Environmental Engineering

ENVIRONMENT (IOPHYSICAL)

The biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism, or population, and inckudes particularly the factors
that have an

influence in their survival, development and evolution.

Biotic-iving component of a community. Plants, animals, fungi, protist and bacteria are all biotic or living
factors

Abiotic nonliving factors that affect living organisms. Environmental factors such as habitat (pond, lake,
ocean, desert,

mountain)or weather such as temperature, doud cover, rain, snow, hurricanes, dimate regime etc. are
abiotic factors.

ENGINEERINS

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures. Machines, apparatus, or
manufacturing

processes, or works utilizing them singy or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with ful
cognizance of their

design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended
function, economics of

operation and safety to life and property.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural emvironment (air, water,
and/or tand

resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to
remediate polluted sites. t

invohes waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation
protection, industrial hygiene,

environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as knowledge of emvironmental

engineering law. t also incudes

studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.

ENMRONMENTAL ENGINEERING BRIEF HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

Sanitary engineering emerged as a separate engineering field within civil engineering in the mid 1800's
as the importance of drinking

water treatment and wastewater treatment became recognized. Sanitary engineering, which had an
emphasis on water supply,

water treatment, and wastewater collection and treatment for many years, is the precursor of the
present day field of

evironmental engineering. Public concern about environmental quality issues like air pollution and water
pollution emerged in the

middle third of the 20th century, leading to development of environmental engineering as a separate
discipline that deals with air

pollution control hazardous waste management and industrial hygiene as well as the traditional sanitary
engineering fields of water

supply and waste water treatment.

CDMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

ithosphere - The earth's outer layer consisting of the soil and rocks. The soil is ended upon non-living and
natural mater. There

are 2 types of thosphere namely oceanic lithosphere and cotinetal ithosphere.

2 Hydrosphere This comprise all water possessions both surfacr and ground water. Only less than 1% of
water resources are

obtainable for human exploitation. Water is considered to be a widesprèad compound with unusual
property.

3) Atmosphere- t is the state of ayer adjoining the earth and extends up to S00 kms above the earth's
shell. "Atmosphere is also

called as ayer of gases. The atmosphere, which is a gaseous wrap, protects the earth as of cosmic
radiations and provides life

supporting Oxygen The atmosphere plays a major role in asserting the heat balance of the earth by
gripping the re-emited

radiation from the earth.

Biosphere The biosphere is a shell encompassing the earth's surface where all the living things subsist.
This segment extends
from 10000 m undereath sea level to 6000 m above sea level. Biosphere is the total computation of all
ecosystems

ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

1) Collaborate with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers, and
other spedialists, and experts

in law and business to address environmental problems.

2 Provide technicalHevel support for environmental remediation and litigation projects, including
remediation system design and

determination of reguatory applicability.

inspect industrial and municipal facilities and programs in order to evaluate operational effectiveness
and ensure compliance

with environmental regulations.

Assess the existing or potential environmental impact of land use projects on air, water, and land.

Develop site-specific health and safety protocols, such as spill contingency plans and methods for loading
and transportin

waste.

6) Design systems, processes, and equipment for control, management, and remediation of water, air,
and soil quality

7Develop and present environmental compliance training or orientation sessions

Seve on teams conducting mulhtimedia inspections at complex facilities, providing assistance with
planning, quality assurance,

safety inspection protocols, and sampling.

Monitor progress of emvironmental improvement programs.

