Acknowledgements ‘Andrew Minson was the originator of the concept for this book, but the final format and content have evolved over time with input gratefully received by the author, Owen Brooker, from a ‘number of people. The book contains some new material but many of the ideas and much of the data have been developed from many sources over several years. I is not possible to credit every source; indeed many are unknown, but wherever possible, references have been made to relevant documents, Particular thanks are due to Jenny Burridge and Bob Wilson who have spent considerable time reviewing and commenting on drafts and providing useful guidance on what the examiners are expecting. Thanks are also due John Brazier, Andrew Cotter, Bryan Magee and Matt Obst, who have commented or made useful contributions in more specialised areas. Gillan Bond, Issy Harvey and Michael Burridge Ltd have also made essential contributions to the production of this handbook. Published by The Concrete Centre Riverside House, 4 Meadows Business Park, Station Approach Blackwater, Camberey, Suey GUT7 9AB Tel: +44 (0)12/6 606800 Fax: +44 (0)1276 606801 www.concretecentre.com ccip-018 Published December 2006 ISBN 1-904818-44-7 Price Group P ©The Concrete Centre CIP publications are produced on behalf ofthe Cement and Concrete Industry Publications Forum ~ {an industry initiative to publish technical guidance in support of concrete design and construction, CIP publications are available from the Concrete Bookshop at www.concretebookshop.com Tel: +44 (0)7004-607777 |A.avce or information rom The Concrete Cente is intended or those who wl evaluate the sigaicance an iia of 1s content and tae resporblty forts use and appctien No bility (cud that fr neghgenes) foray os resulting trom sch advice er information i accepted by The Concete Centre ots subcontacters suppers or airs Readers shuld tot that The Concrete Cente pblcaion ar subject to eiston fem tne to time and shoud thereto ensure that they are In posession ofthe atest version. Pinted by Michel Burbidge Ld Maldenhesd UKATITH NAIR Concrete buildings ‘ssa dere 1__ Introduction 1 17__How to use this handbook 1 14 Timing 2 12__ Assumptions 1 1.5 Further information 2 13 The exar 2 2___Development of solutions (section 1) 3 2.1 Viable structural solutions 3.27 Designappraisal 7 22 Functional framing 3 28 Typical loads 24 23 Load transfer 3 29 _ Typical spatial requirements 29 24 Stabil 7 210 Pre 29 25 Concrete frame options 8 —_211_Theletter 37 26 Foundations and retaining structures 8 3___ Design calculations (section 2c) 39 3.1 Expectations of the examiners __-39—=S«3.12_lat slabs 57 3.2 Durability and fire resistance 40 bed slabs a 3.3 Assessing the design moments 45 ‘Waffle slabs 6s 3.4 Flonure 45 Precast flooring systems 6B. 35 Shear 46 3.16 _Post-tensioning 68 3.6 Deflection 4737 Columns 7 3.7__ Estimating reinforcement quantities 47 3.18 _ Shear walls 75 38 _ Detailing 47 3.19 Ground-bearing slabs 77 3.9 Design of beams 49 3.20 _ Shallow foundations 3 3.10 One-way spanning slabs 51-321 Piled foundations 81 3.11_Two-way spanning slabs 33 4 _ Plans, sections, evaluations and critical details (section 2d) 90 4.1__ Plans, sections and elevations 90 42 _Citical details — 90 Method statement and programme (section 2e) 103 5.1__ Method statement 7035.2 Programme 104 Appendix Robustness requirements for precast concrete frames 107 Appendix B Selected tables from BS 8110 m1 Appendix C: Design aids 14 References 129 Further reading 130 Index 331 Tables for areas of reinforcement Inside back coverSymbols used in this handbook Symbol > Sree REE PRR S] eyo E> Alor |e jas Definition ‘Area ofthe pile base ‘Area of concrete ‘Area of tension reinforcement Surface area of the pile Minimum area of reinforcement Provided area of reinforcement Required area of reinforcement ‘Area of vertical reinforcement in a column Total cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement Drape of tendon measured at centre of profile between points of inflection \Wiath or effective width ofthe section or flange in the compression zone Breadth ofthe effective moment transfer strip Breadth of section (fr a flanged beam width, below the flange) Cover ‘Average undrained shear strength over the length of the pile Undisturbed shear strength atthe base of the pile Pile diameter [Effective depth of the tension reinforcement Group efficiency ra Eccentricity of prestressing force Eccentricity of lateral load and shear centre Total design ultimate load (1.4 G, + 16 Q,) Ultimate load capacity of wall Characteristic strength of concrete Estimated design service stess in the tension reinforcement Characteristic cube strength of reinforcement Characteristic strength of shear reinforcement Characteristic dead load ‘Overall sab depth Depth of column section Thickness of the flange ‘Second moment of area of shear walls ‘Armeasure ofthe relative compressive stress in a member in flexure Value of K above which compression reinforcement is required Horizontal coefficient of earth pressure Length of wall Length of wall in tension Effective span Effective height of a column about x and y axis Length of shorter side of two-way spanning slab Length of longer side of two-way spanning slab Design ultimate moment at the section consideredM,____ Moment of resistance ; M,____Design moment transferred between slab and column m,n Number of piles in orthogonal directions im, __ Maximum design ultimate moments of unit width and span {, m, Maximum design ultimate moments of unit width and span N Design ultimate axial load on a column or wall N,___ Mayerhof’s bearing capacity factor Wy,* __ Pile bearing capacity factor a ‘Number of piles in group ? Prestessing force P,,___ Average prestressing force in tendon Capacity ofa single pile Qj, Allowable capacity ofthe pile base Q Allowable capacity of ple shaft skin faction Q,___ Characteristicimposed load 7, Effective overburden pressure Tomaan _ Mean overburden pressure 5 Distance between points of inflection 5 Pile spacing & Spacing of links along the member t Thickness of wall v Effective length ofthe outer perimeter of the zone y Effective length of the perimeter that touches the loaded area v Design shear force due to ultimate loads — v Design shear stress ata cross section % Design concrete shear stress _ Vou Design effective shear including allowance for moment transfer YoY __ Shear force per unit width in x and y directions w Total design ultimate load y Distance of shear from origin O 7 Distance to the shear centre from origin © ZZ, Section modulus bottom, top z Lever arm “« ‘Adhesion factor gc, _ Moment coefficients for simply supported two-way spanning slabs 8 Effective height factor for colurnns Be Redistribution ratio BoB _ Moment coeficients for restrained two-way spanning slabs By By, _ Shear force coefficients for restrained two-way spanning slabs % Factor of safety on the base ofthe ple % Factor of safety on pile capacity % Factor of safety on the ple shaft ‘Aczz,__Allowance in design for deviations 8 “Angle of friction between the soil and the pile face ° Tensile stress in shear wall % Bar diameter 4 link diameterIntroduction 1 Introduction The Institution of Structural Engineers Chartered Membership Examination is highly regarded both nationally and internationally and requires the candidate to rapidly justify their initial design concepts. This handbook is written specifically for those who are preparing to sit the examination, but it should also prove useful to all those involved in preparing outline and scheme stage designs on a day-to-day basis. a 1.1 How to use this handbook This handbook is laid out to reflect the examination questions; to date these have followed the same format. ection 1 of the examination is the design appraisal and this is covered in Section 2, which provides essential information required to assist in answering this part of the examination. Section 2 of the examination is divided into three parts; fistly (section 2c) there is the requirement to prepare sufficient calculations to establish the size and form of all the principal structural elements, Guidance is given in Section 3 ofthis handbook. Section 2d requires the candidate to prepare plans, sections and elevations, including critical details, for estimating purposes; examples are given in Section 4. Finally section 2 requires detailed method statements and often an outline programme to be prepared and ths is covered in Section 5. Readers should appreciate that this publications written forthe structural engineer practising in the UK. Whilst many of the principles can be applied to structures around the worl, it must be clearly understood that environmental and geotechnical factors encountered may be significantly different. Is also written with the design of building structures in mind rather than bridges or offshore structures. The requirements for question 8, structural dynamics, are not specifically covered ‘Text on a pale blue background provides information to help candidates prepare for the examination and is not intended for use in the examination itself. 