14-3 Absolute and gage pressures are related by Eq, 14.1. It should be mentioned that Pyrqseptere in Eq. 14.1 is the actual atmospheric pressure existing when the gage mea- surement is taken, It is not standard atmospheric pres- sure, unless that pressure is implicitly or explicit applicable. Also, since a barometer measures atmospheric pressure, barometric pressure is synonymous with atmo- spheric pressure. Table 14.1 lists standard atmospheric pressure in various units Patasate = Prage + Pamooere tat and the data included in this book follow that tradi- tion. To convert pounds to slugs, divide by 9. Paige a a The density of an ideal gas can be found from the specific gas constant and the ideal gas law. 144 RT imate Densities of Common Fuids Than/st g/m Table 14.1 Standard Atmospheric Pressure 1.000 a (atmosphere) 14.696 pia (pounds per square inch absolute) 2116.2 peta (pounds per square foot absolute) 07.1 in we (inches of water, inches water gage) 38.98 fe mg (doot of water, fet water gage) 20.921 in He 760.0 mam Hig 760.0 torr 1.018 bare 1013 milibars L013 x 101.3 kPa (inches of mercury) (millimeters of mercury) Pa (pascal (dilopascals) A vacuum measurement is implicitly a pressure below atmospheric (Le, a negative gage pressure). It must be assumed that any measured quantity given as a vacuum, is a quantity to be subtracted from the atmospheric pressure. For example, when a condenser is operating with a vacuum of 40 in Hg (4 in of mercury), the abso- lute pressure is 29.92 in Hg ~ 4.0 in Hg = 25.92 m He. ‘Vacuums are generally stated as positive numbers Patasace = Patonaphere~ Poa 142 A difference in two pressures may be reported with tunits of psid (ie., a differential in psi) DENSITY The density, p, ofa fluid is its mass per unit volume.* In SI units, density is measured in kg/m’. In a consistent English System, density would be measured in slugs/ft", even though fluid density is exclusively reported in ‘The density of a fluid in a liquid form is usually given, Known in advance, or easily obtained from tables in any one of a number of sources. (Sev Table 14.2.) Most English fluid data are reported on a per pound basis, ‘Mam & an alatute propery ofa substance. Waight isnot absolute, since i depends on the loeal gravity The equations uring thal rel {aach as Bernoli's equation) cannot be sel with SL data, since Uke fsjuations ave at cosisent. Tas, eaginers en up with bwo difnent ‘station fr the ame thing. aiv (STP) 0.0807 129 sir (70°F, 1 atta) 007s 120 sleobol 493 790 ammonia 38 502 gasoline 149 720 slyeerin 783 1260 ereny sis 13600 water oa 1000 (Outpt th by 16.01 to obtain g/m) Example 14.1 The density of water is typically taken as 62.4 Ibm/tt? for engineering problems where greater accuracy is not required. What is the value in (a) slugs/f® and (b) kg/m*? Solution (a) Equation 14.3 can be used to caleulate the slug density of water oabe p= Pi pig = 1.94 Tse! fe Ss Tbk-sec? = 1.94 slugs/fe? (b) The conversion between Ibm/E approximately 16.0, derived as = (24 88) (1m 3) 999 eg? In SI problems, it is common to water as 1000 kg/m" ke the density ofFLUID PROPERTIES 14-9 Table 145 Viscosiy Conversions” saultiply by to obtain absolute asconity, dyaesfem! 0.10 Pas Ibesec/t? 478.8 P Tbesec/i? 47,880 ° Tbsec/f? A788 Pas slugjfesce 47.88, Pas Tom /t 188 Pas e 10197 « 10-4 gfe? oe 2.0885 % 10 Iiksee/te oe 001 Pas Pas 41020885 Ibsee/t? Pas 1000 & reyn 144 T-see/f ron 10 Ibsen? fnematic viscosity,» 92.905, st a.o92003 m/s 10.7639 82 fece 10" St 1x10 m/s st 1.0764 x 10 #2/s00 absolute viscosity to kinematic viscosity oe 1/p in g/em™ Pa {67195 % 10-4/p in om? Tso? jm Tome? gfs/mt i Pas 1000 /p in g/cm? sinematic viscosity to absolute viscosity st pin gem? e st Q.001 x pin g/cm Pas st 16x10" x pin Ibm/t? Pass ntfs O10197 x pin kg/m? kgt/m® m/s 1000 x p in gem’ Pas m/s pin kg/m Pas f/sce 9.031081 x pin tomy? Tsee/ sce 14882 % pinthm/f oP “ep: centipoie; cSt: centistoke; kgf lllogrem-once; P: poise ‘The centistoke (cSt) is a measure of kinematic viscosity. Kinematic viscosity is converted first to the absolute units of centipoise. From Table 14.5, ¢1.1265»)(0.999 ) = 19 Next, centipoise is converted to Ibf-sec/{t” ent = Hap(2.0885 x 10) = (1.119 eP)(2.0885 x 10-*) = 2.34 x 107 Ibf-sec/t® 12, VISCOSITY GRADE The ISO viscosity arade (VG) as specified in ISO 3148, is commonly used to classify oils. (See Table 14.6.) Vis cosity at 104°F (40°C), the approximate lemperature of machinery, in centistokes (same as mm/s), is used as the index. Each subsequent viscosity grade within the classification has approximately a 50% higher viscosity, whereas the minimum and maximum values of each rade range +10% from the midpoint. Table 146 150 Viscosity Grade Kinematic viscosity at 40 (est) 180 3448 viscosity grade minimum midpoint __ maxima Iso ve2 198 22 242 Iso VG 3 2.88 32. 3.52 180. VG ad 46 5.06 Iso V7 6.12 58. 148 180 VG 10 sa 10 no 180 VG 15, 135 15 165. 180 VG 22 198. 2 2 180 VG 32 288 2 352 180 VG 46 414 46 506 180 VG 68 612 63 43 180 VG 100 0 100 10 180 VG 150 135 150 165 180 VG 220 198, 220 22 180 VG 320 238 320 352 IsOVG 450 44 460 506 180 VG 680 812 680 vas 180. VG 1000 900 1000 1100 180 VG 1500 1350 1500, 1650 13. VISCOSITY INDEX Viscosity index (VI) is a measure of a Muid’s viscosity sensitivity to changes in temperature, It has tradition ally been applied to crude and refined oils through use of 4 100-point scale.” The ¥i is measured at two temperatures: 100°F and 210°F (38°C and 99°C). These viscosities are converted into a viscosity index im accor dance with standard ASTM D2270. (See App. 14.1.) 14. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface. Strictly speaking, a small portion of the liquid vaporizes. Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The vaporiza- tion and condensation at constant temperature are equi- librium processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known as the vapor pressure or saluration pressure. (Vapor pressure docs not include the pressure of other substances in the mixture.) Typical values of vapor pressure are given in Table 14.7, on of the viscosity index has been adopted by other parts ofthe chemical process industry (CPD, iocuting in the manufacture of folvente, polyazers. and other synthetics, he 100-poi sale ray be faceeded fon both ends) for these uses. Refer to stendard ASTM DD20to for calculating extreme value of te viscosy indexSue 14-10 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT kPa, 20°C. mercury 0.00362, turpentine Lus 48.9 a 1231 4550 12,200 propane 17,900 ammonia 18,550 (Ofulipy a by 004788 to obtain KPa) ‘Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressures at normal tem- peratures. Liquids near their boiling points or that vaporize easily are said to be volatile liguids.”” Other liquids, such as moreury, have insignificant vapor pres- sures at normal temperatures. Liquids with low vapor pressures are used in accurate barometers, ‘The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid, Botling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient pressure. There- fore, a liquid's boiling temperature depends on the local ambient pressure as well as on the liquid’s tendency to vaporize Vapor pressure is usually considered to be a nonlinear function of temperature only. It is possible to derive cortelations between vapor pressure and temperature, and such correlations usually involve a. logarithmic transformation of vapor pressure." Vapor