International Journal of Sediment Research 26 (2011) 331-342

Numerical simulation of wave scouring beneath marine pipeline

using smoothed particle hydrodynamics
A. MIRMOHAMMADI1 and M. J. KETABDARI2*

Abstract
In this paper a smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) approach is presented to simulate scouring
due to wave around a marine pipeline on a sloping sea bed. The proposed method is similar to so-
called SPH projection method and consists of three steps. The first two steps play the role of
prediction, while in the third step a Poisson Equation is used for both fluid and sea bed to impose
incompressibility constraint. It is assumed that the sandy sediments around pipeline section which
represent the variable boundary and scour profile, behave as a non-Newtonian fluid. Therefore
scouring below a pipe under waves in a test flume with a piston wave maker and sandy sloping bed is
estimated using Newtonian - non Newtonian fluid flow interaction model. The Bingham Model is
cautiously utilized for simulation of the sea bed behavior. Modeled results with or without viscosity
were compared with analytical, empirical and experimental results and a reasonable agreement was
found. Results show that the developed model is a powerful tool to simulate complex free surface and
Newtonian - non Newtonian fluid interaction problems.

Key Words: Wave scouring, Numerical simulation, Free surface, Marine pipeline, SPH method

1 Introduction
In last few decades the tendency to use offshore platform in deep waters has been dramatically increased.
Submarine pipelines offer an efficient mode of transportation of oil and natural gas continuously from the
production site to onshore terminal facilities. Many foundations of water front structures built on sandy
sediments have suffered extensive damage due to scouring under the pipeline resulting in spanning and
vibration due to vortex induced loading. The pipeline vibration magnifies as the natural frequency of the
pipe and wave frequency are close together resulting in failures of system.
Most of the early investigations on scouring adjacent to the offshore pipelines were through physical
modeling, from which many empirical formulas for the scour depth were proposed (Kjeldsen et al., 1973;
Ibrahim and Nalluri, 1986; Bijker and Leeuwestein, 1984; Chiew, 1991; Moncada and Aguirre, 1999).
Experimental studies were often carried out through small-scale flume tests in laboratories to measure
scour profiles in the vicinity of the pipeline. Physical modeling is a useful tool to understand the
mechanisms of the scouring process. However, the results are affected by limitations of the laboratory
conditions. For example, satisfying the total similarity between model and prototype is, most of the time,
impossible.
Fluid dynamics can be modeled by different numerical methods. However, using common CFD methods
is associated with various difficulties related to some complications as turbulence, long distortions, free
surface and variable boundaries in the model. Numerical models based on the solution of the full

1
M. S.C, Faculty of Marine Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, 424 Hafez Avenue, Tehran-Iran,
P.O.Box: 15875-4413, E-mail : ahmad.mirmohammadi@gmail.com
2 Assoc. Prof., Faculty of Marine Technology, Amirkabir University of Technology, 424 Hafez Avenue,
Tehran-Iran, P. O. Box: 15875-4413, * Corresponding author, E-mail: ketabdar@aut.ac.ir
Note: The original manuscript of this paper was received in Feb. 2010. The revised version was received in Sept.
2010. Discussion open until Sept. 2012.
International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2011, pp. 331–342 - 331-
Navier–Stokes (N-S) Equations can provide more details of the flow behavior. One of the difficulties in
this procedure is tracking of free surface and variable boundaries due to arbitrary moving boundaries. The
MAC (Harlow and Welch, 1965) and VOF (Hirt and Nichols, 1981) methods are two most flexible and
strong approaches in this regard. The former uses marker particles to define the free surface while the
latter solves a transport equation for the volume fraction of the fluid. They have been successfully applied
to various wave simulations (Chan and Street, 1970; Lin and Liu, 1998). However, in both methods, the
N–S equations are solved on a fixed Eulerian grid. Problems of numerical diffusion in this coordinate
arise due to advection terms in the N–S Equations.
Recently, numerical methods which do not use any grid structures such as Lagrangian or particle
methods have been developed. Among them the smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) and moving
particle semi-implicit (MPS) methods are more strong approaches. In both methods, particles move in
Lagrangian coordinates and advection is directly calculated by particle motion without numerical
diffusion. The SPH method originated in astrophysics for the study of fluid dynamics of interstellar gas
by Lucy (1977) and has later been extended to model a wide range of hydrodynamic problems, for
example, incompressible flows by Monaghan (1992) and Takeda et al. (1994). Other studies have since
contributed to the method and solved various engineering problems including heat transfer (Chaniotis and
Poulikakos, 2002), turbulent flows (Welton, 1998) and interfacial flows problems (Lo and Shao, 2002).
Monaghan (2005) extended the method and used it to deal with the free surface problems. SPH and
I-SPH have been used by many researchers to investigate different hydrodynamic problems such as the
study of dam breaks, gravity current descending a ramp, solitary wave breaking in mild slopes (Shao and
Gotho, 2005) wave impact on tall structures (Gomez-Gesteira and Dalrymple, 2004), wave overtopping
of a deck (Dalrymple et al., 2001), non-Newtonian flows with free surface (Shao and Lo, 2003) and
incompressible separated flow (Issa et al., 2004). The SPH has also been used to study the impulsive and
landslides water waves (Girolamo et al., 2006; Gallati et al., 2005).
It should be noted that the SPH method is now commonly used in CFD and appears to be promising in
predicting complex free-surface flows. However, increasing flow complexity requires appropriate
approaches for taking into account of turbulent effects, whereas some authors are still working without
any turbulence modeling in the SPH. Developed turbulence models adapted to the SPH method are from
the simplistic point of view of a one-equation model involving mixing length to more sophisticated
models like explicit algebraic Reynolds stress models or large eddy simulation (Issa et al., 2004).
This paper presents a strictly incompressible 2D SPH model to simulate the processes of wave
propagation with variable boundaries in scour around marine pipeline section. It is assumed that the sandy
sediments around marine pipeline section which represent the variable boundary and scour profile,
behave as a non-Newtonian fluid. Therefore scour simulation below marine pipeline under waves is
obtained by Newtonian-non Newtonian fluid flow interaction simulation. In this procedure there exist two
phase flows; water (Newtonian fluid) including free surface tracking and sandy sediment (non Newtonian
fluid).