Environmental Engineering

Pdea strate sueot lor prsby ollecting data, providine project documentation, training staff, and
performing

ge nsrathe ties
FCOSST

ooganssnractig wth each other and wth their emvironment such that energy is exchanged and

el proces sch aste qcdling ofelements, emenge

s dde ng oganisms, the dead onganic mater produced by them, the abioticenvironment within which
the

nse and ewchange ekements so water, atmosphere), and the interactions between these components

Ecesystems enbody the oept that ving ooganisms continually interact with each other and with the
environment to

ece comple systems h emegent properties, such that "the whole isgreater than the sum of its parts" and

eye someted

BCOSYSTE

e natural emronment in wh an onganism hes

cossts tagoup of ongenims that look aike and have similar characteristics, share the same ecological
niche

capable oi interbreed

ionconssts of organisms ngin the same habitat at the same time.

a naturel colectin of plant and animal species living within a defined area or habitat in an ecosystem.

che-the function of an onganism or the role t plays in an ecosystem

COSYSTEMaAsSIRCATON

Artificial

ECOSYSTEM Terrestrial Lentic

Natural Fresh

Aquatic Lotic

Ocean

Marine

Seas
RUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTa

Production areation of new, oganic mater. The synthesis and storage of organic molecules durine the
growth and

reproduction of photesymthetic onganisns

Photosynthesis reaction (done by phototrophs)

coHO aH0 o(et and enzymes)

Chemesynthesis inorganic substances are comverted to organic substances in the absence of sunlight
(done by

chemotraphs which are a specialied bactera)

don-process of unleashing bound energy for utilization

Ot0 O 0 HO +released enerY

3 Cos o-process in which a substance is completely destroyed, used up, or incorporated or transformed
into somethirng

ebe. tacts as arguator for production and decompastion

Decom onresponsible for the breakdown of complex structures

Abiotic decomposition-degradation of a substance by chemical or physical processess

Bliotic decomposition (biodegradation) the metabolic breakdown of materials into simpler components
by living

Oganisms

MAMES ANDWORD DERNMONS

Producers-organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs The autotrophs
convert inorganic

compounds into organic compounds They are alled producers because all of the species of the
ecosystem depend on them

Consumes all the onganisms that cannot make their own food (and need producers) are called
heterotrophs. In aan

ecusystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others They obtain food by
eating other organisms.
There are different levels of consurmers Thase that feed directly from producers, ie organisms that eat
plant or plant produts

are alled primary consumers Onansms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers.
Those who feed on

secondary consumers are tertiary consumers

Corsumers are also dassiied depending on what they eat

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Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products. Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits,
deer, beavers,

moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.

Carmivores, on the other hand, are thase that eat only other animals. Examples of canivores are foes,
frogs, snakes

hawks, and spiders.

Omnores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consaumers) and meat (acting as
secondary or tertiary

consumers

Trophic level - corresponds to the different levels or steps in the food chain. In other words, the
producers, the consumers,

and the decomposers are the main trophic levels

NERGY FLOWINECOSYSTEM

Tertiary 4t Trophic Level (10 kcal) Heat lowest form of

Consumers energy, less useful form

3d Trophic Level (100 kcal) of energy

90% energy is lost in the

Primary Consumers 2d Trophic Level (1000 kcal) transfer of heat

Producers 1 Trophic Level (10000kcal) 10% is utilized

Enerey Pyramid

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

) Food chain-transfer of food energy from the source through a series of organisms in a process of
repeated/sequential eating or

being eaten paterm

Cassification

a) frazing food chain-starts from plants to grazing herbivores to camivores

b) Detritus food chain- starts from dead organic mater to microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, etc.

2) Food Web-refers to the interconnected or interlocking relationships among food chains in an

ecosystem

3) Food Pyramid-constitute the over-all structure of dependency among the living elements

oTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

1) Dwersity- variety of habitats, iving communities, and ecological processes in the iving word. It also
refers to the extent that an

ecosystem possesses different species.s

2) Distribution-the frequency of occurrence or the natural geographic range or place where species
occur

Immigration - used to describe the process by which a person moves into a country for the purpose of
establishing

residency. In such a case, the individual is not a native of the country which he immigrates to

Emigration - process by which a person leaves his place or country of residency, to relocate elsewhere. In
this case, the
individual moving is referred to as an emigrant

mmigration is movement to a country; emigration is movement from a country)

Migration-parent term of the aforementioned terms

3) Popuilation Density-the number of individuas ofa population per unit of living space (say, number of
trees per hectare of land)

9 Dominance -the degree to which a specie is more numerous than its competitors in arn ecological
community, or makes up more

of the biomass. Most ecokogical communities are defined by their dominant specdes

Keystone spedies-species that have a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its
abundance. Such

species play a citical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting mamy other
organisms in an ecosystem

and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the community. The mast
important specie

s) uming Factors- environmental factors, chemical and physical factors etc.