pressure can also be graphed against temperature in a (logarithmic) Cox chart when values are needed over larger tempera- ture extremes. Although there is also some variation with extemal pressure, the external pressure effect is negligible under normal conditions, 15. OSMOTIC PRESSURE Osmosis is a special case of diffusion in which molecules of the solvent move under pressure from one uid to another (j0., ftom the solvent to the solution) in one direction only, usually through a semipermeable mem- brane.” Osmosis continues until sufficient solvent has passed through the membrane to make the activity (or solvent pressure) of the solution equal to that of the solvent.” The pressure at equilibrium is known as the osmotic pressure, & cause « quid that vaporiae cally has an aroma, the term eo rate ip ealen oeasionaliy eed Te Claurias-Clapeoran equation and Antoine equation are two such logarithmic correlations of vapor presure with lemprstare OR semipermeable membrane will be iperteable to the solute but pertcable forthe salveat. Sfwo solutions in equilibrium (ie, whose activites ae equal) ae ssid 1 bei sopra eguliriam, Figure 146 illustrates an osmolic pressure apparalus ‘The fluid column can be interpreted as the result of an osmotic pressure that has developed through diffusion into the solution. The Suid column will continue to increase in height until equilibrium is reached. Alterna- tively, the fluid colum can be adjusted so that the solution pressure just equals the osmotic pressure that would develop otherwise, in order to prevent the flow of, solvent. For the arrangement in Fig. 146, the osmotic pressure can be calculated from the difference in fluid level heights, A, = poh [st] r4.21(@) pak US] 14210) % Figure 14.6 Osmotic Pressure Apparatus semipermeable — membrane. (exaggerated) solvent solution In dilute solutions, osmotic pressure follows the ideal gas law. The solute acts like a gas in exerting pressure against the membrane. The solvent exerts no pressure since it can pass through, In Eq, 14.22, Mis the molar- ity (concentration). The value of the universal gas con- stant, R°, depends on the units used. Common values include 1545.5 ft-bf/lbmol-"R, 8314.47 J/lanolK, and 0.08206 atm-L/molK. Consistent nits must he used n= MRT 1422 Example 14.6 An aqueous solution is in isopiestic equilibrium with a 0.1 molarity sucrose solution at 22°C. What is the osmotic pressure? Solution Referring to Eq. 14.22, M=0.1 mol/L of solution T= 22°C 4.273" = 295K mol) (; atl, (01 2 (0 0s000 22) 205 arr (01 2) (008200 222) 205) 2.42 atm14-11 16. SURFACE TENSION e membrane or “skin” that seems to form on the free surface of a fluid is due to the intermolecular cohesive forces and is known as surface tension, 6. Surface ten- sion is the reason that insects are able to walk and a. needle is able to float on water. Surface tension also causes bubbles and droplets to take on a spherical shape, since any other shape would have more surface area per unit volume. Data on the surface tension of liquids is important in determining the performance of heat-, mass-, and ‘momentum-transfer equipment, including heat transfer devices.** Surface tension data is neecied to calculate the nucleate boiling point (ic., the initiation of boiling) of liquids in a pool (using the Rohsenow equation) and the ‘maximur heat flux of boiling liquids in a pool (using the Zuber equation), Surface tension can be interpreted as the tension between ‘two points a unit distance apart on the surface or as the amount of work required to form a new unit of surface ‘area in an apparatus similar to that shown in Fig. 14.7. Typical units of surface tension are Ibf/ft (ft-lbf/ dyne/em, and N/m, Figure 14.7 Wire Frame for Stetching a Film ‘The apparatus shown in Fig. 14.7 consists of a wire frame with a sliding side that has been dipped in a liquid to form a film. Surface tension is determined by measuring the force necessary to keep the sliding side stationary against the surface tension pull of the film.”* (The film. does not act like a spring, since the force, F, does not increase as the film is stretched.) Since the film has two Alternatively, surface tension can also be deter by measuring the force required to pull a wire ring out ‘iguarace teasion plays a role in processes involving dlepesion, emu sion, fleculation, foaming, aud solubilization Iti ot suprising that furfae teson sats are particularly important in determining The periormance of euapmeat in the chemical proce industry (CPI), Such a6 distillation columns, packed towers, wetted-vall columns pps, ad phuseseparationequlpzen ‘The fore inches the weight of the sliding side wir ifthe frame is oviented vertically, with gravy acting on the sbding side wize to ‘rete the fl, of the liquid, as shown in Fig. 14.8." Since the ring’s inner and outer sides are in contact with the liquid, the wetted perimeter is twice the circumference. The sur- face tension is 1424 Figure 14.8 Du Nowy Hing Surface Tension Apparatus Surface tension depends slightly on the gas in contact with the free surface. Surface tension values are usually quoted for air contact. Typical values of surface tension are listed in Table 14.8 Table 14.8 Approximate Values of Su Tension (ar contact) ai Tot/fe, 68°F N/m, 20°C Troctane 00149 o02iT ‘thy! aleohol o.00156 0.0227 acetone o.00162 0.0286 kerosene o.oor7s 0.0260 carbon tel boos 0.0270 turpentine o.o01s6 oa27 oluene 0.00195, 0.0285 benzene 00198 0.0289 olive oil 0.0028 0.034 elyoerin 0.00832 0.0681 water e.00009 0.0728 mercury 0.0356 ost (Multiply If By 14.59 to obtain N/m.) (stubiply dyne/em by 0.001 to obtain Ns At temperatures below freezing, the substance will be a solid, so surface tension is a moot point. As the tem- perature of a liquid is raised, the surface tension decreases because the cohesive forces decrease, Surface tension is zero at a substance’s critical temperature. Ifa substance’s critical temperature is known, the Othmer correlation, Eq. 14.25, can be used to determine the surface tension at one temperature from the su tension at another temperature. naa (En) 425 TT, Surface tension is the reason that the pressure on the inside of bubbles and droplets is greater than on the apparatus is Jnowa oe a Du Nowy torsion Ualance. The zing is rade of latina with a diaocter of 8.00 emSue 14-12 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING REFERENCE MANUAL outside. Equation 14.26 gives the relationship between ‘the surface tension in a hollow bubble surrounded by a gas and the difference between the inside and outside pressures. For a spherical droplet or a bubble in a liquid, where in both eases there is only one surface in tension, the surface tension is twice as large. (r is the radius of, the bubble or droplet.) runny ~ Pi 1426 (Pats er 17. CAPILLARY ACTION ‘apillary action (capillarity) is the name given to the behavior of a liquid in a thin-bore tube. Capillary action is caused by surface tension betwoen the liquid and a vertical solid surface.** In the case of liquid water in a glass tube, the adhesive forces between the liquid mole- cules and the surface are greater than (j0., dominate) the cohesive forces between the water molecules them- selves.”