What is the Atom Model?

The model simulates the historical experiments and the

process scientists have used to determine our present ideas
of the structure of the atom.

This section details the features of the Atom model, and is

organized according to the three periods simulated by the
model: Early period (up to approximately 1913);
Intermediate period (1913 – 1925); Modern period (1925 and
beyond), represented by the Period icons at the top of the
model window:

You can set the period by clicking one of the icons. The
simulation in the model window will change depending
upon the period.

This section contains a general description of each period,

annotated views of the model window(s) from that period,
and a description of the controls and icons found in the
model window of each period.

When you click the GO tool, the process defined in the

model window begins, and continues until reaching the
GO tool
final conditions, such as the final energy level. The
progress of the simulation is shown.

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Early Period

This period is based on simulating Rutherford’s classical

bombardment experiment. The model allows the user to
Early Period simulate the effects that would have happened if the
icon experiment had been available at earlier times in the period.
Thus the user can simulate firing alpha particles or protons
(discovered in the twentieth century) at a Dalton rigid body
atom (proposed in the early nineteenth century) or a
Thomson plum pudding atom (proposed in the late
nineteenth century).

The results of bombarding the different types of atoms are

shown schematically, and also on a distribution histogram.
It was as a result of seeing the distribution that Rutherford
was able to say that he “knew how the atom was built,” and
that in particular the Dalton and Thomson atoms were
incorrect.

The user can vary the input parameters of the bombarding

source, such as the beam width, the particle type, the
number of particles “in” the source, and the energy of the
particles. In the foil, the radius of the atom can be changed
(applying to the Dalton and Thomson atoms), as well as the
charge on the nucleus (applying to the Thomson and
Rutherford atoms), and the number of valence (“free”)
electrons.

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 Distribution
Histogram

Particle Foil and

Source Screen

Zoom View
(of foil)
Early
Period
Icons

Distribution Histogram

The distribution histogram is available for the three Early

Period experiments: Dalton, Thomson, and Rutherford.

The outline indicates the

correct statistical result of
the Rutherford model.

The bars show the Click to toggle

distribution that would the display on
likely have resulted if and off.
the experiment had
been performed on the
given historical model.

The x-axis shows the angle of deflection, measured in

degrees. Relative frequency appears on the y-axis.

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 Particle Source/Foil and Screen

You can set the parameters controlling the source of

particles. The animation also shows the foil against which
the particles are fired, surrounded by the screen which
marks the deflection angle of the particles:

Click to define the particles as Drag up or down to

protons or alpha particles. change the beam width.

Number of Foil
particles
in source
Drag to set the energy of
the bombarding particles.

Screen surrounds the foil

Click to change the initial and marks the deflection
number of bombarding particles. angle of the particles.

Early Period Icons

Click one of the icons to change the Early period

experiment being simulated in the model window.

Dalton's Thomson's Rutherford's

"Rigid Body" "Plum Pudding" Planetary
Atom Atom Model

Zoom View

For each of the three Early period experiments, there is a

magnified view of the foil.

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 Dalton Zoom View:
shows a single atom at an even
higher level of magnification.

Click to toggle the

display on and off.

Thomson Zoom View: Rutherford Zoom View:

shows a single atom a magnified view of the foil
and the valence
electrons at an even
higher level of
magnification.

Early Atom Tool

EARLY ATOM
tool Click this tool to set the radius, charge, and column in the
periodic table for the Early period atom models.

Drag to set the radius

of the Dalton and
Thomson atoms.

Slide to set the positive

charge in the Thomson
and Rutherford models.

Click 0-VIII to set the column in the

periodic table in which the Thomson atom
is placed (equal to the number of valence
[free] electrons in the plum pudding).

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The Intermediate Period

This period is based on analysis of simulated spectra. The

model allows the user to simulate one of two situations:
Intermediate
Period icon

Before Bohr

Before Bohr One of the problems created by the Rutherford planetary

icon model — a central nucleus surrounded by circulating
electrons — was that classical physics predicted that
electrons rotating around a nucleus would radiate energy
(including ultraviolet energy) continuously, eventually
collapsing into the nucleus. The consequent spectrum
would be continuous. Users can simulate this happening
and observe the resulting spectrum.