Environmental Engineering

POPULATIKON PRINGPUES AND ISSUES

Characteristics

Nataliy-the birthrate, which is the ratio of total live births to total population in a paricular area over a
specified period of time;

expressed as childibirths per 1000 people (or population) per year. t may also refer to the inherent ability
of a population to

inarease

q Mortality- the ratio of deaths in an area to the population of that area; expressed per 1000 per year

Morbidity- an incidence of ill heath. It is measured in various ways, often by the probability that a
randomly selected
individual in a population at some date and location woud become seriously il in some period of time

3 Sex ratio the atio of males to females ina population. The sex ratio varies according to the age profile of
the population. It is

generally divided into four

Primary sex ratio- ratio at fertilization

Secondary sex ratio-ratio at birth

Tertiary sex ratio - ratio in sexually active organisms

Quaternary sex ratio- ratio in post-reproductive onganisms

(Measuring these is a problem since there are no clear boundaries between them.)

Ae Destrbution- the proportionate numbers of persons in successive age categories in a gven population

POPULATON ISSUES

1) New characteristics because of immigration

2) Spread of diseases

3) Poverty

4) Environmental stress

5) Security issues

6) Health and Nutrition etc..

KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS

1) Competition- two species share a requirement for a imited resource reduces fitness of one or both
species

2 Predatiom-one species feeds on another enhances fitness of predator but reduces fitness of prey

3) Symbiosis-cose long lasting relationship of 2 different species

3 Categories

a)Parasitism- one species feeds on another enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of host

2 Knds of Parasitess
a.1) Ectoparasites- ive on the bodies of the host (ex. molds, flies, lice)

a2) Endoparasites- live inside the bodies of the host fex. Tapeworms, bacteria, fungi)

b) Commensalism-one species receivesa benefit from another species enhances fitness of one species;
no effect on fitness

of the other species

Mtualism-two species provide resources or services to each other enhances fitness of both species

SUCCESSION

The orderly process of community development that involves changes in species, structure, and
community

t results from the modification of the physical environment by the community

Primary succession occurs in essentially lifeless areas-regions in which the soil is incapable of sustaining
life as a result of

such factors as lava flows, newty fomed sand dunes, or rodks left from a retreating glacier

lichens-pioneering specie in primary succession, aids in pedogenesis (the formation of soil)

Secondary succession occurs in areas where a community that previously existed has been removed; it is
typified by

smaller-scale disturbances that do not eliminate all life and nutrients from the environment

climax community-a community in a final stage of succession. Self- perpetuating and in equilibrium with
the

physical habitat

MATERIAL CYCLES

Sometimes called nutrient cycles, material cycles describe the flow of mater from the nonliving to the
living world and back

again. As this happens, mater can be stored, transformmed into different mokecules, transferred from
organism to organism,

and returned to its initial configuration. The implications of material cydes are profound. There is
essentially a finite

amount of mater on Earth (with some input from meteors and other astronomical objects)
Examples include the carbon cycle, nitrogen cycde, oxygen cycde, phosphorus cycde, sulfur cyde etc.

Environmental Engineering

1 Crbon Ole

Carbon moves from the otmosphere to plants.

in the atmosphere, carbon is atached to oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide (CO). Wth the help of the
Sun, through the

process of photosynthesis, carbon diouide is pulled from the air to make plant food from carbon.

Carbon moves from plants to andmals.

Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the animals that eat them. Animas that eat
other animals get

the carbon from their food too

Cerbon moves from plonts and anmols to the ground

When plants and animals die, thelr bodies, wood and leaves decay bringing the carbon into the ground.
Some becomes

bured miles underground and wil become fossil fuels in millions and millons of years.