1.2 Assumptions It is assumed that the readers and users of this publication are practising engineers and are already familiar with the principles of design to BS 8110-Part 1: 1997" (including amendments 1, 2 and 3). ‘The worked examples given are intended to act as an aide memoir, rather than as a tool for leaming to design in concrete. They provide sufficient justification to demonstrate that the elements are suitable forthe proposed situation. Other publications and design aids should be referred to for examples of fully designed reinforced concrete elements. The examples given may be rore detailed than the exeminers would expect to see in a script, but are included to aid learning and as preparation for the examination. The essential calculations that might be provided in the examination are highlighted by blue text. Candidates will need to use their judgement in applying the worked examples to their solutions in the examination, especially as the principal etements wil often be more complex than the examples given in this handbook. It is strongly recommended that a copy of Economic concrete frame elements is ‘obtained to assist in the initial sizing of elements as required to answer section 1 of each question. However, for completeness, some guidance on initial sizing has been provided in this handbook13 1.4 15 The examination ‘The examination is intended to be a test of the candidate's ability to develop detailed solutions for challenging structural problems, Candidates will need to demonstrate their Understanding of structural engineering and be able to produce two alternative solutions that are robust, stable and buildable They will also have to demonstrate their knowledge and experience through sketches, diagrams, calculations and descriptions of their solutions. ‘The examination is hight regarded throughout the world and provides a challenging test for the ‘anedidate. However, those nto have a good all-round experience in structural engineering and who have thoroughly prepared should be able to pass the examination at the first attempt ‘At the time of writing (2006) the candidate is expected to answer one question out of eight. ‘The type of material expected to be used in the solution or the type of structure in the eight uestions follows a regular pattern: 1. Stee! building 5. Concrete building 2. Steel building 6, General structure 3. Bridge 7. Offshore structure 4, Concrete building, 8. Structural dynamics Knowing that a solution to a particular question is expected to use a certain material may lead the candidate to consider solutions in that material only. However, a solution in another material ‘may be equally applicable and indeed there have been occasions in the past where an alternative ‘material has been more appropriate. The candidate should therefore have an open mind; there is ‘no single solution to any of the questions. Timing The examination lasts for seven hours plus half an hour for lunch There are 100 marks available «and the candidates should plan their timeso that all sections are completed. There is no substitute for experience, and siting a mock examination will enable the candidate to appreciate what can be achieved in the seven hours available. ifthe time available for each section is allocated in proportion to the marks available, the following timetable can be followed 09:30 section 1a (40 marks) 12:20 section 1b (10 marks) 13:00 Lunch 13:30 section 2c (20 marks) 14:35 section 2d (20 marks) 16:20 section 2e (10 marks) 17:00 Finish The largest proportion of the marks is for section 1a and the candidate may want to produce an individual timetable for this section Further information ‘There is plenty of useful information about the examination that is freely available from the Institution of Structural Engineer's website! Candidates are advised to download this information and study it.Development of solutions 2 Development of solutions (section 1) 2.1 Viable structural solutions Candidates are required to prepare a design appraisal of two distinct and viable solutions for the bref. itis important that two solutions are presented; offering only one solution is likely to result ina failure. Both solutions should be prepared tothe same level of detail. Candidates should demonstrate to the examiner the ability to conceive and present distinct options for the proposed structures, They should indicate the functional framing, load transfer and stability of the schemes. The question asks forthe functional framing before the load transfer diagram because this isthe necessary and logical sequence. The load path must follow through the framing, Similarly, the means of stabilising the frame can be addressed only after the load paths have been identitie. In developing solutions the candidate should consider the following issues; mare detail is given throughout this ection 18 Functional framing 1m Speed of construction 1 Load transfer Aesthetics Stability Acoustics Safety 1 Footfall-induced vibration @ Economy tm Thermal mass Buildabilty Sustainability fm Robustness 1 Bulding movements 1 Duabilty Fire resistance 1 Site constraints 2.2. Functional framing The structure should be idealised to show how it functions; this should be presented as a sketch that shows the type of connections, the stiffness of the elements and/or structure and the nature of the foundations and any retaining structures. Examples of appropriate functional framing diagrams are shown in Figure 2.1 2.3 Load transfer The candidate should show how the actions on a structure are transferred fram the point of application to the supporting ground; again this is most clearly conveyed through a sketch. Examples are given in Figure 2.2. The load transfer diagram illustrates the way the designer expects the structure to behave. Generally there are three types of load to consider: 1m Vertically acting or gravity loads such as self-weight and imposed floor loading, i Lateral loads such 2s wind and the notional horizontal load given in Cl. 3.1.4.2. 1 Soil loads, which can have either vertical or horizontal components. The candidate should be able to quickly determine the critical combination of these loads, based Cn the load factors given in table 2.1 of BS 8110.Long-span roof, — Column Stiff floor Load-bearing concrete J2——[ block wat | _ Lt __| []_— Upstana beam Flat slab (min. 3 bays) Sf" Shear Column ae _-,4 Lorena oH TRE Raft a) Building section ) Gable shear wall Retaining wall Floor slab ‘on grade" ©) Reservoir essnn Peco | 4) Precast concrete terracing Figure 2.1 Example functional fa Diagrams Bob wisonLong-span roof, Stiff floor Load-bearing concrete 2] [block watt |_— Upstand beam — Column Shear Column ae _ Gb L.---» SL ia TOR att a) Building section by Gable shear walt Flat slab (min. 3 bays) Sf" Retaining wall Floor slab ‘on grade" ©) Reservoir essnn Peco | 4) Precast concrete terracing Figure 2.1 ‘Example functional framing diagrams Diagrams Bob wisonDevelopment of solutions Partition load beter, beng t Uno ad and shear in beam leads to reactions Searle at the end ofthe — <= beam | SS | Wall reaction Load from beam =load on wall Reinforced . concrete column 4 Brickwork wall ia Foundation reaction t Foundation reaction Load on pitecap | Foundation load Pile reaction | Ground reaction Pe toad Load ont grouns = bearing py pressure 4 / NN A nef\ a 1. | Friction reaction ZINN “|S ‘ oR a-N\ Bulb of pressure for 0/5 End reaction | Load on rock TRS | stress = 4228. ‘area a) Vertical loads Figure 2.2 (continued overleaf) Example load transfer diagrams Dagar: Bob wis) Plan view of diaphragm action 4 Ss y wos || 9g we aiplaces | | 7” | a A \ \b——Fleersne Support | removed | ACTA Bearing pressures, 4d). Retaining wall Bava compresion 9 wath bonding 6) Effect of accidental impact maces bs GL % I 1") sola est eee | s { Water toad st Tit Passive roe Figure 22 continued ‘Example load transfer diagrams Dagume BoD Wilson2.4 2.4.1 leorsnreeritsol (orn Stability Its essential that the building and its various component elements are stable and the candidate is likely to fail ifthe stability of the structure is not adequately demonstrated. There are two stability criteria to consider; lateral stability and uplift due to water pressure Lateral stability The following are examples of loads that may impose lateral forces on the structure: 1 Wind toads im Earthquakes. Lateral loads due to geometric imperfections. 1 Horizontal component of soil Loads. (Out-of-balance soil loads should be considered on sloping sites) Accidental loads. The structure should be designed to resist these loads in two orthogonal directions. For a multi storey building this can be achieved by using: 1 Shear walls (ie. a braced building) or 1 Moment-resisting frames (ie. sway frame). Shear walls should be arranged in plan so that their shear centre coincides with the resultant of the overturning forces (see Figure 2.3). If this isnot possible, twisting moments will also occur and the additional forces that result should be added to the other forces in each shear wall. Further uidance on calculating the shear centre and twisting moments is given in Section 3.18 8) Walls ress bending in one plane, F 8 oi} trae ation in ether plane. Good torsional stiffness. |] waits reset bending n both panes. B88 Gand torsional tities oo. ©) Core reststs bending in both planes. Poor torsional Behaviour due to eccentric D)] cores rest benign btn planes Lp 7 coments ©) Cores resist bending on each section of the bulling independently, Relative shear displacement at movement joi. Ea Figure 2.3 “Typical shear wall layouts Dope Gra teper tase2.4.2 2.5 2.6 2.6.1 2.6.2 The use of shear walls assumes that the floor will act as a horizontal diaphragm to transfer loads to the shear walls. For in-situ concrete buildings this can normally be assumed and no other checks are necessary. However, further consideration of how the lateral loads are transferred to the shear walls may be required as shown in the following examples: m Where precast concrete floor units are used, especially where there is no structural topping. eg. car park deck or under a raised floor. 1m Where the loads are transferred across a relatively narrow strip, eg. w parts of the building. 1m Where the length of floor plate connected directly to the shear walls is short. This can occur if there are large services risers adjacent to the shear walls Uplift ‘Where the structure requires excavation in ground that has a high water table, the water pressure may cause uplift (buoyancy) of the structure. The candidate should ensure there is suitable resistance to the uplift forces in the final condition, and also determine what measures are required during construction to avoid uplift. kway linking two Concrete frame options Reinforced concrete is @ versatile material that can be formed in many different shapes and forms. Figure 2.4 gives sizing information for the more common solutions for floors. Table 2.1 gives a summary of the common forms of concrete construction that are used, and presents their advantages and disadvantages. Foundations and retaining structures Ground-bearing slabs Ground-bearing slabs are a popular and economic way to support the loads at the lowest level in the building. However, in the following situations, suspended slabs or ground improvement techniques may be requited to reduce settlement: 1 Slabs supporting high loads, eg. industrial Noors B In areas where the ground conditions include fil In areas with soft clay (void formers may be required where heave can occur). On sloping sites, especially where the slab would be supported on varying ground conditions Bm Where trees could can cause settlement or heave Foundation solutions Selecting the correct foundation solution is an important part of the examination; Table 2.2 gives appropriate foundations fora varity of soil conditions. These are generalisations for typical, buildings and are not intended to be a substitute for experience. Key considerations at concept stage are: 1 Groundwater ~a high groundwater level will equie special measures during construction ‘and may cause buoyancy ofthe finished structure. 