HORMONES AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Neurotransmitters and hormones are two different types of chemicals that carry
signals from one part of the body to another. Both chemicals play an important part in
the body’s physiology. They control a variety of physical and psychological functions,
including our mood, our eating patterns, our ability to learn, and our sleep cycles.

The Differences

Hormones and neurotransmitters are different chemical messengers, the former

produced by the endocrine glands and the latter by the nervous system.

Hormones are usually secreted from the endocrine system and released into the
bloodstream, but they act on distant target cells. Some hormones, like melatonin and
cortisol, are actually produced in the brain, released in the blood, and affect other
parts of the body.

On the other hand, neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic nerve
terminal in the brain. They move across the synaptic cleft, a small space between two
adjacent neurons, and move to the next neuron (known as a postsynaptic neuron).

Both hormones and neurotransmitters influence our thoughts and motivations, as well
as our ability to learn and concentrate. However, neurotransmitters’ actions are
short-lived while hormones act for longer periods of time. Furthermore,
neurotransmitters can affect both voluntary actions (eating, bathing, walking) and
involuntary actions (breathing, blinking). Hormones in the endocrine system always
work involuntarily.

Curious Similarities

the brain is responsible for secreting many of the hormones (chemicals that carry
messages to your organs and tissue) which dictate mood, emotional balance, and
stress response. If there is an overproduction or underproduction of key hormones,
this can make it hard for a person to deal with normal life, let alone extreme stress
and hardship. Chemical imbalances in the brain can also cause a person to lose touch
with reality, become compulsive or having any number of other mental disorders.

Norepinephrine is both a neurotransmitter (transmits messages between nerve cells

and to different parts of the body) and a hormone (regulates the function of various
glands and organs) is produced in the adrenal glands. It is also called Noradrenalin,
because of its similar ability to increase energy as does adrenalin. The primary job of
norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter is to regulate the heart rhythm. As the amount
of norepinephrine that is released into the body increases, so does the heartbeat.
As a hormone, norepinephrine is released from the adrenal gland and it also helps to
increase the heart rate, causes extra energy stores to be deposited into the blood and
activates the body's fight or flight response.

. SEROTONIN is also both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. In addition to regulating

mood and blood pressure, 80% of the body's serotonin is found in the gut and it helps
to regulate things like hunger and bowel movement. The rest is largely found in our
central nervous system, where it regulates sleep, appetite, mood, and learning
ability. The fact that such a large amount of serotonin is found in the gut explains
why when we feel anxiety or fear; it is often accompanied by stomach cramps,
diarrhea, and the inability to focus. Most medications that treat anxiety and
depression work directly to increase the body's absorption of serotonin.

Dopamine, as you can probably tell from the name, can have a great effect on the
way we feel. Dopamine is the neurotransmitter which is responsible for the feeling of
pleasure we receive when accomplishing something or being rewarded. When
dopamine is released we feel an almost euphoric high and it is very pleasant to the
body and emotions. The feelings that accompany dopamine release reinforces good
outcomes and positive behavior, contrary to the stress and increased heartbeat one
may feel when doing something bad or being punished.

Cortisol is famously known as the stress hormone. It is secreted from the adrenal
glands and in moderation is beneficial in helping you to get through stressful
situations. Cortisol provides a boost in energy, increased memory capacity,
temporarily enhances immune function, and give a person the ability to tolerate pain
better. These elements come in handy when in competitions, studying for exams, and
when dealing with harsh weather conditions. The problem occurs however, when you
have so much stress in your life that you are producing cortisol almost continuously.
When the body is not allowed to revert to a relaxed mode due to ongoing nervous
system stimulation, the result is a condition known as chronic stress.

Adrenalin is probably the most well known hormone and is also a neurotransmitter. It
is activated by the fight or flight mechanism and performs many functions, including
increasing the heart rate, dilating blood vessels, and increases breathing capacity. All
of these are helpful when you are called to respond hastily to a real or perceived
danger.

As with some of the other hormones mentioned, adrenaline is meant to be used

sparingly. However, if you live in a constant state of stress or worry, you are
overloading your body with adrenaline and not allowing your sympathetic nervous
system to rest and regroup. Some of the effects of ongoing adrenaline response
include tremors, trouble breathing, anxiety, and abnormal heart rhythms.
The hormones listed above are amongst the highest contributors to mood imbalances
and full on mental and emotional illness and becoming a reason towards criminality.
In a normal state, the hormones all work together to maintain a stable environment,
mental clarity, and an even mood. However, with the tremendous amount of stimuli
and pressure that we are exposed to in modern life, it is easy to see how our
hormonal responses have become unbalanced. It is important to understand not only
the warning signs of such disorders, but also know how to get help in alleviating them.