Crbon moves fram lving things to the atmasphere.

Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxlde gas (CO») into the atmonphere. Animals and
plants get rid of arbon

dioxide gas through a process called respiration.

Carbon moes from fossil fues to the atmosphere when fuets are burned.

When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars and trucks, most of the carbon
quickly enters the

atmosphere as carbon dioide gas. Each year, five and a half bilion tons of carbon is released by burning
fossl fues. That's

the weieht of 100 million adult Afrikan elephants! Of the huge amount of carbon that is released from
fuels, 3.3 billion tons
enters the atmosphere and most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater

Carbon mos from the atmosphere to the oceans

The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the atmosphere

2Onyn opcle

3) rn Oycle

The nitrogen cycle is the process byy which nitrogen is converted between its variosIs chemical forms.

important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification

Mogen Faton

Atmospherik nitrogen must be processed, or "ixed" to be used by plants.

There are four ways to convet N (atmospheric nitrogen gas) into more chemkally reactive forms:

1) Biokogkcal fixation: some symbiotie bacteria and some free iving bacterla are able to fx nitrogen as
organic

nitrogen.

) tndustrial N-fhation: Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600 C, and with the use af an iran
catalyst,

hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen can be combined to fom ammonia

3) Combustion of fossl fuels: automobile engines and thermal power plants, which release varilous
nitrogen aides

(NO)

Other processes: in addition, the formation of NO from Na and O due to photons and especialy lhtning,
can

fx raltrogen

nicato

hen a plant or animal dies, or an animal expets waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria, or
fungi in some

cases, convert the organe nRrogen within the remains back into ammonlum, process called
ammonification
Or mineralzation.

caton

This s the biokogcal oddation of ammonlum. This is done in two steps, frst from the nitrite form then to
the nitrate form.

Two specifik chemoautotrophie bacterial genera are invoved, using inorganie carbon as their source for
cellular cartbon.

Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter

NO

Ammontu Witrite Nitrate

icton

This is the bikogical reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gs This can proceed theough several steps in the
biochemical

pathway, with the ultimate production of nitrogen gs A fairly broad range of hetrotrophic bacteria are
invoted in the

procs, requiring an argane carbon source for energy

NO oganic carbon NO anic carbon N co H0

4hphers Opde

Most l the worlds phosphorus is "locked up" in rocks- can only be released by weathering

Westherig refers to goup of proceses by whech surface rock disitegrates into smaller partices or dissolve

nto water due to the inpact of the atmoasphere and hydrosphere. The weathering processes often are
slow

hundred to thousands of years)

Weathering processes are divided into three ategories:

Environmental Engineering

physical weathering-abrasion, thermal expansion and contraction, wetting and drying etc
chemical weathering- hydrolysis, oxidation reduction

biological weathering - lichen

A lot of the phosphorus that runs off into the ocean also gets "buried" into the ocean floor because it
precipitates into solid

form and setles to the botom as sediment. . Only the occasional upwellings in the ocean can recyce
phosphorus back to

the top of the ocean. **Note that birds are one of the few manners of carrying phosphorus back to land
because they eat

fish (that eat phosphorus-rich phytoplankton) and then excrete the phosphorus back onto land

s) Sulur ycle

Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions and through emissions from hot springs. It
enters the

atmosphere primarily in the fom of sulfur dioxide, then remains in the atmosphere in that form or, after
reacting with

water, in the form of sulfuric acid.

Sulfur is caried back to Earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows

On Earth's surface, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid react with metals to fom sulfates and sulfides. The
element is also

incorporated by plants in a form known as organic sulfur. Certain amino acids, the compounds from
which proteins are

made, contain sulfur. Organic sulfur from plants is eventually passed on to animals that eat those plants.
It is, in tum,

converted from plant proteins to animal proteins.

When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it is comverted by microorganisms into
hydrogen sulfide.

Hydrogen sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere, where it is oxidized to sulfuric acid