Energy
Level
Display

Before
Bohr
Zoom

Spectrum

Intermediate
Period Icons

Bohr Atoms

Bohr Atoms Bohr proposed that spectral lines are caused by transitions
icon between different stationary electron states within the atom.
Users can observe both emission and absorption spectra
from different transitions for the hydrogen atom. Users can

The Atom
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 vary parameters for the initial and final transition levels,
and the range of wavelengths to be observed. In addition,
the charge on the nucleus can be changed to simulate Bohr
“hydrogen-like” atoms.

Experiment Energy
Spectrum Level
Controls Display

Bohr Zoom

Spectrum

Intermediate
Period Icons

Before Bohr Zoom

This view shows a close-up of the “classical” electron

rotating around the nucleus. The background color
indicates the wavelength the electron would emit as it
rotates.

Grid

Orbital Scale:
click these buttons to set Current scale in Bohr radii, a o
the scale factor for the
orbital or wave displays. Click to toggle the grid on and off.

Reduce Increase Optimize

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 Electron Energy Level Display

Shows the current electron energy for the classical dilemma

simulation.

Drag the slider to set

the initial energy in eV.

Spectrum

The spectrum shows the spectrum lines as the simulation

runs.

Click to change the Click to change the

minimum wavelength. maximum wavelength.

Click to trace the Click to trace all lines as they

current lines only. are produced.

Bohr Zoom

This view simulates a “Bohr” electron rotating around a

nucleus. The background color indicates the wavelength
the electron would emit as it undergoes a transition.

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 Current scale in Bohr radii, a o

Click to toggle the grid on and off.

Click to reduce, Orbit/Standing Wave:

optimize, or click to toggle the electron display
increase the between a circular orbit and
scale. standing waves.

The electron displayed as a standing wave is shown below:

Electron Energy Level Display

In the display you can see the energy levels Bohr proposed
and the transitions between these levels.

Click a box to set the Click a box to set the final

initial quantum number. orbital level (available only
when the light off).

As the simulation runs,

level changes are drawn.

Spectrum

For details about the Spectrum, see the description in the

Before Bohr section.

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 Experiment Spectrum Controls

These controls allow you to determine if an absorption or

emission experiment is performed, as well as the
wavelength limits to be used.
Absorption (light on)

Click the arrows to set the Emission (light off)

minimum wavelength of
the spectrum. Click the arrows to set the
maximum wavelength of
the spectrum.

Drag the arrow to Drag the arrow to

set the lamp's set the lamp's
minimum maximum
wavelength. wavelength.

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Modern Period

This period includes two different views:

Modern Period
icon

Charge Distribution Diagrams

Charge This view is based on graphical simulations of

Distribution Schrödinger’s equation, which predicts the charge
Diagrams icon
probability |ψ|2 (Psi square, Psi2) of the electron cloud
surrounding the nucleus. Psi2 corresponds to the
probability of the electron being at a particular point at a
particular time. Users can generate two– or three–
dimensional pictures of the charge distribution for different
electron configurations of the hydrogen atom. In addition
to the pictures, graphs and histograms of the charge
distribution vs. r or theta can be produced.

Electron
Orbitals
Charge
Distribution
Zoom

Charge
Distribution
Graph

Modern
Period
Icons

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 Electron Configuration

Electron This view enables the user to simulate atoms up to atomic

Configuration number 48, fill s, p, and d electron shells for the atom, and
icon
check to see if the filled shells correspond to the ground
state of the specified atom.

Electron
Configurations/
Orbitals

Modified
Periodic
Table

Modern
Period
Icons

Electron Orbitals

The electron orbitals show the orbital energy levels in

hydrogen and hydrogen-like ions (only one electron).
Click one of the boxes to choose a
particular electron orbital. As the
box is clicked, the corresponding
values for n, l, and m are set.

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 Charge Distribution Zoom

The Charge Distribution zoom view shows a dynamic

simulation of the electron density surrounding the
hydrogen atom nucleus, generated from Schrödinger’s
equation.

