Speed and Travel Time Measurement in

Urban Areas
WILLIAM P. WALKER, Chairman
Highway Transport Research Engineer, Bureau of Public Roads
The Committee on Operating Speeds In Urban Areas was organized for
the purpose of developing a technique for measuring the speed of traffic
on urban facilities on an annual average basis. Travel time data are
useful In making economic appraisals of road-user costs and benefits,
In predicting the diversion of traffic from old to new or Improved facili-
ties, and In other related analyses. Various methods for sampling speed
or travel time have either been Investigated by members of the commit-
tee or the results of other investigations examined. The merits as to
accuracy, economy, and practicability of several methods for determin-
ing travel time are compared. These Include: (1) license matching
method; (2) floating car methods (of which there are several variations);
(3) spot speed method; (4) arrival-output volume rate method; (5) Inter-
view method; (6) photographic method. Variable conditions that affect
the speed of traffic are discussed and coverage Is given to the guiding
principles for scheduling speed studies throughout the year so that the
annual average speed on a facility may be determined.
#TRAVEL time data are used for several purposes by traffic and highway engineers.
Some of these uses are: (1) the identification of locations and causes of delays on urban
streets, (2) predicting the diversion of traffic from old to new or improved facilities,
and (3) analyzing road-user benefits. In an economic appraisal of road-user benefits,
one of the factors that must be weighed Is the element of time spent by drivers In tra-
versing a particular section or sections of highway. Travel time is a function of speed
and distance. Thus It Is of some Importance that there be a reliable means of ascertain-
ing the speed of traffic over the particular section of highway under investigation. Since
this speed will vary between various hours of the day, days of the week, and seasons of
the year, it is not sufficient that the speed be known for a short period of time. It Is
customary f o r the highway economist to compute user benefits on an annual basis.
Of the various techniques that have been employed for measuring speeds, or travel
times, none has had the complete confidence of the highway engineer. This is true of
the determination of average speed during the short period of time for which the tech-
nique was actually applied. Considerable doubt may also be attached to the results ob-
tained by expanding a short-period observation into an annual average figure.
The Committee on Operating Speeds In Urban Areas was organized for the purpose of
developing a technique whereby the speed of traffic on urban facilities might be measured
with a reasonable degree of accuracy on an annual average basis. Desirable features,
other than accuracy, would be simplicity and economy of operation. This Is a report of
accomplishment of the committee.

PROGRAM
The program as adopted called for testing the accuracy of various methods for deter-
mining over-all travel speeds on a short-time basis. Such tests were to be made under
fixed conditions. Any method or methods that met the test of accuracy, simplicity, and
economy would then be utilized In developing a technique for sampling over-all travel
speeds for all conditions that could be applied in determining the average over-all speed
and travel time on an annual basis.

STUDY METHODS TESTED

Several methods of studying travel times were suggested, and most of these have
been tested in some degree. Methods suggested were:
27
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L i c e n s e Matching Method. B y this method the l i c e n s e numbers of a l l v e h i c l e s , to-

gether with the time of day that they p a s s two selected points (the t e r m i n a l points of the
test c o u r s e ) a r e observed and r e c o r d e d . T h e numbers a r e l a t e r matched, the t r a v e l
t i m e of each vehicle i s determined, and an average speed value obtained.
Floating C a r Method. I n this method a test v e h i c l e i s d r i v e n over the test c o u r s e at
a speed approximating the average speed of t r a f f i c .
Spot Speeds of A l l T r a f f i c at a Selected Point a s Related to O v e r - A l l Speeds. A speed-
m e a s u r i n g device* i s used to determine the speeds of a l l v e h i c l e s a s they p a s s a s e l e c -
ted point on the test c o u r s e , and the average spot speed i s then related to the o v e r - a l l
speed over the entire c o u r s e .
A r r i v a l - O u t p u t V o l u m e R a t e Method. T h i s method i s adaptable to the c o n t r o l l e d -
a c c e s s type of f a c i l i t y only, where there i s reasonable certainty that the components of
t r a f f i c p a s s i n g one t e r m i n u s of the test section w i l l a l s o p a s s the other t e r m i n u s . B r i e f -
ly, the method c o n s i s t s of isolating a segment of the t r a f f i c s t r e a m (all t r a f f i c within a
given period of time) and determining the average time at which a l l i n c r e m e n t s of the
segment of t r a f f i c p a s s each of the two t e r m i n i of the test section.
Interview of D r i v e r s . A l a r g e number of private d r i v e r s a r e questioned, by p e r s o n a l
interview or through correspondence, a s to their routes of t r a v e l , time of day t r i p s
w e r e made, the t r a v e l t i m e s involved, locations and c a u s e s of e x c e s s i v e d e l a y s , etc.
D a t a a r e c l a s s i f i e d and s u m m a r i z e d according to route of t r a v e l and t i m e of day.
Ground o r A i r Photographs. Photographs of the t r a f f i c s t r e a m a r e taken at fixed
time i n t e r v a l s with a s p e c i a l l y designed motion picture c a m e r a . Spot speeds c a n be d e -
t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g on the photographs the distance each v e h i c l e moves during the
fixed i n t e r v a l of time between two s u c c e s s i v e photos. T r a v e l time f o r r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t
sections of road (such a s 300 to 1,500 ft at the approach to an intersection) may a l s o be
determined by taking a s e r i e s of photos at a uniform time spacing and counting the n u m -
b e r of p i c t u r e s or " f r a m e s " which a r e r e q u i r e d f o r each v e h i c l e to move f r o m one end
of the section of road to the other.

R e s u l t s of Investigations
R e s u l t s of investigations of some of the above-named methods of study have been r e -
ported. I n 1949 B e r r y and G r e e n compared v a r i o u s d r i v i n g techniques f o r the floating
c a r method and the l i c e n s e check method on two urban s t r e e t s i n C a l i f o r n i a (2). I n 1951
R o y B . S a w h i l l investigated v a r i o u s t r a v e l time techniques on a r u r a l two-lane highway
(3). A l s o in 1951 B e r r y enlarged upon his e a r l i e r investigations and reported h i s f i n d -
ings i n a paper entitled, "Evaluation of Techniques for D e t e r m i n i n g O v e r - A l l T r a v e l
T i m e " (4). Meanwhile the B u r e a u of P u b l i c Roads cooperated with other agencies in
investigations involving t r a v e l time techniques. T h i s report w i l l d r a w upon a l l of the
aforementioned m a t e r i a l but w i l l not repeat in f u l l that which has a l r e a d y been published.
T h e v a r i o u s techniques for short period study w i l l be d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y , followed by
a d i s c u s s i o n of expansion methods f o r determining annual t r a v e l time.
i
L i c e n s e Matching Method
T h e l i c e n s e matching method has been accepted by the committee a s being a r e l i a b l e
standard upon which to base the a c c u r a c y of other methods. Where a l l l i c e n s e n u m b e r s
a r e r e c o r d e d and the exact time of passage of each v e h i c l e i s observed, little question
can be r a i s e d a s to the a c c u r a c y of r e s u l t s i n s o f a r a s t r a v e l t i m e s for v e h i c l e s which
t r a v e r s e the entire test section a r e concerned. Such a p r o c e s s i s neither s i m p l e nor
economical, however. O b s e r v e r s find difficulty in reading a l l n u m b e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y so |
where t r a f f i c volumes a r e high. T h e matching of numbers and subtracting the time of
passage i s a l s o t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Sawhill determined that 9 m a n - h o u r s w e r e r e q u i r e d
(field and office combined) f o r each hour of f i e l d observation on a heavily t r a v e l e d two-
lane road. T h i s includes 2 m a n - h o u r s for f i e l d o b s e r v e r s using v o i c e - r e c o r d i n g i n s t r u -
ments, 4 m a n - h o u r s f o r office t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , and 3 m a n - h o u r s f o r matching n u m b e r s .
T h e latter item would v a r y with the volume of t r a f f i c , and the total t i m e would v a r y
somewhat with the f i e l d procedure employed.
V o i c e - r e c o r d i n g instruments afford considerable saving in manpower in the f i e l d , but]
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a p a r t of this saving in m a n - h o u r s i s offset by the time consumed in t r a n s c r i b i n g the