1 Shallow foundations should be just that - shallow Excavating deeper than 3 mis usvally not economic.Development of solutions ‘gt n men Cr a a a a Spanin m Depth in mm ose US UU UOC Spaninm epth in mm a a re) 5 Spaninm €) Imposed load Q, = 7.5 kN/m*? key ugh sab Harsh = neay i fat sb) = ybrnotoncoe and topping th charts for imposed loads of 25,5,0 and 7 SkN/m?Table 21 Concrete solutions for floors Peer ‘Span range a peepee ees Pees Saco Pee eee tes Soffit can be exposed Cas ‘Solid at slab (Continuity improves economy) Wr Bw Solid at slab with drops 4Rnruvvvewovrvvowww x ‘Sold flat sab with coun heads Forringcoumbeaddsnpts 4 10 TV Vv wWOVYOOWWWw x cel ies and interferes wth oles adacent to clues) Waffle slab 9R2UMOOWV OV VW www K owwwuww 5 Biaxial voided slab (Can be used with in-situ or with precast 414.7 18 wv v ww 0 Sofft slab, which would act as permanent formwork) ° ‘Solid one-way slab with beams ARE MV OOO OW KWwOWWww x Solid slab with band beams dtl fs) (2 Fe VA el IIe JK a We Ribbed slab with beams TUB BROOV VY OV KW www x Ribbed sab with integral band beams euswOovwv Ov WK Tunnel form (One-way sab on walls) AWK KW KKK Composit atc gies soft sab» 4 BK KWL OOWV KV OWWw Precast holowcor sab aux Kw OOWV KRwWwWOW0 OW Composite precast slab AK KW OOWV KY WOW OW Precast double'T' units 6m K KwWVOOOVKWwWwYWwoOW Precast crosswal and sold prestressed slab AIK KW WK KWOK Solid two-way slab with beams SK KOO0OVwWKWYOWW WK Two-way waffle sab wth beams ou KK OOO DOVKWwOWWW K Waffle slab with integra beams BUNK XL OOW OVW OW K mr (ieee eens it and precast concrete) Precast twin wall and lattic gider soffit sab with in-stuinfil 4 75 X X WV WWWV KWV WK WW and topping Precast columns and edge beams with in-situ floorslab = 4 10 6 WWW WW Y OV OVWWOY Precast columns and floor units with in-situ beams ® AMX Kw KWON In-situ columns and beams with precast floor units? IM Kw nwnr nr wooryw Sa Ris pire va eel ae | FA | P07 FO) FS) PF 1) WW We oor units Key. 0 Becellent (© Canbe used, but may require futher consideration ¥ Good _ Not applicable ornot appropriate ' Requires 100 tunnels for maximum economy, Special curing methods required to obtain eay age concrete strengths b Tempory props required 10Development of solutions Aaa > Soli fiat slab Solid fat lab with drops | Solié fat slab with column | Watfle slab Biaxial voided slab | heads | Solid one-way slab with | Solid at slabwith band | Ribbedslabwith beams | Ribbed slab with integral | Tunnel form (One-way beams beams band beams slab on vals) Composite lattice girder | Precast holowcore slab | Composite precast slab | Precast double'T' units | Precast crosswall and soli soffit slab prestressed slab : | saitvermysie | hersyratetiatt | vate vente vanbone a = | Mino ene Precast win wall andlatice | Precast columns and | Precast columns and floor | In-situ columns and beams | in-situ columns and floor der soft sab with in-situ | edge beams with in-situ | units within-situ beams | with precast lor units | topping with precast infill and topping for slab ‘beams and floor units Figure 2.5 ‘Schematic diagrams for the concrete options in Table 2.1 nTable 22 Foundation solutions Rock, hard sound chal, sand or gravel to great depth Uniform fim and stif clays to ‘great depth, without significant tices inthe vicinity Uniform fim and stif clays to great depth, where vegetation ould impact on te shinkager ‘expansion of the clay Firm clay to shallow depth over soft clay to great depth Loose sand to great depth Soft cay fill Clay increasing in suength as depth increases (rom soft to stilf lay) Soft clay over rock at depth Dense sand or st clay over layer of soft lay, over stiff clay togreat depth ‘Mining nd subsidence areas oping site Site with high groundwater level 2 shallow foundations: strips, pads rafts Shallow foundations: strips, pads, rafts Options 1. Piles 2, Deep wench fil (sips) 3. Rats 4. Pers For lightweight structures, strips, pads or rafts may be appropriate For heavy structures deep foundations will be required Options: 1. Raft 2, Ground improvement with shallow foundations 3. Pies Options: 1. Piles 2. Wide stip foundation 3. Rafts 4, Ground improvement with shallow foundations Options: 1. Piles 2. Ground improvement Options: 1. Piles 2. Wide tip foundation 3. Rats 4, Ground improvernent with shallow foundations 5. Piers Piles prefered, but a raft may be suitable fora basement Use deep foundations Deep foundations generally requied except for ight loads, Ground improvement technique could be used swith shallow foundations Slip-plane raft Foundations to suit sol conditions but the effects ofthe slope should be considered ‘All foundation types may be appropiate Dewatering may be used, bt consider affects on surounding structures ‘Acid the base ofthe foundation being below grounduster evel Mirirum depth to underside of foundation to avoid fost heave: 450mm Deep foundation may be required were there are uplift condtions Miniemuen depth to protect against shrinkage/heave ~900 mm ‘Trench fill can be economic Refer to Table 23 fr stip foundation depths in prosity of res Use suspended floors with vod formes For shallow foundations ensure the load is distributed over a large enough area forthe soft clay to support it Vibration and groundwater changes can induce settlement ater construction Driven piles wil increase the density ofthe sand Sip foundations may need reinforcement Service enties into building shoul be flexible Rafts may not be suitable for highly shrinkable sols ‘table ples bored in sit wth axing, diven in-situ, ven precast Alor foc cag on ples cused by peat consti Sos maybe acdc Specially selected and well compacted fil will have greater load bearing capacity Service enties into building should be flexible Consider effets of contaminants in the fil Settlement is kely to govern the pile design [Negative skin friction may add to the loads on ples Pies not suitable Consider overall stability as well as loca stability Groundwater wil increase instablity of site {In sand and gravel keep foundations above groundwater level Consider uplift forces ‘Stability of excavations should be considered Bored ples requite casing or support uid Continuous ight auger piles suitable ‘Ground conditions may be aggressive‘Table 2.3, How to determine foundation depth (m) adjacent to trees in shrinkable soils em atau cera) ren 1a) nt of solutions ae a i = fae : zs = iar oie = |S ia a oe fi is a Ei ‘Modified Plasticity index ‘Volume change potential 40% and greater High 20% to less than 40%6 Medium 10% to less than 20% tow Notes Outside exclusion zone 1 150 125, 1.00. 11 Determine whether a particular species of tee is outside exclusion zone 1 oF 2 2 Determine the foundation depth from the lower part of the table forthe particular sol conditions andthe appropiate extiusion zone. Outside exclusion zone 2 1.00 030 o7s 3 Where the tee() ate inside exclusion zone 1 refer to NHAC guidelines! on which this table is based 2.6.3 Piling options There is a wide choice of piles: the type of pile chosen should be appropriate for the ground and site conditions. Table 2.4 gives some guidance on benefits of a variety of pile types. 2.6.4 Retaining walls Options for retaining walls are given in Table 25 BTable24 ‘Comparison of ple types in | Driven precast | concrete pile Driven cas in-situ (Atube is driven into ‘ground and filed with Insitu concrete) Bored piles ‘Augeted (€g.continuous fight auger (CFA) Table 2.5 ‘Working space availabe to allow ground to be battered back during wall construction Limited working space Limited working space and special controls on ground movements 4 + Quality of ple canbe inspected before it is placed in the ground + Construction not affected by groundwater + Can be driven in long lengths + Most appropriate in soft and unobstructed soils + No remaved sol to dispose of + Length can be realy varied to suit actual ground conditions encountered + Gan be driven in very long lengths + Driven with a closed end and therefore groundwateris ‘excluded from hole + Can be driven in long lengths + Soll removed can be inspected + Can be installed in large diameters + End enlargements are possible in clay + Can be installed within a limited headroom + Small rigs can be used + Relatively quiet + Low vibration + Soll removed can be inspected + The ground is continuously supported by the auger + Relatively quiet. + Low vibration + Suitable for most soil types (excluding boulders) + Can be installed with a limited headroom + The continuous helical displacement technique (CHO) ‘reduces volume of removed soil and increases sol strength adjacent to pile shaft. eran Pree Gravity or cantilever cetaining wall Precast concrete crib wall Roe Dewatering during construction of gravity or cantilever retaining wall + Can be damaged during driving + Pile can be displaced iit hits obstruction + Actua length of pile is known only when proved on site + Relatively age rig required + Noise and vibation, but piling rigs are constantly being improved + Driving force may determine pile properties + Displacement of soil may damage surounding structures * Can be damaged during driving + Relatively large rig requited + Noise and vibration, but piling rigs are constantly being improved + Driving force may determine pile properties + Displacement of sil may damage surrounding. structures + Concrete cannot be inspected aftr casting + Large diameters cannot be used, + Rsk of necking in'squeering! ground conditions + Concrete isnot placed under ideal canitions and cannot be inspected + Casing may be requited in sols