Click to reduce, Scale in Bohr radii, a o

optimize, or
increase the scale. Click to toggle the grid on and off.

Click to
change Click to toggle
the color between 2D
scale. and 3D views.

If theta is constant, drag the If radius is constant, drag

red circle to set the radius. the line to set theta.

Charge Distribution Graph

The Charge Distribution graph shows a graph of the

normalized electron density surrounding the nucleus, vs.
r or theta.
Normalized electron
density value Constant value

Click to generate the graph.

Click the arrows to set the
maximum value of variable
radius/theta.

Click the arrows to set the

minimum value of variable Click to toggle the
radius/theta. graph on and off.

Click to toggle
between variable
radius/variable theta.

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 Wave Function Detector Tool
WAVE
FUNCTION This tool acts as a probe in the orbital, giving outputs when
DETECTOR tool the 2D view is selected. After clicking the tool inside the
charge distribution zoom, the outputs for radius/radius
Bohr, theta, and Psi square appear in an information box at
the top of the model window. The tool is active only when
the simulation is running.

Electron Configuration/Orbitals

After selecting the atomic number, use the spin up and spin
down electrons to fill the electron shells. The fill can also be
performed automatically to generate the ground state of the
specified atom using the reaction “Fill Configuration.” A
filled orbital must have paired electrons: one spin up, one
spin down. The model does not accept invalid fills.
Insert electrons into the s,
p, and d electron shells in
the orbital diagram.

Filled orbitals must

have paired electrons.

The selected atomic

number appears here.

Click to clear
the diagram.

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 Modified Periodic Table

The periodic table enables you to set the atomic number (up
to 48), and then to use the spin up or spin down electron
icons to fill s, p and d electron shells in the orbital diagram
(see diagram above).
Click and drag the
spin up and spin down
electrons to the orbital.

Click the Clear electrons from

atomic number. the orbital by dragging
to the trash.

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The Atom Parameters Reference Table
TOOLS DESCRIPTION EARLY PERIOD DESCRIPTION
INPUT VARIABLES
Click icons to change periods and views; The energy in electron volts of the
change parameters by dragging slide bars, Early: Source Data: bombarding particles. Range: 0–20 MeV.
ARROW
arrows, and buttons. Particle Energy Can also be set on the source in the model
Note: the ARROW tool is available for all window.
three periods. • symbol: ENERGY
Sets the radius (Dalton, Thomson); column in
EARLY ATOM the periodic table (Thomson); charge Early: Source Data: The width of the bombarding beam.
(Thomson, Rutherford); and number of Beam Width Range: 5–100 fm. Can also be set in the
valence electrons (Thomson) in the Early model window.
period atoms. • symbol: BEAM

EARLY PERIOD General Data: The time between simulation steps.