f i e l d r e c o r d s . Some saving i n time c a n be effected by s a m p l i n g the t r a f f i c during the
period of f i e l d study. Both Sawhill and B e r r y have concluded that s a m p l i n g i s p r a c t i -
cable and have conducted r e s e a r c h toward a determination of the s i z e of s a m p l e needed.
T a b l e 1 shows the needed s a m p l e s i z e s f o r r e s u l t s that a r e within 5 percent of the true
average speed i n 95 c a s e s out of 100.

T o be t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , the s a m p l e TABLE i
should be distributed s y s t e m a t i c a l l y through- NUMBEROF LICENSE-NUMBER MATCKNGS
out a period o r p e r i o d s of observation d u r - NE^^D ^ \ ^ ™ ^ «
ing which t r a f f i c volumes change but little, WITH AN ERROR NOT T O E X C E E D S P E R -
if any. One means of a s s u r i n g a s y s t e m a t - C E N T WITH A O S - P E R C E N T D E G R E E O F
i c distribution would be to s e l e c t l i c e n s e s CONFIDEN E _
ending i n c e r t a i n digits, s u c h a s 0 and 5. Type of facility Numbw^oi^ucense
T h e number of different digits to be e m - "
Signalized urban streets
ployed would be dependent upon the volume Two-lane, uncongested 32
of t r a f f i c and the percent of through t r a f f i c . Two-lane, congested 36
Multilane, uncongested 80
T h e s e i t e m s c a n be determined by prelimi/< Multilane, congested 102
n a r y study. Rural highways
Two-lane, l,130v p h 25
The s a v i n g i n m a n - h o u r s through use of
Two-lane, 1,440 v p h 41
a sampling procedure i s v e r y much w o r t h - Four-lane, uncongested 30
while. O n many s t r e e t s , one person at
each end of the test section would be able to observe and manually r e c o r d t i m e s of p a s -
sage and l i c e n s e n u m b e r s for a sample of one or two l i c e n s e number endings f o r one
d i r e c t i o n of t r a f f i c . T r a n s c r i p t i o n time would thus be eliminated, and the total m a n -
hours p e r hour of f i e l d observation would, a c c o r d i n g to S a w h i l l ' s estimate, be reduced
to t h r e e . With only a slight s a c r i f i c e in a c c u r a c y , a saving of up to two-thirds i n m a n -
h o u r s m a y be r e a l i z e d through u s e of the s a m p l i n g technique.
When manually r e c o r d i n g or t r a n s c r i b i n g l i c e n s e n u m b e r s , the matching p r o c e s s i s
facilitated if a l l n u m b e r s with the s a m e l i c e n s e number ending a r e r e c o r d e d in the s a m e
column. (See sample f i e l d sheet, F i g . 112, p. 125 of r e f e r e n c e 7 . )
T h e percent of through t r a f f i c (vehicles which p a s s both ends of a section of street)
may be r e l a t i v e l y low on some sections of urban s t r e e t , because of the high number of
v e h i c l e s entering o r leaving the s t r e e t at intersections between the ends of the section.
I n s u c h c a s e s the length of t e s t section m u s t be shortened. A preponderence of t r a f f i c
should be through v e h i c l e s that p a s s both t e r m i n i . T h i s w i l l g e n e r a l l y be the c a s e on
a r t e r i a l - t y p e s t r e e t s , but on other p a r t s of the urban s t r e e t s y s t e m it m a y be n e c e s s a r y
to divide the study section into undesirably short segments.
T h e committee accepts the l i c e n s e matching method of study a s being the most a c c u -
r a t e of a l l methods when a 100 percent s a m p l e i s used. T h e committee a l s o r e c o g n i z e s
it a s being among the most economical and p r a c t i c a l of methods if a sample i s so s e l e c t -
ed a s to produce r e s u l t s comparable i n a c c u r a c y with those attainable by the other m e t h -
ods tested. I f , however, an investigation of speeds should have f o r Its purpose the i d e n -
tification of locations and c a u s e s of d e l a y s , the l i c e n s e matching method i s not a s w e l l
suited a s others of the methods tested.

T e s t - C a r Technique
The f l o a t i n g - c a r technique, of which there a r e s e v e r a l v a r i a t i o n s , has been i n rather
common u s e f o r m a n y y e a r s . F o r t h i s r e a s o n the committee f e l t that e a r l y attention
should be given to testing the validity o r a c c u r a c y of this method. It i s a g e n e r a l p r a c -
t i c e , i n using the f l o a t i n g - c a r technique, for the d r i v e r to p a s s a s many v e h i c l e s a s the
number p a s s i n g h i m . It has been a s s u m e d that by so doing the speed of the floating c a r
or test c a r would approximate the average speed of a l l t r a f f i c . F o r this assumption to
be v a l i d , the test vehicle m u s t r e m a i n in the t r a f f i c s t r e a m f o r a sufficient period of
t i m e to be exposed to a representative s a m p l e of t r a f f i c .
W h e r e t r a f f i c i s heavy and there a r e frequent signalized intersections it might be
supposed that the t r a v e l t i m e of a l l v e h i c l e s would be v e r y n e a r l y the s a m e and that an
individual d r i v e r would have little choice i n selecting his speed. T o determine whether
30

or not t h i s i s in fact the c a s e , tests w e r e made by B e r r y and G r e e n (2), u s i n g three