lacking cohesion + Removed ol equies disposal + May require underwater concreting + Piling rigs may be large ‘+ Maximum 1200 mm pile diameter + Concrete cannat be Inspected after pouring + Maximum pile length around 30m + Limited length of reinforcement cage + Removed sol requires disposal + Efficiency is dependant on regular supply of concrete + Auger may be impeded by relatively stif sols lay and silt Gravity or cantilever retaining wall King post wall as temporary Secant bored pile wall King post wall as temporary support Diaphragm wal support Contiguous piled wal Contiguous ped wall Diaphragm wall Diaphragm val Contiguous piled wall Secant bored pile wall Contiguous piled wal Diaphragm wall Diaphragm wall Diaphragm wallDyV-leyursmen elie 2.6.5 Ground improvement There ate two major reasons why the use of ground improvement techniques may be considered, Firstly, where the ground as poor load-carrying capacity, ground improvement is an alternative to deep foundations. Secondly, it may be used to treat contaminated sites prior to redevelopment. On some sites it could be used to overcome both problems. Cementitious products can be used for both situations as discussed in the sections below. There are other treatments available that may be more suitable in certain situations; details of these techniques ‘can be found in publications from the BRE®, and CIRIA! or fram the Environment Agency. Soil mixing Stabilising land with the use of lime, cement or other binders is a cost-effective method of converting areas of weak soil into a suitable load-bearing materia a Lime can be added to cohesive sols and will cause the following improvements: Increased strength 1 Reduced susceptibility to swelling and shrinkage. 1 Improved durability to weather and twaffic 1 Good handling and compaction characteristics 1 A reduction in plasticity 1 Increased suitability for stockpiling and subsequent reuse. Alter treatment with lime, plastic sols break down into fine particles. This makes them suitable for the addition of cement, fly ash (pfa) and ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs) that will, impart significant strength. After the binders have been added and the correct moisture content is achieved, the treated soil is compacted to promote further strength gain and long-term durability. The specification of the treatment should be carried out by specialists Soil stabilisation is essentially a mixing process that can be carried out in a number of ways. Normaly it is an in-situ process where the binders are mixed into the ground in a layer by powerful rotovators and then compacted with a roller. The layer is nominally 300 mm deep, but any number of layers can be used For smaller sites tractor-mounted rotovators ate available but these still have a very powerful ‘mixing action. Binders can be applied by spreading them on the ground before mixing or they can be applied during the rotovation process. The latter method eliminates any potential dust problems. For less cohesive materials itis possible to mix the soil and binders at a central mixing plant. This will involve hauling the soil tothe plant for treatment and returning it to the point of deposition. This is usually slower than the in-situ method, ‘Where the total potential sulfate content is below 0.25% SO, there is minimal rsk of expansion Of the soil due to the reaction between calcium (from lime or cement), alumina (from clay) and sulfate, Where the total potential sulfate content is significant then soil mixing may still be used, but the binders need careful selection to avoid heave due to sulfates. Grouting Cementitious grout can also be used to improve load-bearing properties of the soil. There are several different techniques available and success requires specialist knowledge. One common Use is to stabilise backfilled old mine shafts. If the backfill to the shaft has not been properly compacted then it can be injected with cement grout to fill major voids and prevent collapse, 1516 2.6.6 Remediation using soil stabilisation/solidification Soil stabilsation/soliifcation is a ground remediation technique that involves the controlled addition and mixing of hydraulic binders with contaminated soil to generate a granular or ‘monolithic material in which contaminants are rendered immobile and virtually non-leachable Although they are not totally removed or destroyed, stabilisation/solidfication removes pathways between contaminants and potential receptors. The addition of cement and/or lime has two benefits ‘Stabilisation — the production of more chemically stable constituents. Solidification — the imparting of physical/dimensional stability to contain contaminants in a solid product and reduced access by external agents, such as air or rainfall The two processes work together and the chemical and physical changes can be optimised through careful selection of binder materials and minor additives to achieve the desired remedial objectives. At the same time as achieving the remedial objectives the engineering properties of the soil are improved, thereby facilitating the development of the site Table 2.6 Contaminants that can be treated with soil stabilisation/solidification © Relative ffectiveness of treatment ‘Metals arsenic, cadmium, lead, copper, tc) Some may require the use of additives to iS improve the elfcacy of teatment ‘Ganides and thiocynates 5 Chemical treatment to modify oxidation state can enhance success, Sulfur and sulfates Treatment enhanced by adding egbs o pa ° Care required with respect to expansive ‘mineral formation Salts ~ chlorides (and other halides), nitrates é ‘Success depends on concentration and type ofsalt [Ammonium sats & Limited data available to assess general ficacy {TEX (benzene, toluene, ethy benzene, ‘Success depends onthe type, nature and xylene) and other VOC and semiVOCs ° concentration of particular compounds (Wolatile organic compounds) PAHs (polyaromatic hydrocarbons) a Treatment is enhanced with the use of sorbents Phenols Treatment i enhanced wth the use of io sorbents TPH (total petroleum hydrocarbons) Care required in design of binder to optimise Including pete ange and diesel range ° success aliphaics (PRO and DRO) Asbestos ° CBs (polychlorinated bi-phery/s), pesticides, 7 ‘Success with pesticides depends onthe dioxins, furans particular compounds present Acids and alas ° Radionuclides 5 ‘Complete encapsulation or embedient is ‘often used with radioactive wastes Key © Treatment is effective with demonstrable applicability © Treatment is effective and success is demonstrable However efiacy is subject to characteristics of magazine regularly updates information con lead-in times. ‘A key date on any programme for a building is the date that itis weatherproof. Although a prefabricated frame (either steel or precast concrete) can be erected quickly, it does not necessarily follow thatthe date the building s sealed will be earlier. This relies on follow-on trades, particulary the cladding, which may be able to progress in parallel with an in-situ concrete frame, but which may be delayed until the floors are completed for other types of frame. \With an in-situ frame, installation of services may be commenced eatler in the programme as the floors are usually cast with the frame, giving an immediate substrate to which the services can be fixed. If flat soffits are used, the programme can be reduced because the installation is simpler. Candidates will need to make their own assessment of the relative speed of construction for their solutions, and whether iti an important criterion for the client, Further guidance on construction periods is given in Section S Aesthetics Concrete can offer a pleasing aesthetic solution, and this can be achieved with either precast or in: situ conerete. Concrete provides the opportunity to create unusual shapes ata small cost premium. This can be particularly beneficial if circular columns are required for aesthetic reasons or where columns need to be contained in walls, eg. for apartments. Concrete can also be used for curved beams, unusual plan shapes and shell structures. The layout ofthe vertical structure can be arranged to suit the use of the building rather than having to rigidly follow a structural grid Acoustics Concrete is a very good sound insulator, even when the source of noise is an impact on the face of the concrete. For this reason concrete floors and walls are often used in residential, accommodation, including flats, hotels and student residences, to prevent the passage of sound between units Concrete can also be used to prevent the passage of sound into or out of a building, A good ‘example would be the use of concrete floors beneath plant on the roof of a building to prevent the noise penetrating the habitable areas, Footfall-induced vibration For some types of buildings the control of vibrations induced by people walking across the floor plate are important. This is particularly the case for hospitals and laboratories containing sensitive ‘equipment, but even in offices long slender spans can cause excessive vibration, The inherent mass of concrete means that concrete floors generally meet vibration criteria at ‘no extra cost as they do not require additional stiffening, For more stringent criteria, such as for laboratories or hospital operating theatres, he additional cost to meet vibration criteria is small compared with other structural materials {An independent study" into the vibration performance of different structural forms in hospitals has confirmed that concrete can normally be easly designed for the most complete control of vibration over whole areas without the need for significantly thicker floor slabs than those27.11 2012 elopment of solutions used for a basic ‘office’ structure, This gives great flexibility for change in use and avoids the cost penalties of providing this extra mass and stiffness. The findings are summarised in Table 2.8, which could be used as an initial guide as to how much the depth of a floor would have to be increased to control vibration in a hospital. Laboratories are likely to have more stringent criteria, Table28 Indication of typical structural depths to control vibration | Flat stab Post-tensioned | Composite nen ees ol ee CES CE