DESCRIPTION
INPUT VARIABLES ∆t

• symbol: DELTA_T
Sets the general period (in this case, Early) to
Period Definition: be simulated in the model window. Can also General Data: The highest value the model uses for ∆t,
Period be set with the period icons at the top of the Maximum ∆t regardless of any other ∆t settings.
model window.
• symbol: ATOM_THEORY • symbol: MAX_DELTA_T
Sets the Early Period model to be simulated
Period Definition: in the model window. The options are: General Data: The setting for ∆t when the bombarding
Early Period Dalton rigid body (1803); Thomson plum ∆t Near the Target particle is close to the target.
pudding (1897); Rutherford planetary (1909)
models. Can also be set in the model window. • symbol: NEAR_DT
• symbol: ATOM_EARLY
Applies if the “Early Period” option input is set to
Dalton: Dalton. Sets the radius of the Dalton atom General Data: An unassigned user input available to the
Atomic Radius used in the scattering experiments. Range: User Input user for scripting purposes.
10–50 fm. Can also be set with the EARLY
ATOM tool. • symbol: USER
• symbol: RADIUS_DALT
Applies if the “Early Period” option input is set to
Thomson: Thomson. Sets the column in the periodic table EARLY PERIOD
Valence Electrons in which the Thomson atom is placed. Equal OUTPUT DESCRIPTION
to the number of “free” electrons in the plum VARIABLES
pudding. Range: 0–8 (0–VIII). Can also be
set with the EARLY ATOM tool.
• symbol: E_GROUP
Applies if the “Early Period” option input is set to
Thomson: Thomson. Sets the radius of the Thomson Early: The angle in degrees by which the last
Atomic Radius atom used in the scattering experiments. Last Angle particle fired was deflected.
Range: 10–50 fm.
• symbol: RADIUS symbol: ANGLE_LAST
Applies if the “Early Period” option input is set to
Thomson: Thomson. Sets the positive charge in the Early: The current value of the angle of deflection in
Positive Charge Thomson model. Range: 1–100. Can also be Deflection Angle degrees. Use this output to build distribution
set with the EARLY ATOM tool. histograms of the deflected particles.
• symbol: ATOM_NUMB • symbol: ANGLE_HIST
Applies if the “Early Period” option input is set to The average force, in Newtons, acting on the
Rutherford: Rutherford. Sets the positive charge in the Early: bombarding particle while it is being
Positive Charge Rutherford model. Range: 1–100. Can also Force deflected. This output is not active if the
be set with the EARLY ATOM tool. “Early Period” option input is set to Dalton.
• symbol: ATOM_NUMB_RUTH • symbol: FORCE
Sets the type of bombarding particles in the
Early: Source Data: Rutherford experiment to protons (top Early: The number of particles remaining in the
Particle Type button) or alpha particles (bottom button). # Remaining Particles source.
Can also be set in the model window.
• symbol: PARTICLE • symbol: REMAINS
The initial number of bombarding particles in
Early: Source Data: the source. Small values give less accurate Early: The number of particles that have been fired
Initial # Particles results for the scattering distribution, but give # Deflected Particles from the source.
the results relatively quickly. Larger values
give a more accurate scattering distribution, • symbol: PASSED
but take relatively longer in time.
Range: 0–1000 particles. Can also be set in
the model window.
• symbol: RUNS
EARLY PERIOD DESCRIPTION EARLY PERIOD
OUTPUT VARIABLES EVENTS DESCRIPTION

Early: Other Data: The Y position in nm of the bombarding Early Period: This event is true when the bombarding
Exiting Particle Y particle as it leaves the source. Track Complete particle has completed its path.
Position
• symbol: START_R

Early: Other Data: The current X position in nm of the Early Period: This event is true when there are no
X Position bombarding particle. Particles Finished bombarding particles remaining in the
source.
• symbol: P_X

Early: Other Data: The current Y position in nm of the High ∆t This event is true if ∆t is too large for the
Y Position bombarding particle. simulation to make sensible calculations.

• symbol: P_Y

Early: Other Data: The change in the particle’s horizontal EARLY PERIOD DESCRIPTION
∆X position (X) in nm since the last step. REACTIONS

• symbol: P_DX
Early Period:
Early: Other Data: The change in the particle’s vertical position Show/Hide These reactions show and hide respectively
∆Y (Y) in nm since the last step. Theoretical the theoretical distribution (given by
Distribution Rutherford’s model) outlines in the
• symbol: P_DY distribution histogram.

Early: Other Data: The current X component of the particle’s Early Period: This reaction clears the bars showing the
X Velocity velocity in m/s. Clear Experimental probable distribution of the historical model
Distribution in the distribution histogram.
• symbol: P_VX

Early: Other Data: The current Y component of the particle’s Open Close Views: These reactions open and close respectively
Y Velocity velocity in m/s. Open/Close Zoom the sub-window showing the magnified foil.