d r i v e r techniques. T h e s e w e r e :
1. D r i v e r to t r a v e l at a speed w h i c h , in h i s opinion, i s representative of the speed
of a l l t r a f f i c at the time. (Designated a s an "average test r u n ; " somewhat different f r o m
standard "floating c a r " technique.)
2. D r i v e r to maintain a m a x i m u m speed consistent with safety and existing t r a f f i c
regulations. ( " F a s t e r " test r u n . )
3. D r i v e r to maintain a place i n the t r a f f i c s t r e a m but to gage h i s speed by the s l o w -
e r v e h i c l e s . ("Slower" test r u n . )
T e s t s w e r e made on three s t r e e t s , and the effect of t r a f f i c volume was a l s o i n v e s t i -
gated. R e s u l t s w e r e checked by the l i c e n s e matching method. T h e tests showed that
there m a y be a wide v a r i a t i o n in the speeds of test v e h i c l e s , depending upon which of
the three d r i v e r techniques i s employed. T h e m o r e important conclusions a s reported
f o r this investigation may be s u m m a r i z e d a s follows:
1. T e s t c a r s d r i v e n at m a x i m u m speeds consistent with safety, o r at speeds a p p r o x i -
mating those of the s l o w e r v e h i c l e s on the s t r e e t , u s u a l l y do not y i e l d t r a v e l t i m e s which
a r e an a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e of the average t r a v e l time of v e h i c l e s i n the t r a f f i c s t r e a m .
T h e range in t r a v e l time f o r these e x t r e m e s in test c a r techniques, however, i s s m a l l
f o r s t r e e t s with c l o s e l y spaced t r a f f i c s i g n a l s .
2. T e s t c a r s d r i v e n at speeds which in the opinion of the d r i v e r s a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of the average speed of t r a f f i c c a n provide an a c c u r a t e means of m e a s u r i n g the mean
and median t r a v e l t i m e s of v e h i c l e s in the t r a f f i c s t r e a m of heavily t r a v e l e d s i g n a l i z e d
streets.
3. T r a v e l t i m e s v a r y greatly when the t r a f f i c volume on signalized s t r e e t s r e a c h e s
and exceeds the c a p a c i t y of the intersections of a test section. T r a v e l - t i m e v a r i a t i o n
i s much s m a l l e r f o r volumes below the capacity of the i n t e r s e c t i o n s .
T h e study by B e r r y and G r e e n r e f e r r e d to above w a s l a t e r extended to include a d d i -
tional s t r e e t s and, m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y , to compare the "average d r i v e r " technique with
the conventional f l o a t i n g - c a r technique. I t was found that both "floating" and "average"
test rvms made in adequate number yielded r e s u l t s , on most of the urban s t r e e t sections
tested, within 7 percent of the mean t r a v e l time obtained by the l i c e n s e matching method.
While it was concluded that either of these t e s t - v e h i c l e methods would produce s a t i s f a c -
tory r e s u l t s if sufficient runs a r e made, more t e s t - c a r r u n s a r e needed f o r the "float-
i n g - c a r " method than for the " a v e r a g e - c a r " method, for specified l i m i t s of e r r o r . T h e
following table f r o m B e r r y ' s report shows the approximate numbers of "average" t e s t -
c a r r i m s needed to produce mean o v e r - a l l speeds within c e r t a i n l i m i t s of a c c u r a c y . It
should be apparent that in o r d e r to obtain r e s u l t s with an e r r o r no g r e a t e r than 10 p e r -
cent, s e v e r a l test c a r s would be needed in most c a s e s , or tests would be r e q u i r e d by
one o r m o r e c a r s on s e v e r a l different days during periods when a l l conditions a s to
t r a f f i c , weather, e t c . , w e r e s i m i l a r .
T h e number of test runs needed to determine t r a v e l time for a given set of conditions
should be made during periods when those
conditions apply. T h e n the r e s u l t s for
these r u n s w i l l be representative of the TABLE 2
average o v e r - a l l t r a v e l speed of a l l t r a f f i c N U M B E R O F " A V E R A G E " T E S T C A R RUNS
for that p a r t i c u l a r set of conditions. T h e N E E D E D FOR DETERMINING MEAN O V E R - A L L
, " '•i^i'^a-^ wi^uuLLiuiio. a.lie S P E E D S O N V A R I O U S T Y P E S O F F A C I L I T I E S WITHIN
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number of t e s t c a r r u n s D I F F E R E N T L I M I T S O F A C C U R A C Y TOR 9 5 , P E R C E N T
indicated f o r an a c c u r a c y of 5 percent s u g - D E G R E E O F CONFIDENCE W
gests that this method i s i m p r a c t i c a l Number of test car runs needed
where a c l o s e approximation of t r a v e l time ^ ^ J t r r " T ^ ^ ^ ""^ "
is desired. 5 percent 10 percent
Signalized urban streets
S u m m a r y of T e s t - C a r Methods Two-lane, uncongested 30 8
Two-lane, congested 40 10
T h e investigations covering the v a r i o u s Multilane, uncongested 18 5
Multilane, congested SO 13
t e s t - c a r techniques for making o v e r - a l l
Rural highways
t r a v e l - t i m e studies a r e sufficiently exten- Two-lane, 1,130 v.p h 25 6
s i v e to p e r m i t the following conclusions: Two-lane, 1,440 v p h 42 11
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1. "Average" test c a r s , d r i v e n at speeds which, i n the opinion of the d r i v e r s , a r e

representative of the average speed of a l l t r a f f i c c a n provide a p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e of the
mean t r a v e l time and the mean o v e r - a l l t r a v e l speed of v e h i c l e s i n the t r a f f i c s t r e a m of
heavily t r a v e l e d signalized urban s t r e e t s and r u r a l highways.
2. F l o a t i n g t e s t c a r s , i n which the d r i v e r i s instructed to p a s s a s many v e h i c l e s a s
p a s s h i s v e h i c l e , may a l s o provide a p r a c t i c a l m e a s u r e of mean t r a v e l time of v e h i c l e s
in a t r a f f i c s t r e a m on heavily t r a v e l e d signalized s t r e e t s . O n multilaned s t r e e t s , float-
ing test c a r s produce r e s u l t s which a r e l e s s r e l i a b l e than the r e s u l t s obtained with the
s a m e number of r u n s of "average" test c a r s .
3 . T h e p r e f e r r e d instruction f o r test c a r d r i v e r s i s to s p e c i f y that e a c h d r i v e r should
maintain a speed which, in h i s opinion, i s representative of the average speed of a l l
t r a f f i c in the s t r e a m .
4. T h e t e s t - c a r methods may be unreliable during periods when t r a f f i c volumes a r e
low.
5. W h e r e locations and c a u s e s of d e l a y s a r e to be identified, the t e s t - c a r method h a s
an advantage over the other methods investigated.

Spot Speeds
F o r a number of y e a r s it has been a p r a c t i c e in many states to make p e r i o d i c studies
of the speeds of a l l v e h i c l e s , or a selected sample of v e h i c l e s , a s they p a s s a p r e d e t e r -
mined point along the highway during a period of observation. Such studies, where i n -
stantaneous speeds of v e h i c l e s a r e determined, a r e commonly c a l l e d "spot-speed"
studies. P r o c e d u r e s f o r obtaining spot speeds have been s i m p l i f i e d during r e c e n t y e a r s
by the development and improvement of speed m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s , and the conduct of
s u c h studies i s now a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e operation on r u r a l highways, p a r t i c u l a r l y those
c a r r y i n g low t r a f f i c volumes.
If a relationship e x i s t s between average spot speeds and average o v e r - a l l speeds, and
if s u c h relationship can be established, then the spot speed technique might be a u s e f u l
and economical device f o r obtaining average o v e r - a l l speeds. It i s r e a d i l y apparent,
however, that the relationship between spot speed and o v e r - a l l speed, if s u c h a c t u a l l y
e x i s t s , would v a r y between different sections of highway depending upon t h e i r length,
p r o f i l e , t r a f f i c volume, frequency of intersection control d e v i c e s , and numerous other
v a r i a b l e s . T h u s , the o v e r - a l l speed f o r a section of highway must f i r s t be known before
the relationship c a n be established. I t i s e x t r e m e l y doubtful that a true relationship
between the two can be established on urban s u r f a c e s t r e e t s w h e r e t r a f f i c flow i s i n t e r -
rupted by s i g n a l s or other controls. F o r this r e a s o n the committee has not investigated
the usage of the spot speed method on s t r e e t s of the type d e s c r i b e d . Spot speed o b s e r v a -
tions a r e u s e f u l f o r enforcement p u r p o s e s , f o r establishing speed zones, and for develop-
ing speed t r e n d s , but they a r e of limited use in determining speeds where t r a v e l time i s
the ultimate objective.
T h e committee b e l i e v e s that the u s e f u l n e s s of spot speed studies, i n s o f a r a s d e t e r -
mining o v e r - a l l speeds i s concerned, i s confined to r u r a l highways and f r e e - f l o w i n g u r -
ban f a c i l i t i e s , s u c h a s f r e e w a y s and a r t e r i a l s t r e e t s protected by stop signs and with
little t r a f f i c entering o r leaving. E v e n on f r e e - f l o w i n g f a c i l i t i e s the p r i n c i p a l application
would be in making either repeat studies o r studies f o r an extended period of time. A s
h a s a l r e a d y been mentioned, the mean o v e r - a l l speed during a l i m i t e d period of study
w i l l have to be determined by some r e l i a b l e means while the spot speed study i s i n op-
eration. T h i s operation w i l l be n e c e s s a r y for e v e r y section of highway studied.
Such tests a s have been made of spot speeds on r u r a l highways c a s t some doubt upon
the r e l i a b i l i t y of the method. S a w h i l l (3) found that the mean t r a v e l time a s converted
f r o m spot speeds on a heavily t r a v e l e d two-lane r u r a l road showed e r r a t i c r e s u l t s . T h e
m e a n , a s compared with a l i c e n s e c h e c k , w a s , on the a v e r a g e , 6 percent too high when
t r a f f i c was moderately heavy and 6 percent too low when t r a f f i c was heavy. He suggests
the p o s s i b i l i t y that taking spot speeds at two or m o r e locations might give m o r e stable
results.
In another t e s t , on US 1 i n Maine, spot speeds w e r e observed on each of s i x sections
of highway f o r which mean o v e r - a l l speeds w e r e obtained by the l i c e n s e matching method.
32