Results based on an analysis of bays 7 m x 7.5 min 15 x2 bay layout Thermal mass Concrete has a high thermal mass which makes it ideal to use as part ofa fabric energy storage (FES) system. FES utilises the thermal mass of concrete to absorb internal heat gains during 2 summer's day to help prevent ovetheating and providing a more stable internal temperature. Night cooling purges the accumulated heat from the slab, preparing it for the next day. FES ‘an be used on its own or as part of a mixed mode system to reduce the energy requirements. The important requirement is to expose the soffit of the slab, or atleast allow the air from the oom to flow in contact with the concrete. Tis impacts on the structural solution and should be considered at the early stages of a project. Thermal mass can also be used to maintain warmth ina building during the winter. Design solutions that allow the soffit to be exposed in an aesthetically pleasing way and provide for cooling are shown in Figure 2.6. Sustainability Sustainability is not just about reducing environmental impact; itis finding a balance between social, economic and environmental costs and benefits, bth now and in the long term. A correctly detailed and constructed concrete framed building will last at least 100 years, and should last considerably longer. However, the structural frame will have to provide a flexible layout for the building if tis to be put to a variety of uses over its lifetime. A small increase in ‘expenditure to provide clear spans now may have a significant benefit in environmental and cost teims in the future. With its relatively high self-weight, 2 concrete frame can easily be adapted to other uses that may require a heavier imposed load, Holes can be cut through slabs and walls relatively simply, and there are methods to strengthen the frame if required. ‘With regard to the embodied carbon dioxide content (ie. the carbon dioxide produced in the manufacture and construction of the structure), this is generally very small compared with the carbon dioxide produced in heating and lighting the building during its lifetime. The longer the building lasts the less significant the embodied carbon dioxide becomes, a2.7.13 The energy used in heating and cooling the building can be substantially reduced by using fabric energy storage (see Section 2.7.11). The mass of the structure of a private house can have a considerable impact on the energy requirements of keeping the house at a comfortable temperature level (see Figure 2.7) Cumulative CO, emissions 200 180 as NM as CO; produced (tonnes) Embodied CO; : 2 ‘i ° ° ° 2000 2010-2020 +2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 7080 2090 2100 Year Key — Hae easy wale, precatt conte flrs, dense block partitions) — Weaiunineasy (asty walls, precast conrete lors, block partons) — Wediuen (cavity walls, vnber lars, ighnetaht partition) — Lian imber frame 6 ors, lightweight portions) Note ‘This graph assumes solar shading used and airconditioning willbe installed in homes when temperatures become uncomfortable, but will be used with natural ventilation whenever possible Figure2.7 Predicted cumulative CO, emissions for diferent housing types! Building movements ‘Movements in concrete buildings can be caused by: @ Autogenous shrinkage Long-term drying shrinkage 1 Early thermal contraction 1 Temperature variations ~ daily or seasonal expansion and contraction 1m Creep ~ time-dependent increase in compressive strain for a constant compressive stress significantly increases deflections n the long term 1 Settlement @ Deflection 1 Solar radiation 1 Pre-stressing (immediate and long-term) For a typical building located inthe UK, 25 mm wide movement joints located at 50 to 70 m centres will normally be adequate to deal with the effects of shrinkage and temperature vatiations. The restraint imposed on the slab will depend on the layout of the stability walls (see Figure 2.8), Movement joints may also be required at changes in shape of the building in plan or elevation. Remember that if a movement joint is introduced it should be placed so that itis vertical throughout the height of the structure and each part ofthe building should be stable Movements due to differential settlement are often more critical than overall settlement. ‘Where buildings are founded on varying ground conditions the effect of settlement should be considered and movement joints provided where necessary. The effect of creep can be important in the design of post-tensioned structures and in tall structures where the shortening of concrete columns should be considered in the design of the cladding system. 23b) Unfavourabe layout of restraining walls (igh restraint) Figure 2.8 Typical floor layouts Dagon Corcete Soc Tech 2.7.14 2.8 pont a3118 Fire resistance Concrete is inherently fie resistant. tis non-combustible and has a slow rate of heat transfer which makes ita high effective barrier to the spread of fire. The recommendations for cover to reinforcement in BS 8110 should be followed to ensure fire protection for the specified periods (see Table 32 on page 42). Typical loads There is often some guidance provided in the question on imposed loads. However, candidates, may well have to make their own assessment of self-weight and other dead loads. Some information on weights of materials and typical load build-ups is given in Tables 2.9 to 2.1. ‘able 2.93 Bulk loads for soils ean ity f] Material (kN/m?) Chalk 2 Granular— medium dense Clay 16-22 Granular dense lay ~ sit 19-22 Granular ~ very dense a lay fern 17-20 eat n lay soft, 16-19 Silly lay 16-20 Granular ~ very loose <16 Sandy clay 16-20 Granular ~ loose 16-18 24evelopment of solutions Table 2.90 Bulk loads for materials en ree ree (Cia) (Clay) ‘Aluiiur a2 1940 Aophalt 2s Granite 23 Blocks ~ aerated concrete (min) 50 Hordcore 190 Blocks ~ aerated concrete (mss) 90 ion 70 Blocks — dense aggregate 200 lead ma Blocks lightweight 140 Limestone (Bathstone lightweight) 204 Books - bulk storage 8-11 Limestone (Porn stone = medvwigh) 220 Books on shelves 79 Limestone (marble heavyweight) 267 Brass — cast 850 Macadam paving 20 if Brickwork blue 240 MOF 80 Bichwork engineering 20 Alster 141 Brickwork —fetton 180 Plywood 63 Btichwork- London stock 190 sandstone 235 Brickwork sand ime 20 Screed ~sandlcement 20 Bone cast 830 steel no Chipboard 69 Terracotta 27 Cost 90 Timber~ Douglas fr sz Concrete ~ aerated 109 Tiber ~ European beech/osk n Concrete — hight 180 Timber~Grade C16 36 Conerete— normal 240 Timber Grade C24 4a Copper aro Timber -roko/teak 64 Glass 236 Table 2.9 Tae sights of concrete floors ra ere) rea load wz kN/mé) Precast concrete solid units (100mm) 2.40 Ribbed slab (325 mm) Precast concrete hollowcore units (150 mm) 2.40 Ribbed slab (350 mm) 470 Precast concrete hollowcore units (200 mn) 2.87 Ribbed slab (400 mm) 5.00 Precast concietehollowcore units (250 mm) 3.66 Aibbed slab (450 mm) 530 Precast concrete hollowcore units (300 men) 407 Ribbed slab (500 mm) 570 Precast concetehollowcore units (350 mm) 4.45 Walle lab ~ standard moulds (325mm) 600, Precast concrete hollowcore units (400 mm) 4.84 Watfle sab ~ standard moulds (350mm) 6.40 Precast concrete hollowcore units (450 mm) 5.50 Walle slab standard moulds (425mm) 7.30 Ribbed slab (250 mm) 400 Wale slab ~ standard moulds (450mm) 7.70 Aibbed slab (275 rom) 420 Wlfle slab ~ standard moulds (525 mm) 860 Ribbed sab (300 mn) 430 2526 ‘able 2.94 ‘Area loads and loads of sheet materials ren er roar) N/m?) (as ‘Aluminium (corevgted) Asphalt (20.mm) Carpet Carpet and underlay Chipboard (18 mm) Chipboard (22 mm) ‘ry tning on stud (20 mm) False cling ~stel framing Felt (34ayer) and chippines lass — double lang, Glas ~ single lating Glass fibre (50 mm) Glas woot (100 mm) Glazing patent (incl bars) Hardwood parquet (10 mm) Insulation ~ lass be (100 mm) Insulation ~ glass be (150 mm) Insulation = polystyrene Lead sheet — code 3 (1.32 mm) Lead sheet ~code (1.80 mn) Lead sheet code 5 (224 mm) Lead sheet ~ cade 6 (265 mm) Lead sheet ~code 7 (3.15 mm) Lead sheet ~ code 8 (355 mm) Linoleum (32 mm) ving stones (50 mm) Perspex comugated sheets Flaster - two coat gypsum (12 mm) Paster board on timber stud Table 296 Roof loade aaa Thatch (300 mm) Sere ‘Tiles ~ clay roof (min) ‘Tiles ~ natural slate (thick) Tiles — natural slate (thin) ‘Tiles — plain concrete ee 004 06 003 005 one 015 015 010 035 ose 030 001 001 030 0.08, 0.02 003 004 015 020 025 rs) 035 039 0.05 120 0.05 zi 035 ‘Areal (kN/m?) 003 007 045 067 043 065, 035 oss, 07s 0.05, Paster skim coat 005 Aasteboard (95 mm) 007 Aasterboard (125 mm) 009 Alosterboard (15 mm) ont Aastrboard (19 mm) 015 Pastered bik 102+2x 13mm 260 Pastered medium desity block 200 Pstc(congated) 004 yoo (125 mn) 008, Pywood (155 mm) 010 Plywood (19 mm) o12 Quarry tes ineuding mortar bedding, 0.32 Raised floor heavy duty 050 false floor - medium weight 040 Aased floor -ightweight 030 Render (13 mm) 030 Fock woo! (25 min) oot scseed ~ 50mm 1s Screed lightweight (25 mm) 048 Sheet vinyl 003 Stainless steel roofing (0.4 mm) 005 Stee (conugated) 015 Suspended cetng~ aluminium 005 Suspended cing ~steet 010 Suspended fibreboard ies 005 T&G boards (155 mm) 009 TAG boards (22 mm) one. ‘es ~ ceramic floor on bed 1.00 Table 291 ‘Area loads of partitions id Partitions as area loads eT) (kN/m) 1100 Lghtweight Heavyueight 300evelopment of solutions Table 2.10 ‘Typical area loads for cladding and walls (kW/m?) 102.5 mm brickwork 240 facing 501mm insulation 0.02 Precast panel (100 mm) 240 100 mm blockwork 140 Insulation 005 Plaster 021 Dy tning on stud as ( re 2.10 Typical service zonesDevelopment of solu 2,10.1 Beams The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.13 can be used. Table 2.13 Span-to-depth ratios for beams Zs ; sup Simply supported 15 End-bay 7 Cantilever 6 2.10.2 Transfer beams The experienced engineer will understand that itis not advisable to determine the section size ‘merely by using span-to-depth tables ~ careful consideration is needed, Shear strength is often the governing criteria for a reinforced concrete transfer beam. From BS 8110, v = V/bd. In no «ase should vexceed 0.8Yf,, oF 5 Nim? (whichever i smaller) If the section is not to become congested with shear reinforcement itis advisable to limit v to 