 manages side 2. The electrical power transfers to the AC
bus bars are coordinated by the ECMUs based on the inputs from
CONVENTIONAL TRANSFER the GCU/GPCU and sets of auxiliary contacts of the various
If the NBPT function is not available, a conventional Break Power contactors of the electrical system.
Transfer (BPT) is achieved like on the aircraft of the previous NBPT operating principles
generation. SYNCHRONISATION AND PARALLELING
1 - One generator supplies both channels An NBPT is achieved by synchronising the voltage, phase and
2 - On request for connection of the 2nd generator, the power frequency of the power source already supplying an AC bus bar,
supply of the associated bus is removed for a few milliseconds with the power source to be connected to this bus bar. Upon
3 - The generator is then connected to its bus synchronisation the generators are momentarily connected in
parallel on the electrical network for a few milliseconds, then the
With AC power sources, the frequency, phase and voltage have original supplier is switched off. An NBPT cannot be achieved
to be synchronised before the paralleling, and it is the purpose of between external power A and B since the GPCU has no control
the NBPT function to perform this synchronisation. of the GPU parameters. Also during NBPT involving a GPU, other
Voltage, phase and frequency have to be synchronised within the generators have to be synchronised to the GPU parameters.
required time window NBPT WITH IDGS
Before NBPT between two IDGs their associated GCU tunes the
CONTROLS frequency of the generators to a Frequency Reference Unit (FRU)
provided by the GPCU. When the synchronisation is achieved a
GCU( GENERATOR CONTROL UNIT )This computer monitors and signal is sent to the ECMU by the GCUs to allow the two
controls the parameters of the Integrated Drive Generators and generators to operate in parallel for some milliseconds.
Auxiliary Power generator NBPT WITH THE AUXILIARY GENERATOR
GPCU (GROUND POWER CONTROL UNIT )The main purpose of Contrary to the IDG, the auxiliary generator has no frequency
this computer is to monitor the parameters of the ground power regulation device. The frequency of this generator depends
units and allow their connection to the aircraft network when directly on the rotation speed of the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).
parameters are within the limits. It also acts as a controller of the Thus before NBPT between a GPU and the APU generator, the
synchronisation between power sources during NBPT Electronic Control Box (ECB) tunes the rotation speed of the APU
ECMU (ELECTRICAL CONTACTOR MANAGEMENT UNIT) This to synchronize the auxiliary generator to the GPU frequency
computer controls the various AC and DC power contactors of
the electrical distribution system which is split in two. Two
ECMUs are installed on the aircraft. ECMU 1 manages the

NBPT WITH THE AUXILIARY GENERATOR

Contrary to the IDG, the auxiliary generator has no frequency
regulation device. The frequency of this generator depends
directly on the rotation speed of the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU).
Thus before NBPT between a GPU and the APU generator, the
Electronic Control Box (ECB) tunes the rotation speed of the APU
to synchronise the auxiliary generator to the GPU frequency
Conventional transfers
If for any reason the NBPT function is not available a
conventional electrical transfer (with break) lasting less than 200
multiseconds is performed. Aircraft systems have been designed
to sustain break power transfers of 200 multiseconds and so, no

system failure should result from a power transfer with break. contactor has an incorrect status. In this event there are
The reasons for having conventional break power transfers are dedicated fault messages and the Trouble Shooting Manual
provided hereafter. (TSM) provides the necessary instructions in order to identify the
NON STANDARD PROCEDURES cause of the inhibition and recover proper operation of the NBPT
The NBPT function has been designed in order to be operative on function.
the ground during the Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) Conclusion
described in the Flight Crew Operating Manual (FCOM). Outside The NBPT function has been designed in order to be available on the
these procedures or in flight the system performs conventional ground during the aircraft standard operating procedures. Outside
electrical transfers with a momentary break. these procedures Break Power Transfers are observed. However due to
FAILED SYNCHRONISATION some system behaviour affecting the synchronisation of the
generators, BPTs may also be observed randomly at a very limited rate
If for any reason the system is not able to perform the
even though the standard operating procedures have been followed. If
synchronisation within the required time window a BPT is
there is no failure message recorded and the rate of BPT remains
performed and no failure message is recorded in that case. There within acceptable limits there is no maintenance action required.
are several system behaviors’ that could affect the stability of Airbus has issued Service Information Letter SIL 24-070 and developed
parameters and so the ability of the system to keep the a simulation tool of the NBPT Function. This simulation tool illustrates
generators synchronised: in a user-friendly manner the information provided by the SIL and
• Ground power unit providing fluctuating parameters. allows a better understanding of the NBPT principles.
• IDG with worn piston and block bores.
• Electrical load variations at the time of the transfer (e.g flight
controls or cargo door operation).
• High oil viscosity in cold weather conditions.
• Simultaneous start or shut down of engines.
• Fluctuating Engine & APU rotation speed...
As a consequence the NBPT function cannot be available in 100%
of the electrical transfers. If the rate of BPTs remains within
acceptable limits and no failure message is recorded there is no
peculiar investigation required.
INADVERTENT PARALLELING
The NBPT function is inhibited if the system detects that a
paralleling with non-synchronised generators is likely to occur,
which would induce damage to aircraft equipment. Basically this
protection is activated if the electrical system sees that a

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THAKUR INSTITUTE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY

TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 1

Knowledge Levels – Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 2

Module 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)

TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 3

Module 13.5: ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)

Figure-1. DC and AC voltage curves. GENERATOR

TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 4

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into

Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a

The amount of voltage generated depends on:

 The strength of the magnetic field

Direction of the current in generator :

Figure 4 : Fleming’s Left-hand Rule

TIAT @ Copyright 2015 MODULE 13.5 5- 5

Either rule is applied depending upon the current type

The simplest generator is an ac generator. A simple generator,

Figure 5 : Simple Generator Figure 7 :

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Like position 2, the conductor is again moving perpendicular to

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The major parts, or assemblies, of a DC generator are, a field

Figure 10 : O/P of Elementary Generator

Principle shows that voltage is induced in the armature of a

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Figure 14 and 15, shows a cross-sectional view of a typical

The armature assembly of a generator consists of two primary

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undue wear of the commutator and yet hard enough to provide

Figure 14 : Typical DC Generator Commutator

Figure 16 : Carbon Brush

GENERATOR CONTROL SYSTEMS

Most generator control systems perform a number of functions

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DIFFERENTIAL VOLTAGE Figure 17 : Starter Generator

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A simple explanation of a starter-generator shows that the unit

A typical generator control circuit for low-output generators

Figure 18 : Generator Control Unit (GCU)

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Figure 18 : Voltage Regulator for Low-Output Generator

CARBON PILE REGULATORS

The carbon pile regulator controls DC generator output by sending

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Figure 21 : Voltage Regulator

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Figure 23 : Reverse - Current Relay

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Figure 25 : Power Distribution

As seen in Figure-24, above all three units of the regulator work

The AC electrical system can be supplied by the Engine

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Since certain electrical systems operate only on AC, many aircraft

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With this type of alternator, each of the three windings are

Figure 30 : Delta Connected 3-Phase Alternator

It this construction, an output lead is brought from each junction

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Regardless of size, all electrical generators, whether dc or ac,

1. A coil cutting through a magnetic field.

As long as there is relative motion between a conductor and a

The rotating-field alternator has a stationary armature winding and