07 Ducts PDF

Channel flow The law of the wall The friction law Pipe flow Roughness
Turbulence in Ducts
Maurizio Quadrio
DIA, Politecnico di Milano
2012
1 / 57
T URBULENT WALL FLOWS

AT LEAST ONE DIRECTION IS INHOMOGENEOUS
I NTERNAL FLOWS E XTERNAL FLOWS

• Plane channel flow • Boundary layer
• Circular pipe flow • Atmosferic boundary layer
• Duct flows are statistically 1d

• Similar to each other: the near-wall region is universal (?)
• Many complicating effects (roughness, curvature, etc)
2 / 57
O UTLINE
1 C HANNEL FLOW
2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL
3 T HE FRICTION LAW
4 P IPE FLOW
5 ROUGHNESS
3 / 57
T URBULENT PLANE CHANNEL FLOW

G EOMETRY AND DEFINITIONS
• Length scale δ
• Velocity scale
flow
Z 2δ
1
2d Ub = hui dy
2δ 0
y,v
Lx
Lz • Reynolds number
x,u
z,w
Ub δ
Reb =
ν
4 / 57
R EYNOLDS - AVERAGED EQUATIONS

T HE WALL - PARALLEL DERIVATIVES DISAPPEAR
d hv i
=0
dy
d2 hui d 1 ∂ hpi
0=ν − huv i −
dy 2 dy ρ ∂x
d D 2 E 1 ∂ hpi
0=− v −
dy ρ ∂y
The total stress is
d hui
τ(y ) ≡ µ − ρ huv i
dy
It leads to Proof
y
τ(y ) = τw 1 −
δ
5 / 57
T HE TOTAL STRESS
• Total stress is linear

• Viscous term relevant only
near wall
• Reynolds stresses relevant
throughout the channel
6 / 57
T HE FRICTION COEFFICIENT
A KEY QUANTITY FOR ENGINEERS
Two possible definitions

τw τw
cf ≡ 1
, Cf ≡ 1
2 2
2 ρUc 2 ρUb
T HE QUEST FOR A FRICTION LAW
• We look for a pressure gradient – flow rate relationship

• In non-dimensional form, we look for a Cf − Re relationship
7 / 57
I NTRODUCING THE INNER VARIABLES

A PPROPRIATE FOR DESCRIBING THE NEAR - WALL FLOW
Length and velocity scales formed with viscosity and wall stress
• Friction velocity: p
uτ ≡ τw /ρ
• Viscous length:
ν
δv ≡
uτ
By definition
uτ δv
≡1
ν
cf = 2 (uτ /Uc )2 and Cf = 2 (uτ /Ub )2
8 / 57
M EANING OF “+ UNITS ”
Friction Reynolds number
uτ δ
Reτ ≡
ν
Dimensionless wall distance
yuτ
y+ ≡
ν
y + > 50 Outer layer: no direct effect of viscosity on shear stresses

y + < 50 Viscous layer: direct effect of viscosity on shear stresses
y + < 5 Viscous sublayer: viscous stresses overwhelm shear
stresses
9 / 57
O UTLINE
1 C HANNEL FLOW
3 T HE FRICTION LAW
4 P IPE FLOW
5 ROUGHNESS
10 / 57
T HE MEAN VELOCITY PROFILE

D ETERMINED BY DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
The mean profile is determined by ρ, ν, δ , dpw /dx

On dimensional grounds:

d hui uτ y y
= Φ ,
dy y δv δ
with Φ an universal, non-dimensional function.