On the s i x sections the average spot speed exceeded the average o v e r - a l l speed by an
amount v a r y i i ^ f r o m 15 to 25 p e r c e n t , with the g r e a t e r d i s p a r i t i e s o c c u r r i n g on the
s h o r t e r sections. On any one section the ratio of spot speed to o v e r - a l l speed r e m a i n e d
f a i r l y constant f r o m hour to hour throughout a single day. However, on s u c c e s s i v e dayS;
Saturday and Sunday, the ratio changed m a r k e d l y . T h e t r a f f i c volume was not g r e a t l y
different on the two d a y s , being below the p r a c t i c a l capacity of the f a c i l i t y in both c a s e s ,
and the v a r i a t i o n in the ratio was v e r y probably caused by the c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c and
d i f f e r e n c e s in t r i p purpose.

The committee does not recommend the spot speed method a s a m e a s u r e of mean
o v e r - a l l speeds u n l e s s the relation to o v e r - a l l speed i s c a r e f u l l y investigated f o r the
p a r t i c u l a r section of highway being studied and i s found to be r e l i a b l e .

A r r i v a l - O u t p u t Method
T h i s method i s applicable to sections of highway where there i s no a c c e s s o r e g r e s s
between the t e r m i n i of the section. T h e theory of the method i s somewhat s i m i l a r to
that of the l i c e n s e matching method in that the object i s to obtain the average time of
TABLE 3
DETERMINATION OF AVERAGE TRAVEL TIME BY
LICENSE MATCfflNG METHOD
Example

License number Time of passage Travel time

station 1 Station 2 minutes and seconds
(1) (2) (3) (4)
9,335 8-00:12 8:04:05 3:53
42,143 :58 05:29 4:31
7,963 01:21 :ig 3:58
15,142 :44 :4g 4:05
4,872 :59 — Not matched
7,615 02:19 :39 3:20
25,166 •35 06:11 3:36
8,327 :41 Not matched
1,144 :52 07-12 4:20
31,579 03:09 :28 4:19
67,156 :36 :07 3.31
3,218 :55 :39 3:44
7,244 04:47 08:56 4:09
16,288 05:07 09-25 4:18
Average 8:02:43 8:06:41 3:58
-8:02:43
Difference 3-58

passage of a l l v e h i c l e s that p a s s the two t e r m i n a l points of the study section. I n the

l i c e n s e matching method sufficient information i s obtained to p e r m i t the t r a v e l time of
each individual v e h i c l e to be determined. Such detailed information i s n e c e s s a r y where
a distribution of speeds or t r a v e l time i s d e s i r e d . However, if an average t r a v e l - t i m e
value alone i s sought, it i s not n e c e s s a r y to determine each individual t r a v e l t i m e ; s u c h
an average value can be obtained m o r e s i m p l y be determining the average t i m e of day
that a l l v e h i c l e s for which the n u m b e r s match p a s s e d each of the two points of o b s e r v a -
tion. T h e difference between these two a v e r a g e s i s the average t r a v e l time. T h i s may
be i l l u s t r a t e d by the s i m p l e example shown in T a b l e 3.
In this example the computation in the fourth column of the table i s not e s s e n t i a l to
a determination of the average t r a v e l time because that value can be obtained m o r e
e a s i l y f r o m the average values in columns 2 and 3. T h e l i c e n s e n u m b e r s in the f i r s t
column s e r v e only one purpose: to eliminate those v e h i c l e s which did not t r a v e r s e the
entire section, o r for which because of some other r e a s o n , the time of passage was not
r e c o r d e d at both stations.
Between interchanges on a c o n t r o U e d - a c c e s s type of f a c i l i t y , a l l v e h i c l e s would t r a -
v e r s e the entire section; hence l i c e n s e numbers need be r e c o r d e d only to a s s u r e that
 33

neither of the two o b s e r v e r s f a i l s to r e c o r d the time of passage of one o r more v e h i c l e s

during the studv period, o r , if they should f a i l , then to p e r m i t the elimination of that
v e h i c l e f r o m the s a m p l e . D u r i n g the f i r s t few minutes of operation and during the f i n a l
c l o s i n g minutes of the study, l i c e n s e numbers must be r e a d and matched, but during the
intervening or m a j o r portion of the study period it should be u n n e c e s s a r y to note l i c e n s e
n u m b e r s , provided the time of passage of each and e v e r y v e h i c l e i s r e c o r d e d . O n c o n -
t r o l l e d - a c c e s s f a c i l i t i e s where t r a f f i c volumes a r e comparatively light it i s not difficult
to observe the time of passage of e v e r y v e h i c l e and the procedure j u s t d e s c r i b e d i s v e r y
appropriate to that condition

W h e r e the t r a f f i c volume i s heavy it may De impossible to r e c o r d the time of passage