2 Details of numerical modeling

The foundation of SPH is based on the interpolation theory which indicates that each arbitrary
continuously defined function A can be expressed as an integral form over a domain of interest ȍ:
A(r ) ³ A( r c)G ( r  r c)dr c (1)
:
where G (r  r c) is the Dirac delta function, r the position vector and rc the sub integral variable. The
integral estimate of the exact integral representation of A can be defined by replacing the Dirac delta
function with a suitable definition of an interpolation kernel as:

A( r ) | ³ A(r c)W ( r  r c, h)dr c (2)

:
where h is the smoothing length proper to the kernel function and W is the effective weight of the
kernel. The above equation can be approximated in terms of its values at a set of N discrete disordered
points (so-called SPH particles) r1, r2,…, rN by a summation interpolant as:

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 N
mb
Ah ( r ) | ¦ AbW ( r  r c, h) (3)
b 1 Ub
where the summation index b denotes a particle label carrying a mass of mb at the position rb . The
value of A at bth particle is shown by Ab . There are many possible choices of kernel function to satisfy
the following relations:
­ W (r  r c, h)dr c 1
°V³
® (4)
° lim W ( r  r c, h) G (r  r c)
¯h o 0
In this paper a cubic Spline kernel which has a smaller compact support than quintic kernel (Morris et al.,
1997) is used as follows:
­ 3 2 3 3
°1  2 s  4 s 0 d s 1
°
D °1 3
W ( r , h) u ® (2  s) 1d s  2 (5)
h7 ° 4
st2
°0
°
¯
where s r h , Q is the number of dimensions, and D is the normalization constant with the values:
2/3, 10/7 S , 1/ S in one, two and three dimensions, respectively. Divergence operators need to be
formulated in accordance with the SPH concept. In the current work, the following commonly used forms
are employed for the gradient of a scalar A and the divergence of a vector ui (Colagrossi and Landrini,
2003):
1 §A A ·
Ua
’a A ¦ mb ¨¨ U a2  U b2 ¸¸.’ aWab (6)
b © a b ¹
1 § ui ui ·
Ua
’ a .uai ¦ mb ¨¨ Ua2  Ua2 ¸¸.’ aWab (7)
b © a b ¹
where ’ a is the gradient with respect to coordinates of particle a .
A simple way to formulate the Laplacian operator is to envisage it as dot product of the divergence and
gradient operators. This approach proved to be problematic since the second derivative of the kernel is
very sensitive to particle disorder and can easily lead to the pressure instability and decoupling in the
computation due to the co-location of the velocity and pressure. In this paper, the following alternative is
adopted (Cummins and Rudman, 1999):
§1 · 8 Aab rab .’ aWab
’.¨¨ ’A ¸¸
©U ¹a
¦ mb U  Ub 
2 2
rab  K 2
(8)
b a

where Aab Aa  Ab , rab ra  rb and K is a small number to be set to 0.1h established to avoid
singularity during computations.