• symbol: P_VY

Early: Other Data: The change in the X component of the Open Close Views: These reactions open and close respectively
∆Vx particle’s velocity in m/s since the last step. Open/Close the sub-window showing the distribution
Distribution histogram.
• symbol: P_DVX

Early: Other Data: The change in the Y component of the Show/Hide Icons: These reactions show and hide respectively
∆Vy particle’s velocity in m/s since the last step. Show/Hide Period the three period icons at the top of the model
Icons window.
• symbol: P_DVY

These reactions show and hide respectively

Show/Hide Icons: the three icons (Dalton, Thomson,
Show/Hide Early Rutherford) in the Early period view.
Period
INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION
PERIOD INPUT PERIOD INPUT
VARIABLES VARIABLES
Sets the general period (in this case, Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option is set to
Period Definition: Intermediate) to be simulated in the model Bohr: Bohr. Toggles the electron displayed in the
Period window. This variable can also be set with Standing Wave Bohr zoom between a standing wave
the period icons at the top of the model (determined by the n quantum number) and
window. a circular orbit. Can also be set in the model
• symbol: ATOM_THEORY window.
• symbol: STAND_WAVE
Sets the Intermediate period model to be Set to Yes to trace all the lines as they are
Period Definition: simulated in the model window. The options Intermediate: produced in the spectrum, and to show all
Intermediate Period are: Before Bohr giving a classical dilemma, Spectrum Data: the lines when the simulation has stopped.
or Bohr’s (Atoms) permitted orbits solution. Spectrum Trace Set to No to display the current spectrum
The two models produce different spectra lines. Can also be set in the model window.
when the simulation runs. Can also be set in
the model window. • symbol: TRACE_SPECTR
• symbol: ATOM_PLAN
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set Sets the minimum wavelength of the
Before Bohr: to Before Bohr. Sets the energy of the atom Intermediate: spectrum displayed on the screen.
Initial Energy before running the classical dilemma Spectrum Data: Range: 10–5000 nm. Can also be set in the
simulation. Range: –14–0 eV. Can also be set Minimum Wavelength model window.
in the model window.
• symbol: MINIM_LENGTH
• symbol: ENERGY_EL_BOHR
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set Sets the maximum wavelength of the
Bohr: to Bohr. Sets the experiment in the model Intermediate: spectrum displayed on the screen.
Experiment window to Absorption or Emission. Spectrum Data: Range: 10–5000 nm. Can also be set in the
(Absorption or Absorption: Light on; the view shows a Maximum Wavelength model window.
Emission) continuous lamp emission, and an absorption
spectrum is produced when the simulation • symbol: MAXIM_LENGTH
runs. Emission: Light off; the emission
spectrum is produced when the simulation
runs. Can also be set in the model window
by clicking the “light switches.”
• symbol: MODE_BOHR_SPONT
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set
Bohr: to Bohr. Sets the charge on the nucleus. If this Quantum Numbers to Bohr. Sets the n quantum number for the
Nuclear Charge parameter is set to a value greater than 1, the Quantum Number n electron, and as a result the main energy
atom has neutralizing electrons close to the (Orbital Number) level. Range: 1–7. Can also be set in the
nucleus, with one electron in “orbit.” Use model window.
this input to create “hydrogen-like” Bohr
atoms. Range: 1–5. • symbol: NUMB_N
• symbol: BOHR_ATOM_NUMB
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set Set to Yes to display a circular grid. Set to No
Bohr: to Bohr, and the “Experiment” option input is set to General Data: to have no grid. Can also be set in the model
Final Orbital Level Emission. The level the electrons fall to from Grid window.
the initial energy level set by the input
“Quantum Number n.” Range: 1–7. Can also • symbol: MODE_MODERN_GRID
be set in the model window by clicking the
level boxes.
• symbol: TARGET_LEVEL
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set Sets a scale factor for the orbital or wave
Bohr: to Bohr, and the “Experiment” option input is set to General Data: displays in the model window. Minimum
Minimum Illuminating Absorption. Sets the lamp minimum Orbit Scale value: 0.01. The scale can also be adjusted in
Wavelength wavelength in nm when the atom is the model window by clicking the icons in
illuminated. Range: 10– 5000 nm. Can also order to reduce, optimize, or increase the
be set in the model window. scale. A scale in the model window shows
the number of nanometers.
• symbol: PUMP_MIN_BOHR • symbol: SCALE_BOHR_MODE
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set
Bohr: to Bohr, and the “Experiment” option input is set to General Data: The time between simulation steps.
Maximum Illuminating Absorption. Sets the lamp maximum ∆t
Wavelength wavelength in nm when the atom is
illuminated. Range: 0–5000 nm. Can also be • symbol: DELTA_T
set in the model window.
• symbol: PUMP_MAX_BOHR
Applies if the “Intermediate Period” option input is set
Bohr: to Bohr, and the “Experiment” option input is set to General Data: An unassigned user input available to the
Maximum Simulation Emission. Sets the maximum number of User Input user for scripting purposes.
Steps simulation steps. When the “Experiment”
input option is set to emission mode, the • symbol: USER
model will perform a set transition randomly
during one of the steps, up to the maximum
number of steps set here. Range: 1–50
calculation steps.
• symbol: MAX_SIM_STEP
INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION
PERIOD OUTPUT PERIOD EVENTS
VARIABLES
The Bohr radius in nanometers
Intermediate: Orbit corresponding to the electron level; also the Bohr: This event is true when the value of n has
Radius radius of the electron orbit at the start of a n Not Integer been set to a non-integral value.
“Before Bohr” (classical dilemma) simulation.
• symbol: RADIUS_ELECTRON