* The adhesive forces cause the water to attach itself to and climb a solid vertical surface. It ean be said that the water “reaches up and tries to wet as much of the interior surface as it can,” In so doing, the water rises above the general water surface level. The surface is hydrophilic (iyophilic). This is illustrated in Fig, 14.9. igure 14.9 Capitanty of Liquids hog (2) adhesive force dominates _(b) cohesive force dominates Figure 14.9 also illustrates that the same surface tension forces that keep a droplet spherical are at work on the surface of the liquid in the tube. The curved liquid sur- face, known as the meniscus, can be considered to be an incomplete droplet. If the inside diameter of the tube is Jess than approximately 0.1 in (2.5 mm), the meniscus is essentially hemispherical, and Fieisas = Mabe ig fact, observing the vise of liquid im a capillary tube is an spethod of determining the surface tasion of ligud PaAdhesion i the attractive force between moleeles of eileen sub stances. Cohesion she attractive force between taclecalsof te sate sbatance ther For a few other liquids, such as mercury, the molecules have a strong affinity for each other (Le., the cohesive forces dominate). The liquid avoids contact with the tube surface, The surface is hydrophobic (lyophobic). In such liquids, the meniscus in the tube will be below the general surface level The angle of contact, §, is an indication of whether adhesive or cohesive forces dominate. For contact angles less than 90°, adhesive forces dominate. For contact angles greater than 90°, cohesive forces dominate Equation 14.28 can be used to predict the capillary rise in a small-bore tube. Surface tension and contact angles can be obtained fom Table 148 and Table 119) respectively, tacos - st) 1426) Pred \ = 20088 Be wes} 14200 Pde ened = Mates 14200) doos 8 ss a) US] 1429(0) date Fees = Ge 14.30 Table 14.9 Contact Angies, 8 raterils angle mereury—glass 140" water-parafin 107" water-silver 90" silicone oil-glass 20" eroseno-glass 26" slyecrin—glass 19 vwater-glass 0 thy] aleohob-glass o If it is assumed that the meniscus is hemispherical, then Y, and cos 8 = 1.0, and the above e simplified. (Such an assumption can only be made when the diameter of the capillary tube is less than 0.1 in.) Example 14.7 To what height will 68°F (20°C) ethyl alcohol rise in a 0.005 in (0.127 mm) internal diameter glass capillary tube? The alcohol’s density is 49 Ibm/ft* (790 kg/m’),14-13 SI Solution From Table 14.8 and Table 14.9, respectively, the su= face tension and contact angle are From Eq. 14.28, the height is _docos 6 (1 (0.0207 8) 0.0) (1000 2) pdt (ra9 M8) (0127 mn) (081 3) = 0.0923 m Customary U.S. Solution From Table 14.8 and Table 14.9, respectively, the su= face tension and contact angle are = 0.00156 Ibf/ft g=0 From Eq, 14.28, the height is Aeon Pare d mf) (4 in ihioee) (7) COMPRESSII Compressibilty (also known as the coefficient of com- pressbilty) 8,18 the fractional change inthe volume of uid per unit change in pressure ina constant- temperature process.” Typical units are in’/Ibf,f/Ib, Tatm, and 1/kPa. (See Table 14.10.) Tis the reciprocal of the bulle modulus, a quantity that is more commonly tabulated than compressibiity. Equation 14.31 is written with a negative sign to show that volume decreases as pressure increases 1431 EGompresdbiliy should pot be confused with the thermal coeficient of expansion, (1/Vo\(OV/OT). whieh ie the fractional change i ‘volume per unit temperature change in a constant-preceure process: {oth ante of 1/"F oF 1/°C), or the dimensionlos compresnbilty factor, Z which i wed with te ideal ga lw Other symbols used for comprewiity are eC, and K Table 14.10 Approximate Compressibilies of Common Liguiae art aim liquid tomperature 8 (int/Ib) 9 (U/at mercury a2 0.027 x 10-* 0.39% 10 slyoerin corr O16 x10 24x 10 water 6o"F 33x10 49% 10 ethyl aleobol| 32F 68x10 10 10 chloroforma 32°F 68x10" 10x 10 gasoline 6orF 10x10 15x10 hydrogen 20K 11x 10% 160 x 10 hetiues 21K 48 10°" 700% 10 {atultiply 1/ps by 14.606 to obtain 1/stm.) (ataluply int br by 0.145 to obtain 1/kPs) Compressibility can also be written in terms of partial derivatives, \@),- Gl) -(2 - (2) (2 ase () Pp} \po) \Bp) y Compressbility changes only slightly with tempers- tase. The small compressibility of liquids is typically considered to be insignificant, giving rise to the com- mon understanding that liquids are incompressible. The density of a compressible uid depends on the fuid’s pressure. For small changes in pressure, iq. 14.83 can be used to calculate the density at one pressure from the density at another pressure. fr ® ai(1+ 6t02 - Po) 1438 , of course, are easily compressed. The compressi- bility of am ideal gas depends om its pressure, p, its ratio of specific heats, k, and the nature of the process.”* Depending on the process, the compressibility may be known as isothermal compressibility or (adiabatic) isen- tropic compressibility. Of course, compressibility is zero for constant-volume processes and is infinite (or unde- fined) for constant-pressure processes [isothermal ideal gas processes 1494 adiabatic idea gas process] z | proceed] 1495 Example 14.8 Water at 68°F (20°C) and 1 atm has a density of 62.3 Ibm/ft* (997 kg/m"). What is the new density if the pressure is isothermally increased from 14.7 Ibf/in* to 400 Ibffin? (100 kPa to 2760 kPa)? The bulk modulus hhas a constant value of 320,000 If/in? (2.2 x 10° kPa) rain F15-3 The device used to measure the pressure should not be confused with the method used to obtain exposure to the pressure, For example, a static pressure fap in a pipe is morcly a hole in the pipe wall. A Bourdon gauge, oor transducer can then be used with the tap to indicate pressure. ‘ap holes are generally Vin (3-6 mm) in diameter, drilled at right angles tothe wall, and smooths and flash srith the pipe wall, No part of the gouge or comection projects into the pipe. The tap holes should be at least F'to 10 pipe diameters downstream from any source of turbulence (eg, a bend, fitting, o valve) 2. MANOMETERS Figure 15.3 illustrates a simple U-tube manometer used to measure the difference in pressure between two ves- sels. When both ends of the manometer aze connected to pressure sources, the name differential manometer is used, If one end of the manometer is open to the atmo- sphere, the name open manometer is wsed.” The open manometer implicitly measures gage pressures. Figure 15.3 Simple U-Tube Manomoter Since the pressure at point B in Fig. 15.3 is the same as at point C, the pressure differential produces the verti- cal uid column of height h. In Eq. 15.2, A is the area of, the tube. In the absence of any capillary action, the inside diameters of the manometer tubes are iayelevant, Fog = Fo~ Fa = weight of fuid column AB 15.1 (2 — PAA py gh 152 Pa~ PL= Py oh SI] 15.518) 9 Pa P= Pah x7 = Yl (WS) 15.316) “fone of the manometer eg is icine, the tere incined manometer or draft gauge ls usd. Although ony the vertical dance between the ‘mamcncter Idd eafaoe sould Be wed to cae Ailerence, wite stl prrseuredferences i may be more accurate to ead the inclined stance (which i larger than the verial distance) fd compute the vertical dstance from the ange of inclination The quantity g/g, has a value of 1.0 Ibf/lbm in almost all cages, so Yq is numerically equal to pp, with units of Ibi/ft" Equation 15.3(a) and Eq. 15.3(b) assume that the manometer fluid height is small, or that only low- density gases fil the tubes above the manometer fluid. If a high-density fluid (such as water) is present above the measuring fluid, or if the columns hy or fy are very long, corrections will be necessary. (See Fig. 15.4.) Figure 15.4 