3 Governing equations and solution algorithm

Assuming the fluid is isothermal and incompressible, the governing equations are given by:
DU wu j
U j (9)
Dt wx
du i 1 wW ij 1 wP
gi   (10)
dt U wxi U wxi
where U , t , P , u j , g i and W ij denote the density, time, pressure, velocity vector, body force vector and
shear stress tensor, respectively. Moreover, xi is the i th component of position vector.
To compute the incompressible fluid flow, Eqs. (9) and (10) are solved according to a prediction-
correction and fully explicit algorithm. The solution procedure for body force is consisting of three steps

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as instructed by Hosseini et al. (2007). In the first step the body forces are considered to account fluid
particles velocity. The computed provisional velocity is then used in the next step to calculate the
divergence of shear stress tensor as:
u~ i uti 't  g i 't (11)
In the second step, the divergence of shear stress tensor T fi , is calculated for fluid particles as:
§ 1 wW ij · § P  P u~ i ·
T fi ¨
¨ U wx j
¸
¸ ¦ mb ¨¨ U Ua r 2 b Kab2  ¸¸xabi .’ aWab (12)
© ¹ b © a b ab ¹
where u~abi u~ai  u~bi .
Subsequently, an intermediate velocity and position for particles are obtained:
~
u~ i u~ i  T fi 't (13)
~ ~
xi xti  't  u~ i 't (14)
There are no constraints to impose incompressibility in previous steps. Therefore the density of the
moving particles can be variable. In the third step a provisional density can be calculated using the
continuity equation:
’ aWab ’ aW (ra  rb , h)
dW 1 i
drab rab

xa  xbj  (15)

§ dU~ ·
¨ ¸
© dt ¹ a
Ua ¦
mb ~
Ub
 
u~ai  ubi .’ aW ra  rb , h  (16)
b

when two particles reach to each other, their relative velocity u~ai  ubi and the gradient of kernel ~ 
function ’ aW ra  rb , h  have identical signs. Consequently dU~a / dt will be positive leading to an

increase in U a and vice versa. This provisional density can be used to compute a velocity ui so that the
incompressibility is satisfied. To do so, the pressure gradient term of the momentum equation is combined
with the continuity equation driving a Poisson Equation. This equation creates an exchange between
density and pressure:
§1 · U 0  U~
’.¨¨ ~ ’P ¸¸ (17)
©U ¹ U0 't 2
The above equation can be extended to the following SPH form:
§ U  U~ 8mb Pb ~ i
xab .’ aWab · § 8mb ~ i
xab .’ aWab ·
¨ 0 ¸ ¨ ¸
Pa a
 ¦ ¦ (18)
b U a  U b 
¨ U 't 2 ~ 2 2
rab  K 2 ¸ ¨ U~  U 2 r 2  K 2 ¸
© 0 ¹ © b a b ab ¹
The computed pressure is used according to the pressure gradient term of the momentum equation to
calculate the velocity û i as:
§P P ·
uˆai  't ¦ mb ¨¨ ~a2  b2 ¸¸’ aWab (19)
b © U a Ub ¹
The velocity of each particle will be obtained as:
~
uti  't u~ i  uˆ i (20)
This velocity is smoothed according to the XSPH averaging (Monaghan, 2005):
uai uai  T ¦
mb
U ab
u i
b 
 uai Wab (21)
b
where U ab U a  Ub  / 2 and 0 d T  1 . Final positions of the particles are calculated using a central
difference scheme in time:
xti xti  't 
't i
2

ut  uti 't  (22)

4 Boundary conditions
In the present study, walls are modeled using three layers of SPH particles with fixed positions. No
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special treatment was applied on free surface particles in the computational domain. In fact, using the
SPH method, the free surface is modeled naturally and this is the main advantage of the method.

5 Wave simulation
Wave simulation is performed in a simple test flume with the piston wave maker and impermeable bed
using the SPH model. Figure 1 shows the schematic of this flume.

Fig.1 Schematic of flume test; h is the water level and K is the free surface elevation

5.1 Ideal wave simulation and validation

To validate the results with the potential flow model, the fluid is assumed to be inviscid at this stage. As
wave paddle moves forward, the distance between wall boundary and near particles decreases. Since the
fluid tends to be incompressible the particles move forward as well. Therefore the fluid particles are
located in new positions and a wave will be formed and propagated at the free surface. Figures 2 and 3
show this procedure.