2 N/mm?. However, it may be necessary to increase ths to 4 Nimm?. If we assume a well proportioned beam has width, b whichis lf i's depth, then we rearange the expression above so that: d= WV, where Vis in newtons (N) for shear stress of 2 N/mm? d= V(VI2) for shear stress of 4 N/mm? The headroom under the beam should be checked and consideration given to the connection into the column Deflection and flerural strength should also be considered because they may govern the design 2,10.3 One-way spanning slabs The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.14 may be used for spans in the range 4 to 10 m. robte 214 Spanto-depth ratios or one-way spanningstbs fecthe. Deptt, Ea 32 10 50 2s 30 8 7s Ey ~ 100 3 ar 2.10.4 Two-way spanning slabs The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.15 may be used where the longest span isin the range 4 to 12.m. “Table 2.15 Spar-to-depth ratios for two-way spanning slabs Efe chive lop. ro ern Benton a nd Multiple span [Singlespan _||Multiple span 25 34 39 30 34 50 32 a7 2B 32 7s 30 35 2% 30 100 2 4 2 2 312.10.5 Flat slabs The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.16 may be used where the spans are in the range 4 to 10m, Table 2.16 pth ratios for flat slabs ii - et 2s 28 50 26 18 2s 100 3 Note This table asumes a 3x 3 bay layout. Where there are only 2 bays in one diction the ratio will need to be decreased. Punching shear is often a governing criterion for flat slabs and should be checked at the initial stages of design. Table 2.17 gives the maximum floor area for a selection of imposed loads and column sizes. It assumes a superimposed dead load of 1.5 kN/m:, internal conditions a value for vy. 0f 0.75 N/mme, with v limited to 1.6, 2.10.6 Ribbed slabs The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.18 may be used where the spans are in the range 6 to 12 m. Ribbed slabs should be orientated with the ribs running parallel to the longest edge. The most economic ratio of the spans is 4:3 Table 2.18 Span-to-depth ratios for ribbed stat ress eo cen CMa: React Aol a er eee ee ie eri) ee 25 24 2 2 25 50 2 or 2 23 1s 19 2 a 2 100 w 23 wv 8 Key 8 Refer to Section 2 101 to determine depth of beams 2.10.7 Waffle slabs The span-to-depth ratios in Table 2.19 may be used where the spans ate in the range 6 to 12 m, Toble 2.19 Span-to-depth ratios for waffle slabs. Imposed toad, Q, (kN/m’) | 1:1 panel rar (depth based on shorter span) Cte CAC 50 21 16 1s 19 15 100 18 4 32Table 2.17 Development of solutions Punching shear: maximum panel areas for flat slabs (m") Sn Coma) Imposed load (kN/m?) oa lf nas mao as a ae a Eo [enssne oa Fetes | seustecotmm, Serre Cost Gly} erent a oa) Cereal nea eal a sae en ees See ae ea 1 Superimposed load of 15 kN/m? included. 2 Cover of 25 mm hasbeen assume. 3 for main reinforcements 0.75 Ninm= 4 for punching reinforcement is liited to 1.6, 5 ‘hear links should be provided in accordance with BS 8170 How to use this table For example: 30x 300 column 250 thick slab 5 kN/m? imposed load From table maximum area that ‘can be supported = 42.3 m? (eg. 65x65 m grid) 332.10.8 Post-tensioned slabs and beams Table 2.20 can be used for inital sizing of post 6to 13m. nsioned slabs, where the spans are in the range Table 220 depth ratios for post-tensioned slabs and beams Flat slab» | Flat stab with band eer enre ene ues eet slab at column head) 40 45; 3 30 36 40 2 a 26 38 6 30 35 18 24 23 34 3 2.10.9 Precast concrete floor units Figures 2.11 to 2.14 may be used for initial sizing; these are based on manufacturers’ data 00) ge] — 100 3.0 405060 7.08080 Scien ko ‘Span im) 1 Depth includes topping Choracteristie imposed load (IL) 2 Props required at mid-point 25 Kvn? — s.010m? — 7.5 him? — 10.0580 Figure 2.11 Composite lattice girder slabs 00 Eo § 20 — 2 ml 3 mee ee . ‘ay Span i) Note Chiracterte impose toa (IL) Depth excludes topping = 2mm — Sonim? — 75hUm — 10.0%Km Figure 2.12 Precast hollowcore sl 34Development of solutions Slab depth (rim) Bee 8 8 so ww span my key Characteristic imposed load IL) = 25 kim? — s.0K0m? — 75h — 100 .0ue? Figure 2.13 ‘Composite hollowcore slabs a = E 800} —- 3 & 300] 2005 6 3 wo 2 Notes ‘ sane 1. Depth includes topping inccteseticaess vs . AN tid a 2 Props required Figure 2.14 Voided slabs (Note: with some systems the void formers can be used with in-situ concrete) 2.10.10 Columns Tables 2.21 to 2.23 may be used for initial sizing. This is a summary of the data contained in Economic concrete frame elements! and should be used with the following cautions: 1 Loads are ultimate loads in kN, 1 Internal columns are assumed to support slabs or bears of similar spans in each orthogonal direction. 1m Imposed moments on edge and comer columns have been assumed; for imposed loads sgyeater than 5.0 kN/mé alternative justification is required. 1 Columns are ‘short’ and ‘braced Concrete columns can be concealed within partitions by using ‘blade’ columns. Often a 200 x 800 mm section is used because 200 mm is a practical minimum thickness and 800 mim is four times the thickness, which classifies it as a wall. For fie resistance this reduces the cover requirements compared with a column, Table 2.21 Initial sizing for internal square colurmns (mm) 5 28/35 concrete) 10% 240-295 345420 48S 540. 59S BS 75S 20% 25 270-310-380 440490 S40 620695 30% 225 250 285-380 40S. 455 500570640 40% 225 230 270-330 380 2546S 535505 3536 2.10.11 Table 222 Initial sizing for square edge columns (mm) Za ae Zsiowps 230-305 380. 45S datos 225° 2358] HOO «OSS 725 Fe (ESN Te EAE Goes 725 2255020051855 SIS 50 Table 2.23 Initial sizing for square corner columns (rom) Qstowys 265 315 1048S SSS eee Bstoeys 245255 0537S 43S 85 STH Astorys 245 235270 30036410. g0 59 Gstoreys 240 © 225225240 7S 1S 38550569 Shear walls ‘Shear walls are essentially vertical cantilevers, and may be sized as such; therefore a span-to-depth ratio of 7is reasonable for a shear wal However, at this aspect ratio itis highly likely that tension will be developed at the base and this requires justification in the design (see Figure 2.15). Pad foundations should be designed to resst overtuming and piles may be required to resist tension. The wall should be checked to ensure that itis ‘short’ (see Table 2.24); the minimum practical thickness is 200 mm. The wall should be "braced, ie. there should be another shear wall in the orthogonal direction. Table 2.24 Recommended minimum thicknesses for shear walls Thickness (mm) ‘Maximum clear helght (mm) 200 35 215 38 250 44 300 53 Figure 2.15 Lateral forces on shear wallolutions 2.11 The letter Section 1b asks candidates to write a letter to their client in response to a change to the scheme. This is a good test of the ability to communicate effectively to a non-technical reader. The examiners will also be assessing the candidate's appreciation of the structural implications of the changes. The examiner's reports regularly highlight that the purpose of the letter is not to seek additional design fees, ie. the purpose of the letter is to deal with the structural aspects of the request not the business aspect, It shouldbe laid out as a leter and include sketches if necessary, and a recommended course of action. Candidates should NOT sign it, asthe scripts should remain anonymous. Include any calculations carried out in preparing the leter inthe script (see Figute 2.16). Canines soa thee gre an eatin of te suc! poten get with» i solution to that problem. should outne clearly and ful how the cent’ request might be achieved interns of 1 Cost 1 Programme im Function Safety 1 Aesthetics The abilty to write appropriate letters can only come through practical experience. Those candidates who have experience of writing similar letters will be able to undertake this task with confidence. Those who lack experience will find it @ challenge and should ensure they prepare adequately for this section of the examination. Iti often a good idea to read and Understand what is required for the letter before tackling Section 1 of the examination. If the solution required in the letter appears trivial then it may well be that the candidate has overlooked an important part of the question. 3738 Engineering Consultants 99 High Street Newzoun NWO OAA Your ref Our refs 1099/0B/101/21-1-06 2tNovember 2006 FAO Mr Client Dear Mr Clont Call Centre ~ Implications of Recent Minor Seismic Activity ‘Ag we are sure you are aware there has recently been a minor earthquake In the region of the recently completed Call Centre. We would lite to address the concems you may have regarding the strength of your bulding if faced with a similar event. Initially we would lke to confirm that the etructure hao been designed to the latest Bulldng Regulations and Codes of Practice. There \s no requirement to expicty consider the effects of selemic activity because historically the mast significant hhoraontal forces on structures inthis region are wind forcos, rather than forces arising from seismic activity \Wewould suggest that, before making any decisions about steengthening the structure, we walt fora consensus amongst the experts as to whether this type of event ality to occur more frequently inthe area and what they recommend as the design requicementa. We would expect that, If changea are necesasry, the Bulding Regulations willbe revised and that clear guidance wil emerge on whather edsting buldings should be strengthaned. The Cal Cente is ust one of mary buldings that could be affected by a similar earthquake in thie region, In the meantime, ne would lke to reassure you that the building as it stands wil have reasonable strength to resist to a minor seismic event Ic has been designed with tlea to enoure that ‘progressive collapse’ does nat occur and these wll act to strengthen the building in the event of an earthquake. There ae, haxever, a numberof specific areas where localised damage Could occur a5 a result of a small esrthquake; these are detailed below. + Ancarthquake-reslatant bulding should beable to carry the later loads imposed to a stabllty core In this. case the precast unite and topping screed are designed to acta a stiff diaphragm, However, depending on the intensity of the ‘earthquake, this eystem may have nauficient strength to carry the forces. A design check can be caried out when ‘theres agreement on the design forces thst should be used for an earthquake inthis region. 