of e v e r y v e h i c l e , but in that c a s e a further s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of the procedure i s possible.
Then it i s sufficient m e r e l y to count the n u m b e r s of v e h i c l e s p a s s i n g each station during
60-second i n t e r v a l s because the t r a f f i c w i l l be sufficiently w e l l distributed throughout
each minute that, on an a v e r a g e , they may a l l be a s s u m e d to have p a s s e d at the midpoint
of the minute. B y making u s e of a test c a r to i n f o r m the o b s e r v e r s when to s t a r t and
stop t h e i r covint, the reading of l i c e n s e numbers can be entirely eliminated. A t each
station the count i s started at the Instant the test c a r p a s s e s that station. T h e t r a v e l
time of the test c a r must be v e r y c a r e f u l l y m e a s u r e d by someone in the c a r , and an a c -
c u r a t e r e c o r d must be kept of the number of t i m e s that it p a s s e d o r was p a s s e d by other
v e h i c l e s . T h e counts a r e terminated in the s a m e fashion. T h e procedure w i l l be i l l u s -
trated by an example.
In this example, the following a r e assumed:
1. T o s t a r t the study the test c a r passed Station 1 at 8:30:00 and Station 2 at 8:30:55.
I n making the starting r u n the test c a r was p a s s e d by two v e h i c l e s . A t each station
counts w e r e started at the time the test c a r p a s s e d the station and w e r e continued, f o r
each 60-second i n t e r v a l , f o r the duration of the study.
2. T h e count was terminated by a s i m i l a r test r u n . T h e test c a r p a s s e d Station 1 at
8:44:35 and Station 2 at 8:46:26. I n making the terminating r u n , which was the s i g n a l f o r
the o b s e r v e r s to stop counting, the test c a r w a s passed by one v e h i c l e .
In T a b l e 4, the n u m b e r s of v e h i c l e s a s counted at the two stations a r e shown in the
second and fifth columns. Note that the counts for the f i r s t and f i n a l counting periods
have been adjusted to c o r r e c t f o r the v e h i c l e s that passed the test v e h i c l e . C o m p u t a -
tions a r e shown in the third and sixth columns of the table.
It should be apparent that r e s u l t s of the a r r i v a l - o u t p u t method a r e conditioned upon:
1. A c c u r a c y in counting t r a f f i c .
2. Complete absence of any a c c e s s or e g r e s s to o r f r o m the highway within the study
section.
3. A c c u r a t e t i m e p i e c e s .
4. C a r e in beginning the study period at the instant the test c a r p a s s e s each station
on the i n i t i a l run.
5. U n i f o r m s p r e a d of v e h i c l e s over each minute.
If these e s s e n t i a l s a r e met, the r e s u l t s a r e c e r t a i n to be c o r r e c t , provided the study
i s continued f o r a period of at least s e v e r a l minutes Although its f i e l d of application i s
v e r y l i m i t e d , it i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a u s e f u l , economical, and a c c u r a t e device for obtaining
average o v e r - a l l t r a v e l time where highway conditions a r e suitable.

I n t e r v i e w Method
T h e interview method may be useful where a large amount of m a t e r i a l i s needed i n a
m i n i m u m of time at little expense for f i e l d observations. C o l l e c t i o n of the f i e l d data i s
p e r f o r m e d by a segment of the motoring public and this activity should be preceded by
the i s s u a n c e of i n s t r u c t i o n s , either o r a l o r written, to those who a r e to participate i n
the study. C o m m e r c i a l o r b u s i n e s s f i r m s provide a convenient medium through which
s u c h instructions may be i s s u e d and through which f i e l d data c a n be a s s e m b l e d . T h e c o -
operation of s t r a t e g i c a l l y located f i r m s o r establishments should be obtained a s a p r e -
l i m i n a r y to such a study.
F o r m s on which the d e s i r e d information i s to be r e c o r d e d a r e i s s u e d to motorists
who volunteer for the study. On these f o r m s , space i s provided for entering i n f o r m a -
34

TABLE 4
COMPUTATIONS FOR DETERMINING AVERAGE T R A V E L TIME B Y
A R R I V A L - O U T P U T METHOD
Example
Station 1 Station 2
Time: Number Time: Number
6 0 - s e c . period of Computation 6 0 - s e c . period of Computation
a f t e r 8:30:00 vehicles a f t e r 8:30:55 vehicles
1 26 0.5x26= 13.0 1 25 0.5x25= 12.5
2 35 1.5x35=- 52.5 2 30 1.5x30 = 45.0
3 31 2.5x31= 77.5 3 32 2.5x32 = 80.0
4 39 3. 5x39 = 136.5 4 36 3.5x36 = 126.0
5 26 4.5x26 = 117.0 5 40 4.5x40 = 180.0
6 33 5. 5x33 = 181. 5 6 31 5. 5x31 = 170. 5
7 29 6. 5x29 = 188. 5 7 26 6. 5x26 = 169.0
8 37 7.5x37 = 277.5 8 24 7. 5x24 = 180. 0
9 24 8. 5x24 = 204.0 9 29 8. 5x29 = 246. 5
10 28 9.5x28 = 266.0 10 27 9. 5x27 = 256. 5
11 38 10.5x38 = 399.0 11 33 10. 5x33 = 346. 5
12 35 11.5x35 = 402.5 12 36 11.5x36 = 414.0
13 30 12.5x30 = 375.0 13 40 12. 5x40 = 500. 0
14 27 13. 5x27 = 364. 5 14 28 13. 5x28 = 378.0
15 19 14.3x19 = 271.7 15 20 14.2x20 = 284.0
(35 seconds) (21 seconds)
Total 457 3,327.2 457 3,388.5
Average 3,327.2 457 = 3 , 3 8 8 . 5 ^ 457 =
0:07:17 0:07:25
+ 8:30:00 + 8:30:55
8:37:17 8:38:20
A v e r a g e t r a v e l time = 8:38:20 minus 8:37:17 = 1 minute, 3 seconds.
Note: Count f o r f i r s t p e r i o d at Station 1 i s reduced by two v e h i c l e s because that number
p a s s e d test v e h i c l e during s t a r t e r run. Count f o r 15th p e r i o d reduced f o r s i m i l a r r e a s o n .
tion s u c h a s : date, time' of beginning of t r i p , weather conditions, t e r m i n i of t r i p , and
t r i p data, to include space for entering the locations of key points along the route t r a v -
e l e d , together with the time of a r r i v a l ( h r . , m i n . , and s e c . ) at these key points, odom-
eter readings at key points ( m i l e s and tenths), and r e m a r k s .
Instructions m a y be printed on the r e v e r s e of the f o r m . T e s t runs may be p e r f o r m e d
on one day only o r they m a y be s p r e a d over a m u c h longer period of time.
With good cooperation, the r e s u l t s obtained by the interview method may be v e r y
s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r the p a r t i c u l a r s e t of conditions under which t r i p s w e r e made. C o l l e c -
tion of f i e l d data i s inexpensive and a l a r g e a r e a may be c o v e r e d in a v e r y short p e r i o d
of t i m e . Disadvantages of the method a r e : (1) observations a r e limited a l m o s t e n t i r e l y
to peak-hour conditions, (2) the r e s u l t s do not lend t h e m s e l v e s r e a d i l y to expansion to
average t r a v e l t i m e s on an annual b a s i s (support f o r repeat studies at frequent i n t e r v a l s
throughout the y e a r would be difficult to obtain), (3) the agency p e r f o r m i n g the study has
little f l e x i b i l i t y in specifying routes to be followed o r the weather o r other conditions
under which the observations a r e to be made, and (4) the sorting and c l a s s i f y i n g of t r i p s ,
the computation of t r a v e l t i m e s , and s u m m a r i z a t i o n of data a r e tedious operations.