Requting Comectons p Fluid column A, “sits on top” of the manometer uid, forcing the manometer fluid to the left. This increase must be subtracted out. Similarly, the column Ay restricts the movement of the manometer uid. The observed measuxement must be increased to correct for this restriction, Pa~ P= apm + hs ~ pala) 15.410 = (ph + pyhs — pha) x L B = agh aah ~abe lus) 15.4 When a manometer is used to measure the pressure difference across an orifice or other fitting where the same liquid exists in both manometer sides (shown in Fig. 15.5), it is not necessary to correct the manometer reading for all of the liquid present above the manome- ter fluid. This is because parts of the correction for both sides of the manometer are the same, Therefore, the distance y in Fig. 15.5 is an irrelevant di Figure 18.5 Ireievant Distance, ySue 16-6 MECHANICAL EWGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT Example 16.4 A pipe (internal diameter = 6) carries water with a depth of 2 flowing under the influence of gravity. (a) C calate the hydraulic radius analytically. (b) Verify the rosult by using App. 16.4. Solution (a) Use App. 7.A. The equations for a circular segment must be used. The radius is 6/2 = 3 Points A, 0, and B aro usod to find the central angle of, the circular segment. 9 = 2a = 2areeo = 141.06" (2)(70.53 } must be expressed in radians. a (2 41.06) 246 sad e circular segment (i. the area in flow) is A=}2(9—sing) (2)(3)*(2.46 rad ~ sin(2.46 rad)) 8.235 (6 in radians] ‘The are length (i.c., the wetted perimeter) is 76 = (8)(2.46 rad) = 7.38 The hydraulic radius is 8.235 3 7.38) Me (b) The ratio d/ is needed to use App. 16.A. From App. 16.4, 7h 5 0.186 0.186 r= (0.186)(6) = 1.12 9. HYDRAULIC DIAMETER Many fluid, thermodynamic, and heat transfer pro- cesses are dependent on the physical length of an object. This controlling variable is generally known as the characteristic dimension. ‘The characteristic dimension in evaluating uid flow is the hydraulic diam eter (also known as the equivalent hydraulse diameter).!! The hydraulic diameter for a full-lowing pipe is simply its inside diameter. The hydraulic diameters of other cross sections in flow hydraulic radius is known, it can be used t the hydraulic diameter, re given in Table 16.1. If the caleulate Dy=4ry 16.14 Table 16.1 Hycraule Diameters for Commen Conduit Shaves conduit cross section Dy Flowing fall ‘ard D annulus (outer diameter D., inner diameter D,) DoD. squate (side Z) L rectangle (sides L, and £;) flowing partially full halffiled evcle (diameter D) D rectangle (h deep, L wide) ‘wide, shallow stream (h deep) ah triangle, vertex down (h deep, broad, AL s side) + trapenoid (h deep, « wide at top, 2hla +b) wide at bottom, + side) 42 Example 16.5 Determine the hydraulic diameter and hydraulic radius {or the open trapezoidal channel shown. 1 v Tithe engineaing commuaty every Inconsisten, but te thee temas Aydrelic depth hydrauie diameter, and equtvelent dicter do not ave the sane rensings Hyeralc depth (low een vied by expowed surface width) isa characteristic length wsed in Froude muaber and ther open channel Sow calculations. Hydraulic diameter (fou tines the ate flow divided by the weted ures aa characteite length wed ix Reyuolis munber ead firtion low cleats, Heuvaeat Ahiataeter (230)°"/(a + BP) te te diameter of» round dtc Pipe tt wil ave the suse fiction lve per ut agth ae onze fluct, Unoreunately, theoe terms ate often used interchangeably17-3 When applied to fluid flow, the conservation of mass law is known as the continuity equation, pidys = pide 72 If the fluid is incompressible, then p, = pe Awvi= Ave 173 inate 174 Various units and symbols are used for volumeirie flow rate, (Though this book uses V, the symbol @ is, commonly used when the flow rate is expressed in. gallons.) MGD (millions of gallons per day) and MGPCD (millions of gallons per eapita day) are units commonly used in municipal water works problems MMSCFD (millions of standard cubic feet per day) may be used to express gas flows. Calculation of flow rates is often complicated by the interdependence between flow rate and friction loss Each affects the other, so many pipe flow problems must be solved iteratively. Usually, a reasonable friction f tor is assumed and used to calculate an initial flow rate. ‘The flow rate establishes the flow velocity, from which a revised friction factor can be determined. 3. TYPICAL VELOCITIES IN PIPES Fluid friction in pipes is kept at acceptable levels by maintaining reasonable fluid velocities. Table 17.1 lists typical maximum fluid velocities. Higher velocities may be observed in practice, but only with a corresponding increase in friction and pumping power STREAM POTENTIAL AND STREAM FUNCTION ‘An application of hydrodynamic theory is the derivation of the sticam function ftom stream potential. ‘The stream potential function (velocity potential function) ®, isthe algebraic sum of the component velocity poten: tial functions? B= 8.(z,9) 1 B(2,9) 75 ‘The velocity component of the resultant in the zeditection is v6 or ‘The velocity yedirection is ponent of the resultant in wz The two-dimensional derivation of the stream function can be fetended to three dacensons, necessary. The stesta function cat So be expressed in the ylindscalcoordinazeayotem, Table 17.1 Typical Full Pipe Buk Fuis Volocties velocity ‘uid and application Water: city service 3 in diameter 6 in diemoter 12 im diameter water: boiler fed water: pursp suction water: pump discharge water, sewage: partially filled sewer brine, water: chillers and 18-24 yp coolers (09-3) air: compressor suction 23-60 ix: compressor discharge 30-75 air IVAC forced air natural gas: overland vipeline steam, saturated: heating steam, saturated miscellaneous 50-100 psia 150400 psia 400-600 pasa steam, superheated: ‘urine food hydraulic uid: Auid power 2146 liquid sodium 1otp 3typ. (2 > 525°C) heat (0340) (1-412 transfer <45 <39 <30 50-75 ammonia: compressor suction ammonia: compressor sischarge oil, crude: overland pipeline 4-12 oil lubrication: pump suction <2 of, Iubrication: pump at Uischarge 85 (max) 25 (max) 100 (aa) {afaltipy se by 0.3018 to obtain maa) The total derivative of the stream potential function is 88 ag 4 28 ty —udety ao = Fade + yay det vdy ve An equipotential lines a line along which the function & is constant (j¢., dD = 0). The slope of the equipotential Tine is aw # 9 x lsauptoetal For flow through a porous, permeable medium, pressure will be constant along equipotential lines (ie., along lines of constant ®). (See Fig. 17.1.) However, for an ideal, nonviscous fluid flowing in a frictionless environ- ment, ® has no physical significance17-5 6. RELATIVE ROUGHNESS Iv is intuitive that pipes with rough inside surfaces will experience greater fiction losses than smooth pipes.” Specific roughness, e, is a parameter that measures the average size of imperfections inside the pipe. Table 17.2 lists values of ¢ for common pipe materials. (Also, sec App. 17.4.) Table 17.2 Values of Specific Roughness for Common Pipe Matera material 5 a plastic (PVC, ABS) 0.000005 15x10" copper and brass 0.000005 1.5 x 10-* steel 0002 60x10 plain eas 0.0008 © 24x 10 comerete 00d = 12x 10 (Qfultiply by 0.308 to obtain mn) However, an imperfection the size of a sand grain will ‘more nall-diameter hydraulic line than in a large-diameter sewer. Therefore, the rela- five roughness, ¢/D, is a better indicator of pipe rough- ness. Both © and D have units of length (e.., feet or meters), and the relative roughness is dimensionless, 7. FRICTION FACTOR ‘The Darcy friction factor, f, is one of the parameters used to caleulate friction loss.