Fig. 2 The pattern of fluid particles near moving paddle

Fig. 3 A sample free surface profile traveling towards the beach

If Z is the wave angular velocity, a is surface wave amplitude, k is wave number and h is the
water depth, these values are:

International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2011, pp. 331–342 - 335-
 H 0.04m , a 0.02m , O 0.3m , h 0.07m , Z gk tanhkh 13.585
Figure 4 shows the horizontal velocity contours for fluid particles. In this figure bold black parts show
the higher orbits of the velocity.

Fig. 4 Velocity contours underneath the propagating wave

The profile of an ideal solitary wave can be expressed as:

ª 3a º
K x, t  a. sec h 2 « 3
x  ct » (23)
«¬ 4 d ¼»
where K , a , d and c are free surface elevation, wave height, water depth and wave celerity
respectively.
Figure 5 compares model outputs with the theory of single wave profiles (Eq. 23) at times t=0 and 0.43
secs. Modeled results are in reasonable agreement with theoretical results.

Fig. 5 Theory and simulated wave propagation agreement

5.2 Real wave simulation and damping

Real sea waves are viscous. Wave damping occurs on propagating waves due to friction and surface
tension. Therefore consider fluid viscosity, generated solitary wave propagated along the flume and its
damping has been included in the simulation. The results showed that damping decreases the wave height
during wave propagation in the flume. Hunt (1952) proposed a model to predict wave damping as an
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exponential function:
H2 H1e D'l (24)
kG ª kb  sinh(2kh) º
D « » (25)
b ¬ 2kh  sinh(2kh) ¼
in which H1 and H2 are the initial and damped wave height; k, h, b, G are the wave number, water
depth, channel width and boundary layer thickness respectively; and 'l is the propagation distance.
Figure 6 shows the model out put comparison with this theory.

Fig. 6 Comparison of model output and Hunt theory

Results illustrate that there is 10% difference between Hunt’s theory (Eq. 24) and model out puts.
Consider the estimated value for boundary layer thickness and interpolations errors in numerical
simulations; this difference seems to be reasonable.

6 Modeling of sediment transport

Threshold of particle movement is an important parameter in most of coastal process phenomena under
waves, currents and combined waves and currents. For the low flow velocities on sandy bed, no
movement occurs. As the velocity increases, some particles start to move. This is the threshold of
movement. Shields (1936) related the threshold of movement to critical shear stress. Shields’ parameter is
the ratio of incidence force to grains' specific weight that holds the grain on its position:
W0
T
g U s  U d (26)
where g is the gravity acceleration; U and U s the water and sediment densities; and d the grain
diameter. T cr is defined for critical state and threshold of movements as:
W cr
T cr (27)
g U s  U d
where W cr is the critical shear stress. Shields performed large number of tests for different conditions of
beds, waves and currents. It is assumed here that the sediment mass behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid.
There are some rheological models to simulate these fluids. The Bingham model is the simplest and the
most compatible theory with sediment's movement basis as it can model the threshold of movement and
consider the critical shear stress. So it is used for sandy sediment simulation. It can be expressed as (Shao
and Lo, 2003):
­DP W W y
Peff ® (28)
¯P W !W y
where P , W y , W and D are viscosity, Bingham yield stress, shear rate and a constant parameter,
respectively. In order to avoid numerical instability, D is frozen at a fixed high value (e.g. at 1,000).
Under this condition fluid behaves as a rigid body or Newtonian fluid at shear rates below and greater
than the yield stress respectively. In this case study, considering the experimental tests of Ataie-Ashtiani
International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2011, pp. 331–342 - 337-
and Shobeyri (2007), yield stress and the relative density of sands is selected as 10 pa and 2.65,
respectively.

7 Scour simulation around the pipeline

In this section, a 2D flume involving wave paddle, a sandy bed with a 1/24 beach slope and a 2 cm
diameter pipeline laid on the sandy bed is modeled. The fluid in the flume is considered to be real and
viscous. Furthermore the sediment particles are modeled as non Newtonian fluid. Geometrical and initial
conditions of the flume were selected similar to experimental model test of Voropayev et al. (2003).
Figure 7 shows a schematic of this flume. Figure 8 shows the flume test in initial condition.