• δv scale of the viscous layer
• δ scale of the outer layer
11 / 57
T HE SEPARATION OF LAYERS
P RANDTL (1925)
Analogous to Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium hypotheses:

• If Re is large enough, an inner layer exists where hui is
determined by viscous scales alone
• If Re is large enough, an outer layer exists where hui is
determined by outer scales alone
• If Re is very large, an intermediate layer exists where hui
depends on the viscous length alone
12 / 57
T HE INNER LAYER
In the inner layer where y /δ 1:

d hui uτ y
= Φi
dy y δv

y y y
Φi = lim Φ ,
δv y /δ →0 δv δ
13 / 57
T HE LAW OF THE WALL

T HE UNIVERSAL FORM OF THE MEAN VELOCITY PROFILE
d hui+ 1 +

= Φ i y
dy + y+
Integrating from 0 to y + : the law of the wall
Z y+
1
hui+ = Φi (t) dt = f (y + )
0 t
Experiments: f (y + ) is an universal function
14 / 57
T HE VISCOUS SUBLAYER
In the viscous sublayer where y + :

• f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 1
• hui+ = y + + O y +4

Experiments: the profile is linear for y + . 5
15 / 57
T HE OUTER LAYER
In the outer layer where y + 1:
d hui uτ y
= Φo
dy y δ
y
y y
Φo = +lim Φ ,
δ y →∞ δv δ
16 / 57
T HE VELOCITY- DEFECT LAW

T HE UNIVERSAL FORM OF THE MEAN VELOCITY PROFILE
d hui dy y
= Φo
uτ y δ
Integrating between y /δ and 1: the velocity-defect law
Z 1
Uc − hui 1 y
= Φo (t) dt = F
uτ y /δ t δ
Experiments: F (y /δ ) is an universal function for channel flow

only
17 / 57
T HE LOGARITHMIC REGION
When Re an intermediate region exists for y + > 50 and

y /δ < 0.1
• y + is too large for viscosity to matter
• y /δ is too small for outer variables to matter
d hui y 1
Φi y + = =
dy uτ κ
d hui+ 1
+
=
dy κy +
1
hui+ = ln y + + A
κ
18 / 57
T HE LOGARITHMIC REGION (2)

A N ALTERNATIVE DERIVATION BY M ILLIKAN (1938)
When y + > 50 and y /δ < 0.1 an overlap region exists for inner
and outer layers.
The law of the wall and the velocity-defect law must hold both:
d hui y 1
= Φi y + = Φo (y /δ ) =

dy uτ κ
The defect-law at small y /δ is
Uc − hui 1 y
= − ln + A1
uτ κ δ
19 / 57
T HE PROFILE IN THE VISCOUS SUBLAYER
• Linear behavior within

available accuracy
• Tough measurement!
20 / 57
T HE LOG - LAW CONSTANTS
• κ is the von Kármán

constant
• Its universal value is
κ ≈ 0.41
• A is the log-law intercept
• Its value is scattered,
A ≈ 5.2
21 / 57
T HE DEFECT- LAW CONSTANTS
• A1 ≈ 0.2
• large uncertainty, no
universality
• A1 is larger for boundary
layer flows
22 / 57
T HE ( MANY ) LAYERS IN A TURBULENT CHANNEL FLOW
23 / 57
T HE R EYNOLDS STRESSES
DNS DATA AT Reτ = 390
• Anisotropy up to the
centerline
• Near-wall region contains
the most active turbulent
motions
24 / 57

• ui uj /k are uniform in the
log-law region
• Values similar to
homogeneous shear flow
• Shear stresses zero at the
centerline
25 / 57
• P and ε balance in the

log-law region
• S k /ε is uniform in the
log-law region
• P = 0 at the centerline
• Anisotropy decreases at
the centerline
26 / 57
L IMITING BEHAVIOR IS DICTATED BY THE WALL
Taylor series expansion for ui near the wall
ui = ai + bi y + ci y 2 + . . . i = 1, 2, 3
ai = 0 from no-slip and no-penetration
b2 = 0 from continuity
D E D E
u 2 = b12 y 2 + . . .
D E D E
v 2 = c22 y 4 + . . .
D E D E
w 2 = b32 y 2 + . . .
huv i = hb1 c2 i y 3 + . . .
27 / 57
BALANCE EQUATION FOR TURBULENT KINETIC ENERGY
Full equation:

∂ 1
ui uj uj + ui p0 /ρ − 2ν uj sij = P −ε

+ hu
u i · ∇ k +∇·
∂t 2
In this geometry reduces to:
hvp0 i
D E
d 1 d
hvu ui +
u ·u −ν k + v2 = P −ε
dy 2 ρ dy
28 / 57
T HE BUDGET OF k
• P ∼ y 3 and peaks at
y + ≈ 12
• Here P/ε = 1.8: excess
energy is convected away
• Pressure transport
negligible
• Dissipation peaks at the
wall, where is balanced by
viscous transport
29 / 57
O UTLINE
1 C HANNEL FLOW
3 T HE FRICTION LAW
4 P IPE FLOW
5 ROUGHNESS
30 / 57
H OW DOES cf DEPEND ON Re?
Ub can be approximated by integrating the log-law

• Error (small) in the central region
• Error in the (small) near-wall region
The resulting formula is the Prandtl-von Kármán friction law
31 / 57
T HE P RANDTL - VON K ÁRMÁN LAW
I NNER LAYER O UTER LAYER

hui 1 y
= ln +A Uc − hui 1 y
uτ κ δv = − ln + A1
uτ κ δ
Adding the two formulas together:

Uc 1 δ
= ln + A + A1
uτ κ δv

1 uτ
= ln Rec + A + A1
κ Uc
32 / 57
T HE NON - DIMENSIONAL FORM
1 1 √
√ = ln (Rec cf ) + A + A1
cf κ
Recall the laminar law cf = 16/(3Rec )
33 / 57
P RANDTL - VON K ÁRMÁN
• Good approximation over a

wide range of Re
• Slow variation of cf with Re
• Other formulas available
34 / 57
W HAT ABOUT Cf ?
A RELATION BETWEEN Uc+ AND Ub+
To go from cf to Cf Uc and Ub must be connected
Uc − Ub 1 Uc − hui
Z δ
= dy
uτ δ 0 uτ
By using the defect law with A1 = 0
Uc − Ub 1 1 y 1
Z δ
≈ − ln dy =
uτ δ 0 κ δ κ
35 / 57
O UTLINE
1 C HANNEL FLOW
3 T HE FRICTION LAW
4 P IPE FLOW
5 ROUGHNESS
36 / 57
T URBULENT PIPE FLOW

A NALOG TO THE PLANAR CASE
• More fundamental flow

• Experimental attractiveness compared to plane channel
• Wall shear can be measured directly through
pressure-drop measurements
37 / 57
R ELEVANT SCALES
• Length scale: diameter D

• Velocity scale:
Z R
1
Ub = hui 2πr dr
πR 2 0
• Reynolds number:
Ub D
Re =
ν
38 / 57
• Law of the wall is well

verified
• Typical values: κ = 0.44
and A = 6.1
39 / 57
T HE FRICTION LAW
• Friction factor
∆pD
f≡ 1 2
2 ρUb L
• Prandtl friction law
1 √
√ = 2.0 log f Reb −0.8
f
40 / 57
O UTLINE
1 C HANNEL FLOW
3 T HE FRICTION LAW
4 P IPE FLOW
5 ROUGHNESS
41 / 57
S URFACE ROUGHNESS
U NAVOIDABLE IN PRACTICE !
• Surfaces made by Man are rough.

• Surfaces made by God are rough too.
• Turbulent flows over rough surfaces are widespread
• Large importance for drag and heat-transfer
T HE BASIC QUESTION
When an actual surface is smooth in practice?
42 / 57
R EFERENCE : THE SMOOTH SURFACE
hui+ = κ −1 ln y + + A + Πκ −1 w(y /δ )
Log law: holds for y + > 30 e y /δ < 0.15

Wake function w negligible for y /δ < 0.15
• Additive constant A measures contribution of wall layer;
A = 5.2 for plane channel
• von Kármán constant κ depends upon the log layer;
κ = 0.41
• Clauser constant Π measures contribution of outer layer; Π
depends upon the particular flow
43 / 57
T HE ROUGH SURFACE
New lenghtscale k (besides δ and δν ):
k /δν , δ /k
• Industrial flows in water at 1 − 10m/s or air at 10 − 30m/s

have δν = 2 − 20µm and k = 0.05 − 25µm (exception: heat
exchangers)
• Geophysical flows have large k + and not negligible δ /k
44 / 57
F RICTION : N IKURADSE (1933)