1+ The current bulding Is dhided into two discrete structures, with a small movement jolt between them. During an ‘earthquake the structures will move laterally and the with of th joint i unilaly to be sufficient to prover the two structures from making contact. We think there are two options for overcoming this either the joint could be miade wider by mating aiterations to the exating structure, or the lateral stiffness of the building cauld be increased by incorporating more stability walls. The latter would reduce the sideways sway during a seismic event It may also be ‘the prefercd solution I the Noor diaphragm requires strengthening. We wl need to have a dlscusalon so we can find an acceptable solution that provdes minimal disruption to your busiiess and the minimum eect on the architecture. 1+ The building is founded on weathered reck, which should be sufficiently robust in the event ofan earthquake, However we will eed to review the strength of the foundations to resist lateral forces, for which they were not designed. The bulldng has a suspended ground floor, which means that there are beams tying the foundations together. This Is beneficial in the evort of an earthquake, because It prevents the foundations moving apart possibly causing major damage to the frame. ‘+ The beam-to-column connections ace a cause for concern. There are mary ways to form a connection aid this is ‘generally left to the precast manufacturer to design. This is usually beneficial because he can carry out the work more ficiently and to oul he working methods. On thie project the manufacturer hae used alt” type canrection which | pertectly adequate for the Job it was designed to da. Homever toftersless spare capacity to resist the forces from an earthquake and strengthening may be required 1+ The two-storey glazed entrance area will require some strengthening measures. The lateral movement that wll occur during an earthquake fs almost certsin to damage the glazing, The curent glazrg io laminated alaso, which means ‘hati wll not breakinto small pieces. However, there loa risk that whole paneo willcome away from thee Foingo with ‘the potential to csuse loss of if, To overcome this, strengthening of the colum-to-roof besm connections wil be neceooary to reduce lateral ena, We cannot be certain about how design guidance wil change as a result of the earthquake, but the above comments should give you an appreciation of the preventive measures that are likely tobe necessary Ifyou would like to discuss the situation furshor then please contact us. Yours sincerely Figure 2.16 Example letterDesign calculati 3 Design calculations (section 2c) 3.1 Expectations of the examiners CCancidates ae asked to Prepare sufficient design calculations to establish the form and size ofall the principal elements including the foundations’. There are some key points to note {rom the question Firstly it asks for sufficient calculations, ie. enough to prove the design is feasible, but not so many that the candidate fail to complete the examination, Secondly, the principal elements must be designed ie. not all of the elements. The initial sizing of the elements should have been carried out in section 1a of the examination, This section is asking for more detail for the elements that are out of the ordinary (eg. transfer beams) ‘crucial to the design of the building. Finally, principal elements that are often specially cited are the foundations, so candidates should ensure they are included. The candidate has around 85 minutes to answer this part ofthe examination. tis expected that calculations will be undertaken for between five and seven elements, giving 12 to 17 minutes fr each element There is a total of 20 marks, so each element will gan between three and four marks, no matter hove detailed the calculations for that element The calculations are intended to be preliminary calculations, which focus on the key issues, sufficient to justify the structural sizes, Candidates should use their experience to determine critical aspects of the design of the element. Candidates should be aware that there are varying opinions among examiners as to what ‘working should be shown in the calculations. Some like to see design equations included and full workings (they will gve marks even where the final answer is wrong); others are Content to see results from programmable calculators or look-up tables, because this is more representative of current everyday practice. This is your opportunity to demonstrate your knowledge of structural engineering and perhaps itis best to work in the way that suits you, making sure you take opportunities to demonstrate your abilities. 3.1.1 Principal elements The following is alist of structural members that could be considered to be principal elements. It may not be a ful ist and for some buildings these elements might not apply: 1 Stability system (including assessment ofthe loads) 1m Foundations (including assessment of the combined effects of gravitational and lateral loads, sground-bearing capacity and specification of materials in aggressive ground) 1 Design to resist uplift of structure due to high ground water level Piles 1 Basement walls W Retaining walls 1m Basement slabs — particulary in the area resisting uplift or heave 1 Transfer beams 1 Columns Slabs Mezzanine floors 1 Cladding supports Curved beams 1 Deep beams 1 Roof structures, particularly where they support heavy loads or sensitive equipment (eg. swimming pools or specialist plant) 39It is a good idea for candidates to list the key elements they intend to design before they undertake any of the calculations. ‘The preliminary design of many of these elements is covered in this section. Where they are not discussed suitable references are given in Further reading 3.2 Durability and fire resistance The cover to concrete should meet the following requirements: The requirements for fire resistance given in table 3.4 and figure 3.2 of BS 8110 (reproduced here as Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1) The requirements for durability given in BS 8500 (see Table 3.2), Cover to all bars to be greater than aggregate size plus 5 mm, 1 Cover to main bar to be greater than bar diameter. Where concrete is used for foundations in aggressive ground conditions Table 3.3 should be referenced to determine the ACEC-class (aggressive chemical environmental for concrete class) and hence the DC-class (design chemical class) from the final two columns of the table. Where 60 310 10% 108 024-06 07-12 13-24 13-24 224 224 Ds-2 ps4 0s-4m Ds-5 s-s5m Reve = 255 ie esas) e 255 i eses5) = [es Sm izszss) 335 es es) penasl = (es 335 = eam (S55 poaesi |= eee s55) 3350 = 25-35 225 Not found in UK ‘natural ground peal bras 25-58 — 56-65 AC4 Sy 2555 | (aces: C35 355 AC-3s =e Ses nea 2555) (Ae = 25-65 AGS 355 AC-35 = 365 AGAm 25-55 — Actes = 25-65 AC-Sm 355 AHS 25-55 225 ACS 255 ACM 25-55 225 ACSm ‘8 Whee the hydrostatic head of groundwater i greater than five times the section width, refer to BS 8500 81 bb Brownfield sites are those that might contain chemical residues remaining, ftom previous industrial use or from imported wastes De-class for 50 year ee) rary ta pc Dc-22 Dear Dea bc 0-2 0-2 e3: C42 «Applies only to sites where concrete willbe exposed 10 sullatejons (50,), which can result from the oxidation of sulfides such as pyrite, following ground disturbance 4 The limit on water-soluble magnesium does not apply to brackish groundwater (chloride content between 12 g/L and 18 g/) This allows these sites tobe lasted in the row above «© Anattional accounts taken of hyochloric ad ive acids by adjustment to slate content (se BRE Speil Digest 1! Part 1) £ Where practicable this should include AMS (urace protection) as one of the APMS; fer to BS 85003.3 3.4 D2 ocr 0¢3 0-3 el Table 34 car Guidance on steed ee fovtnforceconrte Suet cls forall FND concrete 25/20 Seehied Assessing the design moments At detailed design stage most engineers are used to analysing the whole building structure ‘or breaking concrete structures into sub-frames. These approaches are not suitable for the ‘examination, even though the use of laptop computers is now permitted. So, how can a continuous concrete beam or slab be analysed? The following techniques may be adopted 1 Fistly wherever possible the coefficient for design moments and/or shear forces from the tables contained in 85 8110 should be used is obvious from table 35 of BS 8110 thatthe critical location for bending isthe hogging moment at the fst interior suppor, So, for bending, this s the ony location where the ‘moment has tobe assessed, Therefore the candidate doesnot need to cary outa sub- frame analysis; the design moment for an element can be assessed from a simple formula, for example, M =~ 0.1171 3. Where the structure falls outside the scope of the tables (ie. has less than three spans, ‘cantilevers or spans differing in length by more than 15%) the candidate will need to make a quick approximate assessment of the forces. An element can be assumed to be Continuous with no contribution from the columns. The charts in Appendix C may also be useful Typically the maximum moments in a continuous beam are the hogging moments at the supports under full ultimate load. Remiember, in the time available, the candidates are expected to calculate reasonable design forces only. 4 Ifyou are very short of time, an approximate moment of WL/10 for uniformly distributed loads and WL/5 for point loads may be used for continuous beans. Some engineers would advocate that assessing moments using method 4 above is all that is necessary at a preliminary stage. The key point is that candidates must demonstrate to the examiner that they understand what forces are acting on the element and can make a reasonable assessment of their magnitude There are some questions that require a sway-frame for stability; in these situations Figure C.2 in Appendix C may be used to assist in determining the design moments. Flexure The quantity of bending reinforcement required can be determined either from charts (as given in patt 3 of the Code) or from the design formula given in the Code, which are set out below: K = 0.156 where redistribution of moments does nat exceed 10% K’=0.402 (B, ~ 0.4) ~ 0.1816, ~ 0.04)? where redistribution of moment exceeds 10% K=Mibe., 4s3.5 IF K = K’, compression reinforcement is not required and the lever arm, z, can be calculated from: onafos [00s 5} rt gene tune 000 The area of reinforcement required can then be calculated using the following expression: A= MIO87h2 Fora preliminary desig, compression reinforcement should be avoided It may be useful to write programs fora suitable calculator to cary out these calculations. The program can be written to return a value for K, which is useful for quickly making an assessment of the efficiency of the design. Useful values for K are given in Table 3.5, Table 35 Useful values for K opm (aeamnenl (0 (as ESO) Minimum 9% of reinforcement (0.13%)® 0020 00170015 013 o012 Lever arm,2= 095d 0043 0043 0043 0043 0.043 ‘Recommended limit of K for slabs? 