Biosocial theories

In his manuscript entitled The Moral Sense, renowned criminologist James Q. Wilson
argues that hormones and neurotransmitters may explain gender differences in violent
behaviour. He maintains that gender differences in exposure to androgens (male sex
hormones) explain why males are naturally more violent than females and why
females are more nurturing and empathetic (Wilson, 1993). Hormone levels have also
been purported to explain the aging out of violence. In other words, some scholars
feel that the decrease in violent behaviour with age is directly related to age-related
declines in androgen levels. Many have observed that both violence and androgen
production in males peak during adolescence (Gove, 1985; Booth and Osgoode, 1993;
Piquero and Brezina, 2001). Others have argued that artificially increasing the level of
male hormone within the body – through steroid use – can contribute to explosive
episodes of violence, often referred to as “roid rage” Recent studies have provided
limited support for this hypothesis (see Pedersen et al., 2001; Isacsson et al., 1998).

A number of biosocial theorists are currently exploring the relationship between

hormone levels and violent behaviour. Indeed, several studies have produced findings
that suggest that abnormally high androgen levels are, in fact, correlated with
aggressive behaviour (see Ellis, 2005; Raine, 2002; Fishbein, 2001; Rappaport and
Thomas, 2004). Testosterone is the most abundant androgen. Research suggests that
prenatal exposure to high levels of testosterone – sometimes as a result of medical
intervention – can sometimes result in higher levels of aggression in female children.
By contrast, during fetal development, males who are exposed to drugs that lower
androgen levels display lower levels of aggression through childhood and adolescence
(see Reiss and Roth, 1993). Studies of inmate populations have also found that
testosterone levels are significantly higher among offenders convicted of violent
offences than among those convicted of property crimes (Kreuz and Rose, 1972).

In a thorough meta-analysis of the research literature, researchers from Queen’s

University in Ontario found a small but statistically significant relationship between
testosterone levels and violence. However, this study also found that the influence of
androgens varies dramatically from study to study and from culture to culture.
Furthermore, researchers have yet to determine causality. For example, although
some argue that testosterone levels cause violence, new evidence suggests that
engaging in or observing violent behaviour can actually cause a dramatic increase in
testosterone levels (see Book et al., 2001).

High testosterone levels are thought to increase the probability of violent behaviour
in three distinct ways. First of all, the presence of male sex hormone is thought to
decrease an individual’s sensitivity to adverse environmental stimuli. Those with high
testosterone levels are thus more likely to take risks, more likely to seek excess
stimulation and more capable of tolerating pain in their quest for thrills. Secondly,
androgens are also linked to brain seizures that, under stressful situations, can result
in emotional volatility. Finally, androgen exposure causes neocortical functioning to
be less concentrated in the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere of the
neocortex, of course, is the part of the brain that determines sympathetic feelings for
others. Thus, these three factors, alone or in combination, may help explain the
apparent relationship between male hormone levels and violent behaviour (Ellis,
2005).

It must be stressed that androgens are not the only hormonal risk factor associated
with violent behaviour. It has long been suspected, for example, that the onset of the
menstrual cycle often triggers the release of excessive amounts of female sex
hormones (estrogen and progesterone). This rise in female hormone levels may, in
turn, contribute to an increase in anti-social behaviour. This phenomenon is
commonly known as Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS).

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

In addition to the possibility that human hormones may directly impact behavior, they
also may directly impact chemicals that regulate brain activity. Neurotransmitters are
chemicals that transmit messages between brain cells, called neurons, and have a
direct impact on the many functions of the brain, including those that affect
emotions, learning, mood, and behavior. Although researchers have extensively
studied more than 50 of these chemicals, research on the biological bases of crime
has focused on three of these: (1) norepinephrine, which is associated with the body’s
fight-or-flight response; (2) dopamine, which plays a role in thinking and learning,
motivation, sleep, attention, and feelings of pleasure and reward; and (3) serotonin,
which impacts many functions, such as sleep, sex drive, anger, aggression, appetite,
and metabolism.

High levels of norepinephrine, low levels of dopamine, and low levels of serotonin
have been associated with aggression. Results from research that has examined the
impact of these neurotransmitters are mixed. With all of these chemicals,
fluctuations in their levels may result in certain behaviors, and certain behaviors may
contribute to fluctuations n their levels in a reciprocal interaction effect).