Photographic Method

T h e photographic methods a r e p r i m a r i l y r e s e a r c h tools because the interpretation of

the photographs i s a tedious t a s k and t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the data i s time consuming. Photo-
graphic methods a r e most u s e f u l in studies of interrelationships of s e v e r a l f a c t o r s s u c h
 35

a s speeds, s p a c i n g s , lane usage, a c c e l e r a t i o n r a t e s , queue formations, merging and

c r o s s i n g m a n e u v e r s , and delays at intersections.
Spaced s e r i a l photographs f r o m a fixed observation point p e r m i t determination of
spot speeds for each of s e v e r a l lanes simultaneously, by the m e a s u r e m e n t of d i s t a n c e s
each v e h i c l e t r a v e l s in the time i n t e r v a l between two s u c c e s s i v e photographs. R e s u l t s
a r e subject to the s a m e disadvantages a s mentioned in the d i s c u s s i o n of spot speeds.
T h e spaced s e r i a l photographic method may a l s o be used f r o m fixed elevated o b s e r v a -
tion points at some locations to obtain t r a v a l t i m e s over short road segments of 200 to
1,500 f t in length, s u c h a s at the approach to an intersection (8). T h e time r e q u i r e d f o r
each v e h i c l e to t r a v e r s e the segment i s obtained by counting the number of uniformly
spaced exposures o r " f r a m e s " which elapsed while the v e h i c l e was within the segment
of road. N o r m a l l y , each f r a m e i s numbered so a s to facilitate the determination of
t r a v e l t i m e for each v e h i c l e . R e s u l t s a r e limited by the s h o r t n e s s of the section, but
a r e e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l in studying t r a v e l time at weaving sections and at approaches to i n -
t e r s e c t i o n s (9).
W h e r e the c a m e r a i s used in conjunction with an a e r i a l mount, s u c h a s a plane o r
helicopter, the height and f o c a l length of the c a m e r a may p e r m i t a substantial length of
s t r e e t o r highway to f a l l within the f i e l d of v i s i o n (8). I n such a c a s e , mean t r a v e l time
m a y be determined f r o m the photographic r e c o r d s by dividing the mean speed a s ob-
tained f r o m s u c c e s s i v e p a i r s of photographs into the length of highway under study. A v -
erage t r a v e l t i m e s obtained by t h i s method a r e a c c u r a t e , but the technique has a number
of disadvantages.
1. A considerable amount of p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k may be n e c e s s a r y in placing control
m a r k i n g s on the highway. (In most urban w o r k , however, s t r e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n s , i n t e r -
changes, e t c . , w i l l generally afford sufficient c o n t r o l . )
2. T h e s p e c i a l i z e d flying equipment l i m i t s use of the method to those a r e a s where
s u c h equipment i s available.
3 . T h e height of the c a m e r a i s limited to that which w i l l p e r m i t the identification of
v e h i c l e s on s u c c e s s i v e photographs and a s a r e s u l t the f i e l d of view covered by the c a m -
e r a w i l l include a r e l a t i v e l y short section of s t r e e t or highway.
4. S i n c e the position of the c a m e r a i s not f i x e d , it i s difficult to maintain a p a r t i c u l a r
section of highway within the f i e l d of view f o r any appreciable length of time.
5. Observations a r e limited to daylight hours with favorable atmospheric conditions.
6. C o l l e c t i o n and t r a n s c r i p t i o n of data a r e m o r e costly than i s the c a s e with some
other of the s e v e r a l study methods.

S u m m a r y of T r a v e l T i m e Techniquas
Of the s e v e r a l techniques tested, only the spot speed method i s of doubtful value in
the determination of o v e r - a l l speeds in urban a r e a s . E v e n the spot speed method may
have a p a r t i c u l a r f i e l d of usefulness and its p o s s i b i l i t i e s have not been f u l l y explored.
T h e r e c o r d i n g of v e h i c l e - l i c e n s e numbers and t i m e s i s a p r a c t i c a l method of d e t e r -
mining mean t r a v e l t i m e s and o v e r - a l l t r a v e l speeds for either low-volume or h i g h - v o l -
ume conditions. A sampling p r o c e d u r e , in which data f o r only one or two l i c e n s e - n u m -
b e r endings a r e r e c o r d e d for one hour, w i l l n o r m a l l y be adequate for estimating the
mean t r a v e l time f o r the entire hour within 5 percent under bigh-volume conditions. U n -
d e r low-volume conditions, the number of l i c e n s e - n u m b e r endings may be i n c r e a s e d to
provide an adequate sample f o r the hour of observations.
On s t r e e t s with a r e l a t i v e l y high percent of through t r a f f i c , the l i c e n s e - m a t c h i n g
method i s about a s economical a s any method and provides greater a c c u r a c y . When the
percent of through t r a f f i c i s low, the lengths of test sections must be s h o r t , thus i n -
creasing costs.
T h e t e s t - c a r method affords an a c c u r a t e means of obtaining average t r a v e l time on
h e a v i e r t r a v e l e d s t r e e t s o r highways, provided sufficient r u n s a r e made f o r each s e t of
conditions being studied. T h e needed number of test runs i s l a r g e r than i s generally
supposed. A c c u r a c i e s within l i m i t s of l e s s than 10-percent e r r o r a r e not f e a s i b l e b e -
c a u s e of the e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e number of test r u n s r e q u i r e d . T h e "average" c a r method
w i l l y i e l d r e s u l t s with a higher degree of a c c u r a c y than the "floating" method, f o r the
 36

s a m e number of test runs on most types of s t r e e t o r highway. T h e t e s t - c a r method m a y

have an advantage in economy over the l i c e n s e matching method on long sections of
s t r e e t where l a r g e amounts of t r a f f i c turn off of o r onto the section between the t e r m i n a l
points of the test section. T h e t e s t - c a r method a l s o has an advantage where the purpose
of an investigation i s to isolate the c a u s e and extent of t r a f f i c delays throughout the
length of a route.

T h e a r r i v a l - o u t p u t method i s suitable f o r determining the t r a v e l time on sections of

highway where there a r e no a c c e s s or e g r e s s points between the t e r m i n i of the section.
On that type of f a c i l i t y the method has an advantage in economy and a c c u r a c y over other
methods.
T h e interview method i s suitable where an approximation of t r a v e l r a t e s based on
peak-hour conditions over a short period of time i s sought, o r must be held acceptable
in lieu of m o r e comprehensive studies because of time limitations.
T h e photographic method i s a c c u r a t e but its use i s limited to those a r e a s where equip-
ment i s available. Where speeds o r t r a v e l times during a l l hours of the day and under
a l l types of weather conditions a r e sought, the p h o t o g r ^ h i c tjrpe of study must be s u p -
plemented by some other method o r methods during hours of d a r k n e s s and during periods
of i n c r e m e n t weather.

T i m e Mean Speed V s . Space Mean Speed

Up to this point t e r m s s u c h a s "average speed" and "average t r a v e l time" have been
used r a t h e r loosely a s though one might be r e a d i l y converted to the other. Whether o r
not this can be done depends on the manner in which the average speed was obtained. A s
a s i m p l e example, if a test c a r should make two r u n s , the f i r s t at a speed of 40 mph and
the second at a speed of 20 mph, the average speed would be 30 mph. If the length of
c o u r s e had been two m i l e s , the f i r s t r u n would have required 3 minutes and the second
run 6 minutes. T h e average t r a v e l time of A% minutes corresponds to an average o v e r -
a l l speed of 2 6 . 6 mph.
In the f i r s t instance speeds for each individual test run w e r e averaged. T h e t e r m i n o l -
ogy that has been applied to this type of r e s u l t i s , t i m e mean speed. T i m e mean speed
m a y be e x p r e s s e d a s follows:
distance
T i m e mean speed = t

where t i s the t r a v e l time f o r each individual v e h i c l e o r each test r u n , and n i s the

number of such n m s .
I n the second instance the t r a v e l t i m e s f o r the individual test r u n s w e r e averaged and
a speed corresponding to this average t r a v e l t i m e w a s calculated. Mean speed c o m -
puted in this manner i s t e r m e d , space mean speed, and may be e x p r e s s e d by the follow-
ing equation: distance
Space mean speed = S t
n
Space mean speed c a n be converted d i r e c t l y to average t r a v e l time; time mean speed
cannot be r e a d i l y converted. T i m e mean speed i s a l w a y s g r e a t e r than space mean speed,
and there i s no s i m p l e means of converting one to the other.
A v e r a g e spot speeds a s u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d a r e time mean speeds. T h e l i c e n s e m a t c h -
ing method, for example, produces space mean speeds. T o c o m p a r e r e s u l t s obtained by
these two methods one must be converted so that both a r e on the s a m e b a s i s and this c o n -
v e r s i o n i s s o m e t i m e s a tedious operation.
T h i s d i s c u s s i o n of alternate types of mean speeds might be perplexing to those s e e k -
ing a s i m p l e method of obtaining mean t r a v e l t i m e , and it might be of considerable i n -
t e r e s t to the m o r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y minded. I n any event the difference between the two
types should not be ignored. T o those who a r e not interested i n the s t a t i s t i c a l i m p l i c a -
tions it i s helpful to r e m e m b e r that i n most study methods the average t r a v e l t i m e i s ob-
tained d i r e c t l y . A l s o , in economic investigations it i s u s u a l l y the difference i n speed
 37