Intermediate: The wavelength (in nanometers) output when Bohr: This event is true when the final orbital value
Wavelength a transition between electron levels is made. Final Orbital Level has been set to a non-integral value.
Not Integer
• symbol: WAVE_LENGTH

Intermediate: The energy output in eV when a transition Bohr: This event is true when the atom ionizes.
∆ E (Absorption or between energy levels occurs; positive for Ionization
Emission) absorption, negative for emission.
• symbol: ENERGY_ABS_EMISS
The energy in eV corresponding to the
Intermediate: electron level. This is always negative since High ∆t This event is true if ∆t is too large for the
Current Electron the energy of the electron at infinity is simulation to make sensible calculations.
Energy assumed to be zero.
• symbol: CURR_ENERG

Current n Quantum The current value of the n quantum number. INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION
Number PERIOD
REACTIONS
• symbol: CURR_LEVEL
Performs transition from higher to lower
INTERMEDIATE DESCRIPTION Bohr: state. (This transition is performed by the
PERIOD EVENTS Perform Transition model at some time during the simulation
anyway.) Use this reaction when you want to
have the transition occur at a definite time.

Bohr: This event is true when there is a transition Autoscale Display Optimizes the circular scales. Can also be set
Transition Down from a higher to a lower level. in the model window.

Bohr: This event is true when there is a transition Show/Hide Icons: These reactions show and hide respectively
Transition Up from a lower to a higher level. Show/Hide Period the three period icons at the top of the model
Icons window.

Show/Hide Icons: These reactions show and hide respectively

Show/Hide the two icons (Before Bohr, Bohr) in the
Intermediate Period Intermediate period view.

MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION

TOOLS INPUT VARIABLES
Acts as a probe in the orbital, giving outputs Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
WAVE when the 2D view is selected. After clicking Quantum Numbers: Charge Distribution. Sets the n quantum
FUNCTION the tool inside the charge distribution zoom, Quantum Number n number for the electron, and as a result the
DETECTOR the outputs for radius/radius Bohr, theta, (Orbital Number) main energy level. Range: 1–7. Can also be
and Psi square appear in an information box set in the model window by clicking the level
at the top of the model window. Only active boxes.
when simulation is running. • symbol: NUMB_N
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION Quantum Numbers: Charge Distribution. Sets the l quantum number
INPUT VARIABLES Quantum Number l for the electron, i.e., if the electron is an s
(l=0), p (l=1), or d (l=2) electron. Range: any
integral value from 0 to n-1, and <3. Can also
be set in the model window.
• symbol: L_NUMBER
Sets the general period (in this case, Modern) Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Period Definition: to be simulated in the model window. This Quantum Numbers: Charge Distribution. Sets the m quantum
Period variable can also be set with the period icons Quantum Number m number for the electron. Range: any integral
at the top of the model window. values from –l to +l. Can also be set in the
• symbol: ATOM_THEORY model window.
• symbol: M_NUMBER
Sets the model window display. The options
Period Definition: are: Charge Distribution, which displays a Modern: Sets the view of the electron charge cloud in
Modern Period modern electron density distribution and Screen Setup: the model window to 2D or 3D view.
electron configuration table, or Electron View
Configuration, which displays the latter and • symbol: MODE_MODERN_DIM
a modified periodic table, and enables the
user to fill atom shells. Can also be set in the
model window by clicking the icons.
• symbol: ATOM_MODERN
MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION
INPUT VARIABLES INPUT VARIABLES
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Modern: The total number of dots that will be Modern: Charge Distribution. Choose Yes to open the
Screen Setup: generated in the model window. When this Distribution Display: graph in the model window. You can then
# Dots number is reached, the simulation stops. Draw Graph create a graph in the work window. Use the
Minimum value: 100 dots. GRAPH tool to plot outputs “Modern Period:
Current Electron Density” vs. “Modern
• symbol: NUMBER_POINT_MODERN Period: Current Radius/Theta (Graph Data).”
Choose No to close the graph. Can also be set
in the model window.
• symbol: MODERN_GR
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Modern: The number of dots the simulation displays Electron Electron Configuration. Sets the atomic number
Screen Setup: after each calculation step. Minimum value: Configuration: Atomic of the atom, i.e., the charge on the nucleus.
Dot Increment 10 dots. Number Range: 0–48. Can also be set in the model
window.
• symbol: DELTA_POINT_MODERN • symbol: TABLE_N_PRT
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Modern: Sets the density of the color of the orbital. The Electron Electron Configuration. When the reaction “Set
Screen Setup: higher the number, the brighter the display. Configuration: Electron” is used, determine if the spin up (+)
Color Scale Minimum value: 0.5 arbitrary units. Spin or spin down (–) electron is placed in the
orbital according to the quantum numbers n,
• symbol: AMPL_COLOR_MODERN l, and m.
• symbol: CONF_SPINE
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to Set to Yes to display a circular grid. Set to No
Modern: Charge Distribution. Sets the charge distribution General Data: to have no grid. Can also be set in the model
Distribution Display: display to constant theta mode or constant Grid window.
Distribution Display radius mode. Constant theta: the graph of
Definition electron density vs. radius is plotted for a • symbol: MODE_MODERN_GRID
value of theta equal to “Initial Theta.”
Constant radius: the graph of electron
density vs. theta is plotted for a value of r
equal to “Initial Radius.”
• symbol: MODERN_GR_GIST
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to Sets a scale factor for the orbital or wave
Modern: Charge Distribution. The initial value of radius General Data: displays in the model window.
Distribution Display: in the graph of electron density vs. radius. Orbit Scale Minimum value: 0.01. The scale can also be
Initial Radius (R) Also, the value of radius when the graph of adjusted in the model window by clicking the
electron density vs. theta is plotted. Range: icons in order to reduce, optimize, or increase
0–value less than the Final R value in fm. the scale. A scale in the model window
Can also be set in the model window. shows the number of nanometers.
• symbol: RO_MODERN
• symbol: SCALE_BOHR_MODE
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Modern: Charge Distribution, and the “Distribution Display General Data: An unassigned user input available to the
Distribution Display: Definition” option input is set to Constant Theta. The User Input user for scripting purposes.
Final Radius (R) final value of radius in the graph of electron
density vs. radius. Range: 0–value greater • symbol: USER
than the Initial R value in fm. Can also be set
in the model window.
• symbol: RF_MODERN
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to
Modern: Charge Distribution. The initial value of theta in MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION
Distribution Display: the graph of electron density vs. theta. Also OUTPUT
Initial Angle (Theta) the value of theta when the graph of electron VARIABLES
density vs. radius is plotted. Range: 0–180
deg. Can also be set in the model window.
• symbol: TO_MODERN
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to If the “Distribution Display Definition”
Distribution Display: Charge Distribution. option input has been set to Constant Theta,
Modern:
Final Angle (Theta) The final value of theta in the graph of this output gives the radius value scanned by
Current Radius
electron density vs. theta. Range: 0–180 deg. the model after concluding the “# Dots”
(Graph Data)
Can also be set in the model window. (input). The model scans from the “Initial
• symbol: TF_MODERN Radius (R)” input value to the “Final Radius
Applies if the “Modern Period” option input is set to (R)” input value (both found in the
Distribution Display: Charge Distribution. Distribution Display input menu.) If the
Draw Histogram Choose Yes to enable histogram calculation “Distribution Display Definition” option
and plotting inside the work window. You input has been set to Constant Radius, this
can then create a distribution bar chart with output is the value of “Initial Radius (R).”
the BAR CHART tool, plotting the “Modern: The values are output after the model has
Distribution” output variable. Choose No to concluded the “# Dots” given.
disable the histogram calculation and • symbol: RAD_GR_MODERN
plotting.
• symbol: MODERN_GIST
MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION
OUTPUT VARIABLES EVENTS
If the “Distribution Display Definition”
Modern: option input has been set to Constant Radius, Electron This event is true when the entered Electron
Current Theta this output gives the theta value scanned by Configuration: Configuration is different from the ground
(Graph Data) the model after concluding the “# Dots” Unknown Electron state of the atom.
(input). The model scans from the “Initial Configuration
Angle (Theta)” input value to the “Final
Angle (Theta)” input value (both found in the
Distribution Display input menu.) If the
“Distribution Display Definition” option
input has been set to Constant Theta, this
output is the value of “Initial Angle (Theta).”
The values are output after the model has
concluded the “# Dots” given.
• symbol: TETA_GR_MODERN