A METICOLOUS EXPERIMENTAL CAMPAIGN
• Circular pipe
• Carefully sieved sand, packed
grains
• Monochromatic roughness
• Measurements of f vs. Re
45 / 57
T HE N IKURADSE DIAGRAM
46 / 57
T HE LAW OF THE WALL EXTENDED
Additional parameter in the law of the wall:

d hui uτ y y k
= Φ , ,
dy y δv δ δv
k + → 0 ( SMOOTH LIMIT )

d hui uτ y
= ΦI for y δ
dy y δv
When it is also y δv
ΦI ∼ κ −1
hui+ = κ −1 ln y + + A
47 / 57
T HE LAW OF THE WALL EXTENDED
k + → ∞ ( FULLY- ROUGH LIMIT )
d hui uτ y
= ΦR for y δ
dy y k
When it is also y k
ΦR ∼ κ −1
y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + B
k
FINITE k + ( TRANSITIONALLY- ROUGH REGIME )
y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + B̃(k + )
k
48 / 57
T HE ROUGHNESS FUNCTION
B̃ → A = 5.2 for k + → 0
B̃ → 8.5 for k + → ∞
49 / 57
T HREE FORMS FOR THE LAW OF THE WALL

T HE WAKE REGION IS UNCHANGED
1
hui+ = κ −1 ln y + + A − ∆u + (k + )
2
y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + 8.5
ks
3 y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + B̃ k +

k
ks is the equivalent sand roughness
50 / 57

1
hui+ = κ −1 ln y + + A − ∆u + (k + )
2
y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + 8.5
ks
3 y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + B̃ k +

k
51 / 57

1
hui+ = κ −1 ln y + + A − ∆u + (k + )
2
y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + 8.5
ks
3 y
hui+ = κ −1 ln + B̃ k +

k
52 / 57
T HE C OLEBROOK FORMULA FOR ROUGH PIPES
• B̃(k + ) is interpolated between k + = 0 and k + → ∞

• Procedure for Prandtl’s friction law is repeated
von Kármán formula (1930)

1 k
√ = 1.14 − 2 log
f D
Colebrook formula (1939):

1 k 9.35
√ = 1.14 − 2 log + √
f D Re f
53 / 57
T HE M OODY ’ S ABACUS
Rouse (1942)
Weisbach (1870), Chézy (1770),

Poiseuille (1841), Hagen (1839),
Reynolds (1883), Darcy (1857),
Fanning (1877), Prandtl (≈ 1920),
Blasius (1913), von Kármán (1930), Moody (1944)
Nikuradse (1933), Colebrook (1939)
54 / 57
k - TYPE ROUGHNESS
T HE STANDARD ROUGHNESS
• ks = k for Nikuradse’s sand-grain only

• Definition of k -rough surfaces:
ks ∼ k
S CHLICHTING (1968): THE ROLE OF SOLIDITY
• Sparse regime: ks ∼ k λ
• Dense regime:
ks ∼ k λ −n , n = 2 − 5 (shield
effect)
55 / 57
d - TYPE ROUGHNESS
P ERRY ET AL , JFM 1969
Different roughness: d-rough surfaces
ks ∼ δ
a): λ , mutual sheltering prevails

b): for λ /k > 3 − 4, k -type behaviour
56 / 57
T HE SMOOTH LIMIT
T HE BASIC QUESTION
When an actual surface is smooth in practice?
T HE ( STANDARD ) ANSWER
• based on reliable Nikuradse’ data

• roughness effects vanish when k + < 4
57 / 57
T HE TOTAL STRESS IS LINEAR
A RESULT BASED ON 2D- HOMOGENEITY
Starting point: 2D Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations
• hwi, ∂ /∂ x and ∂ /∂ z are zero