(travel time) between two different routes which i s sought, o r the d i f f e r e n c e in speed on
the s a m e route before and after an improvement o r other change. I n s u c h a c a s e the
d i f f e r e n c e between the space mean speeds for the two routes i s about the s a m e a s the
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i r time mean speeds. Hence i t i s r e l a t i v e l y unimportant which
type of mean speed i s obtained so long a s the s a m e type i s employed in both c a s e s . T h e
only r e a l danger l i e s in the p o s s i b i l i t y that different types of speeds might be used in
comparing mean speeds m e a s u r e d s e v e r a l y e a r s apart o r by different investigators.
T h e subject of mean speeds i s m o r e fully d i s c u s s e d in R e f e r e n c e 6, pages 329-331.

O V E R - A L L T R A V E L T I M E O N A Y E A R L Y BASIS
It h a s a l r e a d y been stated that economic investigations of r o a d - u s e r benefits a r e
u s u a l l y b a s e d on c o s t s for a 1-year period. T o be of any u s e in s u c h investigations,
t r a v e l t i m e f o r any f a c i l i t y m u s t l i k e w i s e be computed on an annual b a s i s . T h e c o m m i t -
tee has not extended its investigations beyond the development of study techniques, and
there s e e m s to be little information available f r o m other s o u r c e s that would be helpful
in the expansion of data collected in a short study to an annual figure.
It i s w e l l recognized that the speed of t r a f f i c on any p a r t i c u l a r f a c i l i t y w i l l v a r y f r o m
h o u r - t o - h o u r , d a y - t o - d a y , s e a s o n - t o - s e a s o n , and so on. If the annual average t r a v e l
t i m e le to be determined by a sampling p r o c e s s , the c a u s e s f o r the fluctuation in speed
m u s t be isolated and f a c t o r s m u s t be developed f o r each c a u s e so that the r e s u l t s of
short studies c a n be brought into line with the annual average.
The number of v a r i a b l e conditions that affect the speed or t r a v e l time of t r a f f i c i s a l -
most l i m i t l e s s , but the ones having greatest effect a r e : (1) t r a f f i c volume in relation to
the t r a f f i c - c a r r y i n g capacity of the f a c i l i t y , (2) c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c , (3) weather, (4) a c -
c i d e n t s , and (5) t r a f f i c - c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s .

E f f e c t of T r a f f i c V o l u m e on Speed
W h e r e a l l other conditions r e m a i n unchanged and t r a f f i c volume alone i s the only v a r i -
a b l e , the average speed of t r a f f i c on a p a r t i c u l a r highway d e c r e a s e s with an i n c r e a s e in
50

40
IS

o 30
iZ
<
/
a:
20

o
o

8) 10
UJ
0 ^ ^^^^

250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

TRAFFIC VOLUME-VEHICLES PER HOUR

Figure 1. Relation between average speed of t r a f f i c and t r a f f i c

volume o n a 2 - l a n e rural highway having a possible capacity of 2,000
vehicles per hour under favorable operating conditions.
38

volume. E x t e n s i v e studies on r u r a l highways have shown that, f o r short sections of

highway at l e a s t , there i s a s t r a i g h t - l i n e relation between t r a f f i c volume and a v e r a g e
speed where other conditions a r e identical and the c r i t i c a l t r a f f i c density i s not exceed-
ed {S). T h i s relationship i s believed to be true f o r any length of highway. T h e r e l a t i o n -
ship c a n be v e r y e a s i l y established for a p a r t i c u l a r section of s t r e e t or highway by d e -
t e r m i n i n g the average speed at a low volume and again at a high volume, but under f r e e -
flowing conditions in both c a s e s and for the s a m e c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c . T h e upper p o r -
tion of the c u r v e (unbroken line) i n F i g u r e 1 shows how the relation might appear for a
f a c i l i t y where the flow i s uninterrupted by t r a f f i c s i g n a l s . When the volume of t r a f f i c
b e c o m e s so heavy that it i s equal to the possible capacity of the f a c i l i t y , however, a f u r -
t h e r i n c r e a s e in t r a f f i c demand w i l l c a u s e the a v e r a g e speed to d e c r e a s e r a t h e r r a p i d l y
and this d e c r e a s e in speed w i l l be accompanied by a m a r k e d reduction i n the volume of
t r a f f i c that the f a c i l i t y can accommodate. T h i s i s shown by the lower portion of the
c u r v e (broken line) i n F i g u r e 1. T h i s figure shows that for a t r a f f i c volume of 875 v e -
h i c l e s per hour, for example, the average speed of t r a f f i c might be 40 mph (under f r e e -
flowing conditions) or it might be 6. 5 mph (under highly congested conditions). T h e a v -
erage speed might be anywhere between these e x t r e m e s , but it i s l i k e l y to be somewhere
along one or the other of the c u r v e s u n l e s s there i s a change i n conditions other than i n
t r a f f i c volume. Along the lower c u r v e , however, the t r a f f i c volume, and hence the
speed, may fluctuate v e r y rapidly over a wide range.

A v e r a g e speeds a s represented in F i g u r e 1 may be converted to average t r a v e l time

to determine the v a r i a t i o n of that element with t r a f f i c volume. T h i s h a s been done m
F i g u r e 2. It w i l l be noted that the t r a v e l time per vehicle i n c r e a s e s tremendously after
the t r a f f i c demand exceeds the possible capacity.
Information such a s that shown in F i g u r e 2 could be v e r y u s e f u l in determining t r a v e l
t i m e on an annual b a s i s if the data a r e complete to the following extent:
1. A separate c u r v e can be p r e p a r e d showing the relation between t r a v e l t i m e and
t r a f f i c volume f o r e a c h of the other four conditions enumerated above, and f o r a l l c o m -
binations of these conditions.