Modern: The unnormalized value of electron density, Electron This event is true when the atom has more or
Current Psi Square Psi square. The value is updated as the Configuration: Ion fewer electrons than the nuclear charge and
(Graph Data) model scans through r or theta. Present & Unknown when the entered Electron Configuration is
Electron Configuration different from the ground state of the atom.
• symbol: PSI2_GR_MODERN
This output is used to prepare a distribution
Modern: Radius/Theta histogram (with the BAR CHART tool) of the Electron This event is true when the entered Electron
(Histogram Data) charge distribution vs. r or theta, similar to Configuration: Configuration corresponds to the ground
that shown in the model window. Outputs Atom OK state of the atom.
only exist if the “Draw Histogram” input has
been set to Yes.
• symbol: GIST_MODERN
The number of points that have been
Modern: displayed. The final output value is MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION
# Points Displayed dependent on the values the user has entered REACTIONS
for the “Screen Setup: # Dots” and the
“Screen Setup: Dot Increment” input options.
• symbol: CURR_DRAW_POINT

Electron Configuration: The atomic number, corresponding to input Charge Distribution Draws graph of the electron density (Psi
Atomic Number “Electron Configuration: Atomic Number .” Diagram: Draw Graph square) vs. r or theta. (Model normally waits
until the orbital has finished building.)
• symbol: TABLE_N_PRT

Electron Configuration: The valence electrons, i.e., the number of Electron Places an electron in the table according to
#, Last Level Electrons electrons in the outer level. Configuration: the quantum numbers, and according to the
• symbol: TABLE_VAL_EL Set Electron “Spin” input option.

Current n Quantum The current value of the n quantum number. Electron Clears a specific electron in the periodic table
Number Configuration: according to the quantum numbers.
Clear Specific Electron
• symbol: CURR_LEVEL

MODERN PERIOD DESCRIPTION Electron Clears all the electrons entered in the periodic
EVENTS Configuration: Clear table.
All Electrons

Charge Distribution This event is true when the charge Electron Clears both the electrons and the atomic
Diagrams: distribution drawing has finished. (The Configuration: Clear number in the periodic table.
Distribution Drawing electron density graph is drawn after this All
Finished event has become true.)

Electron Configuration: This event is true when the atom has more or Electron Fills the electron shells according to the
Ion Present fewer electrons than the nuclear charge. Configuration: Fill entered atomic number.
Configuration

Show/Hide Icons: These reactions show and hide respectively

Show/Hide Modern the two icons (Charge Distribution, Electron
Period Configuration) in the Modern Period view.