° The friction factor is not constant but decreases as the Reynolds number (uid volocity) increases, up to a certain point known as fully turbulent flow (or rough-pipe flow). Once the flow is fully turbulent, the friction factor remains constant and depends duly on the relative roughness and not on the Reynolds number. (See Fig. 17.3.) For very smooth pipes, fully turbulent flow is achieved only at very high Reynolds numbers. ‘The friction factor is not dependent on the material of the pipe but is affected by the roughness. For example, for a given Reynolds number, the rictiou factor will be the same for any smooth pipe material (glass, plastic, smooth brass and copper, etc,). The fiction factor is determined from the relative rough- ness, ¢/D, and the Reynolds number, Re, by various methods. ‘These methods incide explicit and implicit "Suaprisingly, this Intuitive Aatement ie valid only for turbulent rughnese does not {ideally} affect the ‘tition loss for tion factors: the Date frien fate or Fagg so known a the akin J 1 wal seer stress factor. Both factors ae in widespread he game symbel Civil and (mort) mecha see the DateySnetion factor The Fanning ieton factor ie tered more often by chemical engineers One can be dvived Figure 17.3 Friction Factor as a Function of Reynolds Number ray turbulent ND rs Tay warbutent 0 log f Tog Re equations, the Moody diagram, and tables. The values obtained are based on experimentation, primarily the work of J. Nikuradse in the early 1930s. When a moving fluid initially encounters a parallel sur- face (as when a moving gas encounters a flat plate or when a fluid first enters the mouth of a pipe), the flow will generally not be turbulent, even for very rough surfaces. The flow will be laminar for a certain erstical distance before becoming turbulent Friction Factors for Laminar Flow The easiest method of obtaining the friction factor for laminar flow (Re <2100) is to caleulate it. Equa- tion 17.16 illustrates that roughness is not a factor in dotermining the frictional loss in ideal laminar flow. 64 84 (circular pipe J=% | pipe i716 Table 17.3 gives friction tors for laminar flow in Friction Factors for Turbulent Fi by Formut One of the earliest attempts to predict the friction factor for turbulent flow in smooth pipes resulted in the Blasius equation (claimed “valid” for 3000 < Re < 100,000). war ‘The Nikuradse equation can also be used to determine the friction factor for smooth pipes (ie., when / D = 0) Unfortunately, this equation is implicit in faand must be solved iteratively. 1 = 2.01og,o(RevF) — 0.80 148 The Karman-Nikuradse equation predicts the fully tur bulent friction factor (ie., when Re is very large). 1 vi The most widely known method of ealeulating the frie tion factor for any pipe roughness and Reynolds number L=2og. reSue 17-6 WECHANICAL EWGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT Table 17.3 Friction Factors for Laminar Flow in Various Cross Sectons™ Dy fection factor, tube geometry (full) old or 6 t circle = Ga00RRe DB rectangle 1 SB.G2iRe 2 s2.20iRe » 3 88.36iRe ed 4 92/Re PAle cra 6 80/Re | 8 S2.327Re z ° 96.00/Re elipse 1 64.00iRe 2 7 28/0 ed a Re Randy 8 ‘uiRe vit “ 16 78.16/Re Bil sing) "Re = vyagDy/ ad Dy = 4A/P. is another implicit formula, the Colebrook equation. Most other equations are variations of this equation. (Notice that the relative rouglmess, «/D, is used to calculate f) D, 251 A suitable approximation would appear to be the Swamee-Jain equation, which claims to have less than 1% error (as measured against the Colebrook equation) {or relative roughnesses between 0.000001 and 0.01, and for Reynolds numbers between 5000 and 100,000,000. Even with a 1% error, this equation produces more accurate results than can be read from the Moody frie- tion factor chart, oa wat BD, 37 37 Re? ‘This i not she only expllts approximation ralebreok es Friction Factors for Turbulent Flo by Moody Chart The Moody friction factor chart, shown in Big. 17.4, pre- sents the friction factor graphically as a function of Rey- nolds munnber and relative roughness. There are differ lines for selected discrete values of relative roughness. Due to the complexity of this graph, it is easy to mis- locate the Reynolds number or use’ the wrong curve. jevertheless, the Moody chart remains the most comrnon method of obtaining the friction factor Friction Factors for Turbulent Flow: by Table Appendix 17.B (based on the Colebrook equation), or a smuilar table, will usually be the most convenient method of obtaining friction factors for turbulent flow. Example 17.2 Determine the friction factor for a Reynolds number of, Re = 400,000 and a relative roughness of «/D = 0.004 using (a) the Moody diagram, (b) Appendix 17.B, and (c) the Swamec-Jain approximation. (d) Check the table value of f with the Colebrook equation. Solution (a) From Fig. 17.4, the friction factor is approxims 0.028: (b) Appendix 17-B lists the fiction factor as 0.0287. (o) From Bq. 17.21, = 0.0288 (a) From Eq. 17.20, Fe agus B 5 281 WF 37 Rey? 004 22208 5.903 = 5.903, 400,000 0.0 8. ENERGY LOSS DUE TO FRICTION: LAMINAR FLOW Two methods are available for calculating the frictional energy loss for fluids experiencing laminar flow. The most common is the Darcy equation (which is also17-7 Figure 17.4 tood 0.09 furmulene ane 0.08 007 Jo.05 loos 0.06 loos as loo loos 0.08 loos “6 loooe Z looos = 0s 5 loooa 2 0.025 g loaoe 2 02 le 8.9835 o.0008 lo.0008 0.018 lo.02 o.oo o.00008 Jo.a0001 T 1t4s7 >) 34s7] | 3457 | | a4s7 | | aas7 10? 2x10? tot 2x08 10 2x10 108 2x 108 aol 2x10" 108 Reynolds number, Re Society of Meche on from L, F, Moody, “Friction Fact al Engineers, copyright © 1941 known as the Weisbach equation or the Darcy-Weisbach equation), which can be used for both laminar” anc turbulent’ flow.’ One of the advantages of using the Darcy equation is that the assumption of laminar flow ddoos not need to he confirmed if fis known. W722 ist] 17.2318) ls} 17.2516) ASME Transactions, Vol. 86, published by the American If necessary, fy can be converted to an actual pressure drop in Ibi/ft? or Pa by multiplying by the fluid density. Ap = hy x po SI] 17.26(a) A 2) — hy ) ww = hy x p( 2) = hy US] 17.2510) Values of the Darcy friction factor, f, are often quoted for nev, clean pipe. The fiction head losses and pump- ing power requirements calculated from these values are nunimum values. Depending on the nature of the ser vice, scale and impurity buildup within pipes may decrease the pipe diameters over time. Since the fric~ f the flow is truly laminar and the fluid is flowing in a civcaar pipe then the Hagen-Posseulle equation can tonal loss is proportional to the Ath power of the be used diameter, such diameter decreases can produce dramatic . imereascs in the friction loss. = 128uVL 17.26 me ys = 17.26 Dera is thatthe fiction factor cau be devived by you l/fe, oe tusbulent flow, fs eapiaSue 17-8 WECHANICAL EWGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT Equation 17.26 accounts only for the decrease in diam- eter. Any increase in roughness (ie, friction factor) will produce @ proportional increase in friction loss, Because the “new, clean” condition is transitory in most applications, an uprating factor of 10-30% is often applied