• From continuity ∂ hv i /∂ y = 0 (hence hv i = 0)

2
• v = 0 at the walls
• The v -mom eq is integrated from y = 0 to y = 2δ
D E
v 2 + hpi /ρ = pw (x)/ρ
• Derivating w.r.t. x: the mean pressure gradient is

independent upon y :
∂ hpi dpw
=
∂x dx
58 / 57
u-mom is rewritten as

d d hui dpw
ρν − ρ huv i =
dy dy dx
The total stress is defined as

d hui
τ(y ) ≡ ρν − ρ huv i
dy
u-mom becomes
dτ(y ) dpw (x)
= = cost
dy dx
Thus τ(y ) is a linear function of y
59 / 57
The shear stress at the wall is

d hui
τw ≡ τ(0) = ρν
dy y =0
τ(y ) is an odd function, thus τ(δ ) = 0 and τ(2δ ) = −τw
dpw τw
− =
dx δ
Back
60 / 57

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Channel flow The law of the wall The friction law Pipe flow Roughness

DIA, Politecnico di Milano

T URBULENT WALL FLOWS

I NTERNAL FLOWS E XTERNAL FLOWS

• Duct flows are statistically 1d

2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL

T URBULENT PLANE CHANNEL FLOW

R EYNOLDS - AVERAGED EQUATIONS

• Total stress is linear

Two possible definitions

T HE QUEST FOR A FRICTION LAW

• We look for a pressure gradient – flow rate relationship

I NTRODUCING THE INNER VARIABLES

Friction Reynolds number

y + > 50 Outer layer: no direct effect of viscosity on shear stresses

2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL

T HE MEAN VELOCITY PROFILE

The mean profile is determined by ρ, ν, δ , dpw /dx

with Φ an universal, non-dimensional function.

Analogous to Kolmogorov’s universal equilibrium hypotheses:

In the inner layer where y /δ  1:

T HE LAW OF THE WALL

Experiments: f (y + ) is an universal function

In the viscous sublayer where y + :

Experiments: the profile is linear for y + . 5

In the outer layer where y +  1:

T HE VELOCITY- DEFECT LAW

Experiments: F (y /δ ) is an universal function for channel flow

When Re  an intermediate region exists for y + > 50 and

T HE LOGARITHMIC REGION (2)

T HE PROFILE IN THE VISCOUS SUBLAYER

• Linear behavior within

T HE LOG - LAW CONSTANTS

• κ is the von Kármán

T HE DEFECT- LAW CONSTANTS

T HE ( MANY ) LAYERS IN A TURBULENT CHANNEL FLOW

• P and ε balance in the

Taylor series expansion for ui near the wall

BALANCE EQUATION FOR TURBULENT KINETIC ENERGY

In this geometry reduces to:

2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL

H OW DOES cf DEPEND ON Re?

Ub can be approximated by integrating the log-law

T HE P RANDTL - VON K ÁRMÁN LAW

I NNER LAYER O UTER LAYER

Adding the two formulas together:

T HE NON - DIMENSIONAL FORM

P RANDTL - VON K ÁRMÁN

• Good approximation over a

To go from cf to Cf Uc and Ub must be connected

2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL

T URBULENT PIPE FLOW

• More fundamental flow

• Length scale: diameter D

• Law of the wall is well

• Prandtl friction law

2 T HE LAW OF THE WALL

• Surfaces made by Man are rough.

R EFERENCE : THE SMOOTH SURFACE

Log law: holds for y + > 30 e y /δ < 0.15

New lenghtscale k (besides δ and δν ):

• Industrial flows in water at 1 − 10m/s or air at 10 − 30m/s

F RICTION : N IKURADSE (1933)

In the inner layer where y /δ 1:

In the viscous sublayer where y + :

In the outer layer where y + 1:

When Re an intermediate region exists for y + > 50 and

a): λ , mutual sheltering prevails