Fig. 7 Flume test details

Fig. 8 Numerical flume test in initial conditions

For the paddle simulation, a moveable rigid wall is allocated at one end of the flume. It is designed to
move periodically with the maximum amplitude of 6 cm and period of 0.45 sec. As the model starts to
run, some turbulence is observed at fluid-sediment intersection. This turbulence particularly occurs in a
layer close to fluid sediment intersection leading to jumping of some sand particles into the water column
(Fig. 9). It is captured even at the other end of the flume prior to reaching the surface wave to this region.
It means that this phenomenon is somehow unreal.

Fig. 9 Unreal turbulence in fluid Sediment intersection

A set of tests is performed to investigate this spurious phenomenon. It is found that for proper simulation
of fluid-sediment interaction, velocity and displacement algorithm in the model must be modified. To
solve the problem, fluid particles and sediment particles are considered separately in the kernel function
calculation and search algorithm. Therefore the model is modified and the test is carried out again. The
new output of the model shows that this modification could efficiently leave out this problem (Fig. 10).
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 Fig. 10 Spurious turbulence removal at fluid sediment intersection

As shown in Fig. 11, the paddle movement in the first stroke caused a bump of water in front of the
paddle. The generated wave in Fig. 12 then propagates towards pipeline and finally reaches the end of the
flume.

Fig. 11 Wave generation due to paddle movement

Fig. 12 The propagated wave reaches the pipeline and continue to travel towards flume beach

The particles of sandy sediment start to oscillate with a forward net movement as bed load due to the
passage of the waves overhead. Finally the sediment particles reach to a more stable form as ripples.
Figure 13 clearly shows the formation of these ripples.

International Journal of Sediment Research, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2011, pp. 331–342 - 339-
 Fig. 13 Bed sand ripples generated by surface waves in the flume

When wave reaches to the pipeline, the sea bed profile around the pipe section is changed. This causes
the occurrence of scouring phenomenon. Figure 14 shows sea bed changes due to the passage of waves. It
can be seen that a major ripple under the pipe is developed.

Fig. 14 Scouring profile underneath the pipe

Voropayev et al. (2003) performed a set of experiments on scouring around pipes due to waves.
According to their tests four regimes of scour are reported as:
(i) No scour, (ii) initial scour, (iii) expanded scour and (iii) periodic burial scour.
Governing parameters for representing these regimes are Shields’ number ( T ) and Keulegan-Carpenter
(KC). Their results are summarized in Fig. 15 in which Sh is Shields’ number. Three splines in this figure
represent the bounds of these regimes.
In this section two efficient parameters on scour phenomenon are calculated using the developed model.
In the SPH Methods all particle properties are represented in time domain. The Keulegan-Carpenter
number can be expressed as:
KC UT / D (29)
where U is maximum velocity in a level 5 cm above the bed; T the wave period; and D the pipe diameter.
For the generated waves with a period of 0.45 seconds the mean velocity captured underneath the pipe is
about 0.13 m/sec leading to a KC of about 2.95. Shields’ Number as a function of shear velocity
U W 0 U 12 can be expressed as:
T U 2 / 2 g ( s  1) d , (30)
For the condition of the flow and particles it was obtained as 0.18 in these tests. This Shields’ Number
and KC represent a point in Fig. 15. This point is located in the third regime area which is expanded scour
zone. According to this pattern ripples are developing because of high T and they cause gradational
scouring around pipeline section. The occurrence of this mechanism is evident in modeled results as well.

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 Fig. 15 Results of tests on sandy sediment in 4 different regimes (After Voropayev et al., 2002)

8 Conclusion
In this paper, the SPH method is employed to simulate water and sandy sediment interaction known as
scouring using Newtonian-non Newtonian fluid flow interaction. Wave generation and propagation are
also modeled by free surface simulation. The wave generation model is validated using analytical
equation of inviscid wave propagation and damping empirical model. This comparison showes a good
agreement between model and theoretical results.
It should be noted that sediment transport is a complex and long term phenomenon. Therefore it is very
time consuming to model the under pipe scouring up to a stable condition in both numerical and
laboratory flumes. As SPH is a very computationally demanding method, therefore research on
determination of final depth of scour hole is not in the concept of this work in this stage. However final
results of current research show that this model is a powerful tool to simulate the movement of sediment
particles leading to scouring beneath the marine pipeline. The numerical wave flume developed in this
research can be used to simulate variety of coastal zone phenomena including sediment transport.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge that this research work is financially supported by the Research
and development department of National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC).

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