0067/0060 0050 0044 | 0.040 K for 30% redistribution 114 0114 01140114 ota K for 20% redistribution 0149 01490149 0.149 0.149 for 10% o- less redistribution 0156 0156 0156 0156 0.156 'b Recommended limit to avoid excessive deflection Shear Where shear stress (i is considered to be critical, it can be calculated a follows v bd _ For beams, v must be les than the smaller of 08 Jf, or 5 N/mm? (see also Table 36). Ideally it should be less than 2 Nimm? to avoid congestion, but this may not be possible for transfer beams where shear i critical Table 36 Limiting values of shear stress 35 40 and above For slabs v should be less than v, to avoid shear reinforcement in the slab The design of shear links is carried out using table 3.8 of BS 8110 to determine v, and tables 3.7 (bears) or 3.16 (slabs) to design the links. These tables are included in Appendix B for cease of reference. Appendix C contains some look-up tables for the values of v, for concrete with characteristic compressive strengths of 30, 35 and 40 N/mm? Remember, A, is the area of longitudinal reinforcement that continues for a distance of o past the section being considered, and that the spacing of the link should nat exceed 0.75d,Design calculations 3.6 Deflection 3.7 3.8 3.8.1 \Where deflection is considered important it should be checked using tables 3.9 t 3.11 of 88110 (see Appendix 8). Where the span exceeds 10 m the values from table 39 should be multiplied by 10/span, Estimating reinforcement quantities The following methods are available to estimate the quantity of reinforcement 1 Use the values given in Economic concrete frame elements 1 Use Method 2 given in the Manual for design of reinforced concrete structures! formulae are provided to assess the quantity of reinforcement. This method is probably too time-consuming to use in the examination. | Use Method 3 given in the Manual for design of reinforced concrete structures, where al the reinforcement in the element is determined and then the total weight is calculated, This, method is definitely too time-consuming in the examination. Use experience to estimate the weight of the reinforcement per cubic metre of concrete Consultants usually keep records for this purpose and a typical range of reinforcement rates for various elements is given in Table 3.7. The requirements for principal elements should be given separately as they are not likely to be typical’ Table 3.7 “Typical reinforcement rates (kg/m?) Slabs, one-way Slabs, two-way, Flat slabs Ribbed slabs RC pad footings Pile caps Rafts columns Ground beams Beams Retaining walls Stairs walls Note % 65 5 0 10 110 60 100 225 90 90 100 40 110 110 220 140 90 150 1s 450 330 330 130 150 100 The actual reinforcement quantity in the element wil vary according to dealing practice and efficiency ofthe concrete element, Detailing Maximum and minimum areas of reinforcement The maximum area of either the tension or compression reinforcementin ahorizontalelement is 49% of the gross cross-sectional area of the concrete. In an in-situ column the maximum reinforcement ‘5696 oF 10% at laps. The minimum percentages are given in Table B7 (see Appendix B ). 47 ee ec ec wr—i(i‘sOS3.8.2 Minimum spacing of bars 3.8.3 The minimum spacing of the bars is the maximum size of the coarse aggregate plus 5 mm or the hichever isthe greater. For 20 mm aggregate and bars of 25 mm in diameter and over, the maximum number of bars in a layer is: b,-2e~26, “eS bar size, No. of bars = where 4 =link diameter 5 = bar diameter This expression allows for the radius of the link displacing the outermost longitudinal bars towards the centre of the beam Table 3.8 gives the maximum number of bars fora variety of beam sizes and covers, Table38 ‘Maximum number of bars per layer ina Beam width, | Bar diameter, ¢, (mm) 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 Note 25 10 n 2 B 4 16 18 20 22 2 26 28 40 25 32 a 1 n 2 4 16 " 19 2 2 These values are suitable for link dameter of up to 16 mm. Maximum spacing of bars ‘The maximum spacing is given in table 3.28 of BS 8110 (see Appendix 8) ‘Shear links should be at a spacing of no more than 0.75d, and no longitudinal bar should be more than 150 mm or d from a vertical leg earvauuas und 2 403.9 3.9.1 3.9.2 3.9.3 Design calculations Design of beams Governing criteria Usually the governing criterion is the bending strength. Deflection may become critica for long spans or cantilevers, and shear is likely to be critical for transfer beams, especially for heavily loaded short spans Analysis Wherever possible, use the coefficients presented in Table 39, the following conditions are met MQ, must not exceed G, 1 Loads must be uniformly distributed 1W Variations in the span length must not exceed 15% of the longest 1 Redistribution of 20% is included in the figures (therefore K” = 0.149) hich are appropriate provided te bending moments and shear forces for beams or Near middle ‘Atmiddle | Atinterior errr’ Corea ‘of interior | supports etre pat Moment 0 0.0841 “0111 o7A ~0.08F1 Shear ose = oF = oss Notes: 1 isthe effective spanFis the total design ultimate load (1.46,4 1.6Q,) 2. No redistribution of the moments calculated rom ths table should be made. Further guidar (on determining bending moments can be found in Section 3.4 Flanged beams A flanged beam may be treated as a rectangular beam, of full width, b, when the neutral ans is within the flange. In this case the moment of resistance in compression of the section is 0.45f,,bhy(d~hy/2) When the applied moment is greater than the moment of resistance of the flange (M,) the neutral axis lies in the web, and the beam cannot be designed as a rectangular beam as discussed above. In this case, reference should be made to BS 8110. 499 The Conerete Centre 8 coir - 018 Worked example 1 JB Tet Transfer beam rec Dec 06 G, = 1500 KN, Q, = 1000 kN 2.0m initial eizing Shear Shear obrees not to exceed 4 Nimim® (to avoid reinforcement congestion). A.x1800 + 16x 1000 = 3700 kN (ignoring selF-weight) Ultimate load Take b= 600 ¥ _ 3700x108 we 4x600 Take overall depth as 1650 mm (4 = 1550) 5100 x15 = 5550 kNm 8850, b = G00, d = 1550, f,, = 40 N/mm? 0.026, A, = 9370 mm? Use [B40 (10100 mi) in 2 layers. 1542 mm 100%10100 _ +99 a = 0.75 Nim? 2hleow) O87, 600 (40-0.75) 0.87 x 500 2448 mm Try Hi2 inks ate ies 2, = 452/448 = 101 mm ieadaaid Say [Hitz links GIO mm cera] (600. G00 x 1550 ~ BHAOpars —renforgement 1650 Remember to check headroom beneath the beam HAO bars wil ve heavy; if there is no reasonable alternative, ensure that the contractor is aware so he may take steps to safeguard the health and oafety of the steel fixers, Eqn 3, 85 8110 Table 3.8, BS 6110 Table 3.7, BS BIO 50Design calculations 3.10 One-way spanning slabs 3.10.1 Governing criteria Bending strength and deflection are usually the governing criteria, The end span condition should be checked because the moments are larger in this span unless there is a cantilever or the span is shorter than the interior spans 3.10.2 Analysis Wherever possible use the coefficients presented in Table 3.10, wl the fol ich are appropriate provided ing conditions are met (note that 20% redistribution is included in the coefficients} 1. The area of the slab exceeds 30 m? (eg, 5 mx 6 m). 2 The ratio of characteristic imposed load to characteristic dead load does not exceed 1.25 3. The characteristic imposed load does not exceed 5 kN/m® excluding partitions 4 The spans are approximately equal. (This is generally assumed to mean that variations in the span lengh must not exceed 15% of the longest, but is not specified in the Code). 5 Redistribution of 20% is included in the figures (therefore k° = 0.149), The requirements of conditions 1 and 2 will usually be met with most building designs. ‘Table 3.10 Design ultimate bending moments and shear forces for slabs nd rons PT 7 Interior ery res Reape eos poe leeekenleae [eee Moment 0 oes 004 COTS «= 0086 00H 0083 PS ie = aS wr |= sor Notes 1 isthe effective span; Fis the total design uitimate load (1.46,+ 1.60,) 2. No redistribution ofthe moments calculate from this table should be made. 3.10.3 Detailing General ules for spacing ae gen in Section 38, The maximum spacing is given in Cl. 3.12.11.2.7. However, for initial sizing, table 3.28 of BS 8110 (see Appendix 8) can be used conservatively. 51The Concrete Centre os car - 016 Worked example 2 One-way slab & = ec dec 08 Imposed load = 25 kN/m® Superimposed dead load = 15 kin? Concrete class C28/35 Cover = 25 mm nisl eizing Loading Bending Shear From Economic concrete frame elements ~ 178, eay 200 mm or 6000/82 = 187.5, say 200 mn ULS = 14 (0.224 + 15) +16x25 = 128 kNint Check frst support from end M= ~0.086Fi - 0.086 12.8 x 6 = - 39.6 Nm For b= 1000, d = 200 ~ 25-10 Then K= 0.041, A, |, = 981 mar Use [Fi2@ 175 ctrs] (A... = G46 mm?) = O.6F =06x128x6 = 461 iN Vv _ 46.1107 bd “Too «1e5 = 026 Nimn 100A, _ 100 x646 bd ~~ 1000x165 v,= 064 We, mo shear links required © =O0.075 Fl 24.56 kNm Maximum sagging mome = 0.075 x128x6* 165, b 0.036, A, Use HI2s @ 200 ctrs (A, = 56 mm?) ONES = 36.4 500x600 2x 204 Imm? Bx 566 Mi(bd?) = 0.036 x35 = 126 MP = 1.25 Allowable ld = 125 x 26 = 325 < 36.4 Hide @ 17S ates) A... = G46 mm? 87 MF=140 40x26 =36.42364 OK Allow lid Table 3.12, BS B110 Table 3.12, BS B11O Table 3.8, BS B11 Table 3.12, BS 8110 Table 3.10, 65 8110 Table C7 52