to either the friction factor, f, or the head loss, hy Of course, even larger increases should be considered when extreme fouling is expected, Another approach eliminates the need to estimate the scaled pipe diameter. This simplistic approach multi- plies the initial friction loss by a factor based on the age of the pipe. For example, for schedule-40 pipe between 4 in and 10 in (10 em and 25 em) in diameter, the multipliers of 1.4, 2.2, and 5.0 have beon proposed for pipe ages of 5, 10, and 20 years, respectively. For larger pipes, the corresponding multipliers are 1.3, 1.6, and 2.0, Obviously, use of these values should be based on a clear understanding of the method's limitations 9, ENERGY LOSS DUE TO FRICTION: TURBULENT FLOW The Darcy equation is used almost exclusively to ealeu- late the head loss due to friction for turbulent flow. fl hy 1727 "~ 2De "The head loss can be converted to pressute drop. 17208) ws] 17.2016) In problems where the pipe size is unknown, it will be impossible to obtain an accurate initial value of the friction factor, f (since f depends on velocity). In such problems, an iterative solution will be necessary Civil engineers commonly use the Hazen- Williams equa- tion to caleulate head loss. This method requires kuow- ing the Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient, C, values of which are widely tabulated.” (See App. 17.A.) The advantage of using this equation is that C does not depend on the Reynolds number. The Hazen-Williams equation is empirical and is not dimensionally homoge- neous. It is taken as a matter of faith that the nits of hy are feet, 3.022} Ln 10449) O™Dy a bya = US| 17.29 "Am appronimate value of C= 140 roften chose for intl ealelatione ‘ew water pipe. C100 is more appropriate for water pipe that has ee ia service for some tna, Forside, C vals ae 20-10% lower tan the equivalent water pipe value, The Hazen-Williams equation should be used only for turbulent flow. It gives good results for liquids that have kinematic viscosities around 1.2 x 10° ft®/see (1.1 x 10-® m?/s), which corresponds to the viscosity of 60°F (16°C) water. At extremely high and low temperatures, the Hazen-Williams equation can be 20% or more in error for water Example 17.3, 50°F water is purnped through 1000 ft of 4 in, schedule-40 welded steel pipe at the rate of 300 gpm, What friction loss (in ft-Ibf/Tbxa) is predicted by the Darcy equation? Solution The uid viscosity, pipe dimensions, and other param- eters can be found from the appendices From App. M.A, » = Ll x 10 © f12/see From App. 17.A, €= 0.0002 ft From App. 16.B, D=0.3355 ft A= 0.0884 1 ‘The flow quantity is converted from gallons per mninute to cubic feet per second. 300 £2 The velocity is (6684 f° /sce we i 0.068a a rape P= 7.56/00 ‘The Reynolds number is (0.8355 1)(7.56 £) arxi9§ & 18x 10° The relative roughness is « _ 9.0002 ft # = 0.0006 From the friction factor table, App. 17-B (or the Moody friction factor chart), f = 0.0195. Equation 17.23(b) is used to calculate the ftiction los17-9 (0.0195)(1000 )(7.56 Deosase (on Early Ibs? (yioaass my (22 = 51.6 ft-bf/lbm Example 17.4 Caleulate the head loss due to friction for the p Ex. 17.3 using the Hazen-Williams formula, Assume C= 100. Sotution Substituting the parameters derived in Ex. 17.3 into Eq. 17.29, 3.022045, Ea (6.022) (7.56 4) (1000 ft) fy = 6 4 Gre pet G00)" 0.3355 =913 he Alternatively, the given data can be substituted directly into Bq. 17.20 10.442. 038 _ (10.41)(2000 )(300 gpm)" fy as + (100) (4.026 iny™ 10. FRICTION LOSS FOR WATER FLOW IN STEEL PIPES Since water's specific volume is essentially constant within the normal temperature range, tables and charts can be used to determine water velocity. Friction loss and velocity for water flowing through steel pipe (as well as for other liquids and other pipe materials) in table and chart form are widely available. (Appendix 17.C is ‘an example of such a table.) Tables and charts almost always give the friction loss per 100 ft or 10 m of pipe. ‘The pressure drop is proportional to the length, so the value read can be scaled for other pipe Iengths. Flow velocity is independent of pipe length, ‘These tables and charts are unable to compensate for the effects of fluid temperature and different pipe rough- ness. Unfortunately, the assumptions made in develop- ing the tables and charts are seldom listed. Another disadvantage is that the values can be read to only a, few significant figures. Friction loss data should be con- sidered accurate to only £20%. Alternatively, a 20% safety margin should be established in choosing pumps 11, FRICTION LOSS IN NONCIRCULAR. bucTs The frictional energy loss by a fluid flowing in a rec tangular, annular, or other noncircular duct can be cal- culated from the Darcy equation by using the hydraulic ‘diameter, Dy, in place of the diameter, D.™° The friction factor, f, is’ determined in any of ‘the conventional 12, FRICTION LOSS FOR OTHER LIQUIDS, STEAM, AND GASES The Davey equation can be used to calculate the fic tional energy loss for all incompressible liquids, not just for water. Alcohol, gasoline, fuel oil, and refrigerants, for example, are all handled well, since the effect of viscosity is considered in determining the friction factor, f.” In fact, the Darcy equation is commonly used with noncondensing vapors and compressed gases, such as air, nitrogen, and steam.” In such cases, reasonable accuracy will be achieved as long as the fluid is not moving too fast (ie, less than Mach 0.3) and is incom- pressible. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible if the pressure (or density) change along the section of inserest is Iess than 10% of the starting pressure. If possible, it is preferred to base all calculations on the average properties of the fluid as determined at the midpoint of a pipe.!* Specifically, the fluid velocity would normally be calculated as Pree 17.30 However, the average density of a gas dopends on the average pressure, which is unknown at the start of a problem. The solution is to write the Reynolds number and Darcy equation in terms of the constant mass flow rate per unit area, G, instead of velocity, v, which vaties. 1731 [sl] 17.29(@) ba US] 17.3% a WAlhough # i wed for both, this approach is beter suited for turbulent flow than for latina Gow. Also the accracy ofthis method decreas asthe How aren becomes nore noucccaar he ction dep tn Tong, narrow lt passageways is poorly predicted, for example However, there is no other convenient method of predicting fiction drop. Experimentation shouldbe used with» partial low gsomety fl exirens accurcy required Since viscouty is ot an expliit factor i the formula, st shouldbe bviows that the HaerWillams equation primarily soe for water 1oUae of she Datey equation is Lnted only by the aveilability ofthe scanty dat needed Uo calculate the Reyoolle nutaber. Mor couse, the extrance (or ext) conditions can be used if geeat accuracy isnot needed,Sue 17-12 WECWANTEAT ENGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT ‘Another approach is posible if the density and viscosity inthe operating range are known, The traditional Darcy tequation (see Eq, 17-27) and Reynolds number can be ‘aod for thin shurice as long asthe flow velocity i high tough to keep solids from settling. Setling is more of 2 concern for laminar flow. With turbulent flow, the diection of velocity components fluctuates, assisting the solids to reenain in suspension) ‘The most analytical approach to slurries or other non- Newtonian fluids requires laboratory-derived rheologi- cal data, Non-Newtonian viscosity (n, in Pas) is fitted to data of the shear rate (dv/dy, in s") according to two common models: the power-law model and Bingham-plastic model. These two models are appli- cable to both laminar and turbulent flow, although cach has its advantages and disadvantages ‘The power-law model has two empirical constants, m and, 1, that must be determined = m( 17.36 wool) ‘The Bingham-plastic model also requixes finding two empirical constants: the yield (or eritcal) stress, 7o (in units of Pa) below which the fiuid is immobile, and the Bingham-plastic limiting viscosity, (in units of Pas) a war Once mand n (or 79 and ne) have been determined, the Itiction factor is determined from one of various models (eg, Buckghom-Reiner, Dodge-Metaner, Metaner- Reed, Hanks-Ricks, Darby, or Hank-Dadia). Special. ized texts and articles cover these models in greater detail. The friction loss is calculated fom the traditional Darey equation, 15. MINOR LOSSES In addition to the frictional energy lost due to viscous cffects, friction losses also result from fittings in the line, changes in direction, and changes in flow area. These losses are known as minor losses or local losses, since they are usually much smaller in magnitude than the pipe wall frictional loss."* Two methods are used to calculate minor losses: equivalent lengths and loss coefficients, With the method of equivalent lengths, each fitting or other flovr vatiation is assuzaed to produce friction equal, to the pipe wall friction from an equivalent length of pipe. For example, a two inch globe valve may produce ‘Example and precice problems often include the instruction to “ignore minor lotes" In some iduteiee, valves are considered to be creat” oot itlings In uch cas, istracioas Yo ‘gore tloct ‘ttings" would be ambiguous, since minor loses an valves included inthe esleuations, However, this interpretation i practice problems the same amount of friction as length) of two inch pipe. The equivalent lengths for all minor losses are added to the pipe length term, , in the Darcy equation. The method of equivalent lengths ean be used with all liquids, but it is usually limite turbulent flow by the unavailability of lan Tent lengths, which are significantly larger lent equivalent lengths. 4 foot (its equivalent Ly= Lt De 17.38 Equivalent lengths are simple to use, but the mi depends on having a table of equivalent length values The actual value for fitting will depend on the fitting manufacturer, as well as the fitting material (e.., brass, cast iron, or steel) and the method of attachment (0-5. weld, thread, or fange).!* Because of these many varia: tions, it may be necessary to use a “gencric table” of equivalent lengths during the initial design stages. (Seo ‘App. 17.D.) An altemative method of calculating the minor loss for a fitting is to use the method of toss coeffictents. Each fitting has a loss coefficient, K, associated with it, which, when multiplied by the kinetic energy, gives the loss, (See Table 17.4.) Therefore, a loss coefficient is the minor loss expressed in fractions (or multiples) of the velocity head hay = Ky 17.39 The loss coefficient for any minor loss can be calculated if the equivalent length is known, However, there is no advantage to using one method over the other, other than convention and for consistency in calculations. =the i740 KD Exact friction loss coefficients for bends, fittings, and valves are unique to each manufacturer. Furthermore, except for contractions, enlargements, exits, and entrances, the cocfficients decrease fairly significantly (according to the fourth power of the diameter ratio) with increases in valve size. Therefore, a single K value is seldom applicable to an entire family of valves, Never- theless, generic tables and charts have been developed. These compilations can be used for initial estimates as long as the general nature of the data is recognized. Loss coolficients for specific fittings and valves must be Known im order to be used. They cannot be derived theoretically. However, the loss coefficients for certain changes in flow area can be calculated from the follow- ing equations."* Tn the Ianguage of pipe Stings, « Uireaded fitting is Rnown as @ sercwedjutin, even though no szows are uted No attempt is sade to imply great accuracy with these equations Correlation between actual al theoretical eee i fe,17-13 Table 17.4 Typical Loss Coctcienis* device K angle valve 3 end, close return 22 Duttenty valve," 2-8 in 454, ‘butterfly valve, 10-14 in 2354, butterfly valve, 16-24 in 254, check valve, swing, fully open 2.3 corrugated bends 13416 times value for smooth bend standard 90° elbow os Jong radius 90° elbow 45" elbow agate valve, fully open gate valve, Ys closed gate valve, 2 closed gate valve, Yt closed lobe valve ieter disk or wobble meter, rotary (star or cog-wheel piston) 10 ameter, reciprocating piston 15 rmeter, turbine wheel (double Now) ams tee, standard 18 "The actual los coeicient wil usually depend on the siz of the valve, Average values are given oo cocficenls for bultely valves are calculated from the fiction actors for the pipes b complete turbulent flow. © sudden enlargements: (D; is the smaller of the two (a) © sudden contractions: (D, is the smaller of the two (8) © pipe exit: (projecting exit, sharp-edged, or rounded) K=10 waa © pipe entrance: reentrant: K = 0.78, sharp-edged: K= 050 roundel 4g ang “DK 0.02 028 004 024 0.06 035 010 0.09 045 004 © tapered diameter changes: j= Small diameter _ Di large diameter — Dz $= wallto-horizontal angle enlargement, $< 22° 26sin d(1 — °)* 17.44 enlargement, 9 > 22° K=0-#) 1748 contraction, 6 < 22" K =08sin9(1 — 2) 1748 contraction, § > 22° K=05 vane — 6 v7 Example 17.7 Determine the total equivalent length of the piping system shown. The pipeline contains one gate valve, five rogular 90° elbows, one tee (flow through the run), and 298 ft of straight pipe. All Hltings are 1 in screwed stecl pipe. Disregard entrance and exit losses. sot 50 st Ww al "in screwed steel pipe pump {not to seale) Solution From App. 17.D, the individual and total equivalent lengths are 1 gate valve 1xosit = 0st 5 regularclbows 5x52 = 26.00% 1 wenn 1x328 3.20 ft straight pipe = 228.008 = TREO 16. VALVE FLOW COEFFICIENTS. Valve flow capacities depend on the geometry of the inside of the valve. The flow coefficient, C, for a valve (particularly a control valve) relates the low quantity (in gallons per minute) of a fuid with specific gravity to17-17 Figure 17.10 Discharge tim a Tank 1 mown as the velocity of approach.) The only energy the fluid has is potential enexgy. At the je, p» =0. Allof the potential energy difference (=, ~ 2) has cen converted to kinetic energy. The theoretical velocity of the jet can be derived from the Bernoulli equation. Equation 17.66 is known as the equation for Torricell’s speed of eff w= VaR 17.68 hanna 67 ‘The actual jet velocity is affected by the orifice geome- try. The coefficient of velocity, Cy, is an empirical factor that accounts for the friction and turbulence at the orifice. Typical values of C, are given in Table 175. = CV Ta 168 actual veloci ve Theoretical velocity vs im 17.69 Table 17.5 Approxmate Oriice Cooficients for Turbulont Water DULG flow —> repr eT The specific energy loss due to turbulence and friction at the onifice is ealeulated as a multiple of the jet's kinetic energy. (1- Cah St) 17.701a) (1-c%)ax% ps) 17.700) a The total head producing discharge (cffective head) is the differonce in clovations that would produce the samme velocity from a frictionless orifice. Detective = wr The orifice guides quiescent water from the tank into the jet gcometzy. Unless the orifice is very smooth and the transition is gradual, momentum effects will continue to ceause the jet to contract after it has passed through. The velocity calculated from Eq. 17.68 is usually assumed to be the velocity at the vena confracta, the section of smallest cross-sectional axea, (See Fig. 17.11) Figure 17.41 Yona cla ofa Fd Jet ow —> illustration description eG A sharppodged 63 098 B ——round-edged 1.90 0.98 © _ short tube* (Bid separates from walls) 1.00 061 D sharp tube (no separation) 100 0.82 EB __ short tube with rounded entrance 0.99 0.98 F reentrant tube, ength less than one-balf of pipe diameter 055 0.99 G reentrant tube, length 2 to 3 pipe diameters 100 072 H Borda 052 098 (one) sraoath, well-tape 9.99 0.99 A sho eos o leg lees than approxSue 17-18 WECHANTEAT ENGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT For a thin plate or sharp-edged orifice, the vena con- tracta is often assumed to be located approximately one half an orifice diameter past the orifice, although the actual distance can vary from 0.3D, to 0.8D,, The arca, of the vena contracta can be calculated from the orifice area and the coefficient of contraction, C., For water flowing with a high Reynolds number through a small sharp-edged orifice, the contracted area is approxi- mately 61-63% of the orifice area. Avvnacontrta = CoA, w7.72 Avcasconmeca 0 de ‘The theoretical discharge rate from a tank is Vj, =AyvTah. However, this relationship needs to be cor- rected for fiction and contraction by multiplying by C, and C.. The coefficient of discharge, Cy, 's the product of the confficonts of velocity and contraction, Vs CaveAy = Cavey = CsA TR 774 Cr= ye, 17.78 22, DISCHARGE FROM PRESSURIZED TANKS If the gas or vapor above the liquid in a tank is at gage pressure p, and the discharge is to atmospheric pressure, the head causing discharge will be B hea-ate I (a) a ist] 17-76¢@) han-atixZon-nt us) sre pg 7 ‘The discharge velocity can be calculated from Eq. 17.68 using the increased discharge head. (See Figure 17.12 Discharge trom a Pressurized Tank Q ¥ x D BT Gytar V= CsAgyZ0F 23, COORDINATES OF A FLUID STREAM Fluid discharged from an orifice in a tank gets its initial volocity from the conversion of potential energy. After discharge, no additional energy conversion occurs, and all subsequent velocity changes are due to external forces. (See Fig. 17.13.) Figure 17.13 Coordinates ofa Huid Stream A Yo= GNF V = CoAgN TDR Le In the absence of air friction (drag), there are no retard- ing or accelerating forces in the z-direction on the fluid stream, The s-component of velocity is constant. Pro- jectile motion equations can be used to predict the path of the uid stream, e= Vp [horizontal discharge) w7 78 After discharge, the fluid stream is acted upon by a constant gravitational acceleration. The yeomponent of velocity is zero at discharge but increases linearly with time. 1778 17.80 24, DISCHARGE FROM LARGE ORIFICES When an orifice diameter is large compared with the discharge head, the jet velocity at the top edge of the orifice will be less than the velocity at the bottom edge. Since the velocity is related to the square root of the head, the distance used to calculate the effective jet velocity should be measured from the fiuid surface to a point above the centerline of the orifice. ‘This correction is generally neglected, however, since it is small for heads of more than twice the orifice diame- ter. Furthermore, if an orifice is intended to work reg- ularly with small heads, the otifice should be calibratedSue 17-20 WEEHANTEAT ENGINEERING REFERENCE WANUAT will be independent of the barrel slope. Equation 17.85 can he used to ealeulate the discharge V = CeAv = CsAV Tilo 17.85 I the culvert is long {more than 60 ft or 20 m), or ifthe entrance is not gradual, the available energy will be divided between fiction and velocity heads. ‘The ef tive head used in Eq, 17.85 should be hdsive = A ate ~ mentee 17.86 The friction loss in the barrel can be found in the usual manner, from either the Darcy equation or the Hazen- Williams equation. The entrance loss is calculated using the standard method of loss coelficients. Representative values of the loss coefficient, K, aze given in Table 17.6. Since the fluid velocity is not imitially known but is needed to find the friction factor, a trial-and-error solu- tion will be necessary. Table 17.6 Representative Loss Coetfcents for Culvert Entances entrance K Srnooth and gradual transition 0.08 ‘uch vee of bell shape 0.10 projecting woo or bell shape 015 Buch, squareedged 0.50 projecting, square-edged 0.90 27, SIPHONS A siphonis a bent or curved tube that carries fluid from a fluid surface at a high elevation to another fluid sur- face at a lower elevation. Normally, it would not seem, difficult to have a fluid flow to a lower elevation. How- fever, the fluid seems to flow “uphill” in a portion of a siphon. Figure 17.15 illustrates a siphon, Figure 17.15 Sionon Starting a siphon requires the tube to be completely filled with liquid. ‘Then, since the fluid weight is greater in the longer arm than in the shorter arm, the fluid in the longer arm “falls” out of the siphon, “pulling” more liquid into the shorter arm and over the bend. Operation of a siphon is essentially independent of atmo- spheric pressure. The theoretical discharge is the same as predicted by the Tomticelli equation. A correction for discharge is necessary, but little data is available on typical values of Cy. Therefore, siphons should be tested ‘and calibrated in place v= Ceav = 4A VTE 1787 28, SERIES PIPE SYSTEMS A system of pipes in series consists of two or more lengths of different-diameter pipes connected end-to- end, In the case of the series pipe from a reservoir dis- charging 1o the atmosphere shown in Fig. 17.16, the available head will be split between the velocity head and the friction loss ha hy thy 17.88 Figure 17.46 Series Pipe System If the flow rate or velocity in any part of the system is mown, the friction loss can easily be found as the sum of, the friction losses in the individual sections. The solw- tion is somewhat more simple than it first appears to be, ince the velocity of all sections can be written in of only one velocity. Aya Bat hye 17.89 Aava= Aavs 17.90 If neither the velocity nor the flow quantity is known, a trial-and-error solution will be required, since a friction factor must be known to calculate hy. good starting point is to assume fully turbulent flow. When velocity and flow rate are both unknown, the following procedure using, the Darcy friction factor can be used." step 1: Calculate the relative roughness, «/D, for each section. Use the Moody diagram to determine /, and f, for fly turbulent flow (.e., the horizon: tal portion of the curve). Tig Haaez Willams consiante we given for the pipe section, the procedure for finding the unknown velextiee sala, althoug Siderably more eifell sine © and v"™ cannot be combined A Gis ‘pproimetion, however ean be obtained by replaring +" in the Hagen-Willans equation for friction loss, A tual and aor method an then be used to find velocity