\
\
lij
-I
o
X
\
> \
01
lil
a.
K 4
III
Q.
>
(O \
\
iij
o
<
FREEFLOWING
UJ

400 800 1200 1600 2000

TRAFFIC VOLUME VEHICLES PER HOUR

Figure 2. Relation between average travel time and t r a f f i c volume

on a 2-lane rural highway havme a possible capacity of 2,000 ve-
h i c l e s per hour under favorable operating conditions.
 39

TABLE 5
Y E A R L Y T R A F F I C P A T T E R N AND T O T A L Y E A R L Y T R A V E L T I M E ON
A 4 - M I L E S E C T I O N O F 2 - L A N E R U R A L HIGHWAY
Example

Number of Total Travel

occurrences vehicles time p e r
Hourly t r a f f i c volume
during during vehicle- Distance Total travel
Range Averse year year mile time
Number Number Hours Number Minutes Miles V e h i c l e Minutes
0 - 9 9 50 1,185 59,250 1.26 4.0 298,620
100 - 199 150 1,400 210,000 1.28 4.0 1,075,200
200 - 299 250 1,445 361,250 1.30 4.0 1,878,500
300 - 399 350 1,260 441,000 1.33 4.0 2,346,120
400 - 499 450 1,085 488,250 1.35 4.0 2,636,500
500 - 599 550 895 492,250 1.38 4.0 2,717,220
600 - 699 650 680 442,000 1.41 4.0 2,492,880
700 - 799 750 495 371,250 1.45 4.0 2,153,250
800 - 899 850 285 242,250 1.48 4.0 1,434,120
900 - 999 950 29 27,550 1.51 4.0 166,402
1,000 and over 1,050 1 1,050 1.55 4.0 6,510
Total 8,760 3,136,100 17,205,322

A v e r a g e t r a v e l t i m e — 5.49 minutes p e r v e h i c l e

2. T h e t r a f f i c volume during e v e r y hour of the y e a r i s known and c a n be c l a s s i f i e d

a s to whether t r a f f i c was f r e e - f l o w i n g (upper c u r v e , F ^ r e 1) o r was so congested that
the c r i t i c a l density was exceeded (lower c u r v e . F i g u r e 1). It m a y be r e a d i l y appreciated
that in o r d e r to obtain this c l a s s i f i c a t i o n it might be n e c e s s a r y to keep c e r t a i n congest-
ed sections of highway under a l m o s t constant observation and that a manual c l a s s i f i c a -
tion f o r congested conditions would be r e q u i r e d . F o r this reason it i s i m p r a c t i c a l to
obtain the relation between t r a v e l t i m e and volume on an annual b a s i s on any except
f r e e - f l o w i n g f a c i l i t i e s . Such f a c i l i t i e s a r e not common in urban a r e a s but it i s seldom
that r u r a l highways become so completely congested that the c r i t i c a l density i s e x c e e d -
ed.
T a b l e 5 i s an example of the manner in which the information in F i g u r e 2 might be
applied to determine the average annual t r a v e l time over a length of highway. I n this
a n a l y s i s it was a s s u m e d that the conditions r e l a t i v e to weather, c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c ,
e t c . , did not change sufficiently throughout the y e a r to affect the speed of t r a f f i c .

E f f e c t of C h a r a c t e r of T r a f f i c on Speed
" C h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c " has r e f e r e n c e to s u c h items a s purpose of t r i p , frequency with
which the t r i p i s made, length of t r i p , f a m i l i a r i t y of d r i v e r s with the route, and other
related m a t t e r s a s they pertain to a m a j o r i t y of the motorists using the p a r t i c u l a r route
during the v a r i o u s hours of the y e a r . L i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been d i r e c t e d toward the ef-
fect that these c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have on the speed of t r a f f i c , but it i s known to be r a t h e r
m a r k e d . F o r example, where the t r a f f i c s t r e a m i s l a r g e l y composed of h o m e - t o - w o r k
t r a f f i c , it i s apt to move m o r e expeditiously, if t r a f f i c volume i s taken into c o n s i d e r a -
tion, than i s the c a s e when the m a j o r i t y of m o t o r i s t s a r e shoppers o r t o u r i s t s . L i k e -
w i s e , Sunday afternoon p l e a s u r e d r i v e r s g e n e r a l l y s e t a m o r e l e i s u r e l y pace than do
daily c o m m u t e r s , and nighttime d r i v e r s generally operate in a manner differing f r o m
daytime d r i v e r s .
T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s in the c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c do not n e c e s s a r i l y void the s t r a i g h t - l i n e
relation between speed and t r a f f i c volume. However, each of the s e v e r a l c l a s s e s of
t r a f f i c has a c u r v e of its own, albeit a straight line, and the c u r v e s f o r a l l of these
c l a s s e s a r e approximately p a r a l l e l .
40

.100

AVERAGE FREEFLOWING S P E E D UNDER

r F A V O R A B L E WEATHER CONDITIONS

P R O B A B L E RANGE IN
AVERAGE FREEFLOWING
S P E E D FOR VARYING
WEATHER CONDITIONS

111 u .
3 20

25 50 75 100
TRAFFIC VOLUME A S A P E R C E N T OF P O S S I B L E CAPACITY UNDER FAVORABLE OPERATING CONDITIONS

Figure 3. I l l u s t r a t i o n of probable e f f e c t of weather on the r e -

l a t i o n between average speed of t r a f f i c and t r a f f i c volume (not
based on observed data).

T h e position of the lower portion (broken line) of the c u r v e a s shown i n F i g u r e 1

would r e m a i n substantially unchanged by a change in the type o r c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c .
T h e upper portion (unbroken line) of the c u r v e would i n t e r s e c t the lower portion at a
different point, depending on the c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c , and for this r e a s o n the possible
capacity of the f a c i l i t y would v a r y with the c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c .

E f f e c t of Weather Conditions on Speed of T r a f f i c

G e n e r a l l y speaking, the effect of inclement weather i s to lower v e h i c u l a r speeds.
J u s t how much the reduction in speed might amount to i s dependent upon the s e v e r i t y of
the weather. T h e reduction in speed would be felt throughout the complete volume range,
f r o m a few v e h i c l e s per hour up to the possible capacity of the f a c i l i t y . T h e relation b e -
tween speed and t r a f f i c volume would again be a straight line, roughly p a r a l l e l to and
below the c u r v e in F i g u r e 1 which shows this relation f o r favorable conditions.
Unfavorable weather conditions tend to r a i s e the lower portion (broken line) of the
c u r v e in F i g u r e 1. Although not based on actual observation. F i g u r e 3 shows the p r o b -
able range within which the average f r e e - f l o w i n g speed might v a r y with v a r y i n g weather
conditions. B e c a u s e this i s an hypothetical example of a highway with no s p e c i f i e d c a -
pacity, v a l u e s along the horizontal a x i s a r e e x p r e s s e d a s percentages of the possible
capacity of the f a c i l i t y r a t h e r than a s absolute v a l u e s . T h e average speeds along the
v e r t i c a l a x i s a r e treated in a s i m i l a r manner. T h e lower l i m i t of the shaded a r e a in
F i g u r e 3 cannot be p r e c i s e l y located, and e x t r e m e s of poor v i s i b i l i t y (fog) or poor t r a c -
tion (snow or ice) may s o m e t i m e s be accompanied by even more d r a s t i c reductions in
speed than a r e suggested by the graph.
When weather conditions a r e abnormally s e v e r e , the possible capacity of a f a c i l i t y
m a y be only a f r a c t i o n of its f u l l capacity under favorable conditions. T r a f f i c demand,
or the number of v e h i c l e s d e s i r i n g to use the f a c i l i t y , may be reduced only slightly by
the abnormal weather, however. Under such conditions the relation between speed and
volume would be a s shown by the lower portion (broken line) of the c u r v e for s e v e r e
weather in F i g u r e 3. Both the speed and t r a f f i c volume would be v e r y low. T r a v e l time
p e r vehicle would be i n c r e a s e d s e v e r a l fold and, because of the reduced capacity,
 41

100

VERAGE FREEFLOWING S P E E D WITH

UNINTERRUPTED FLOW

AVERAGE F R E E F L O W I N G S P E E D WITH
PROGRESSIVE SIGNAL S Y S T E M V

A V E R A G E F R E E F L O W l NG S P E E D W I T H
NON-SYNCHRONIZED SIGNAL SYSTEM

m 40

"0 25 50 75 100
TRAFFIC VOLUME AS A PERCENT OF POSSIBLE CAPACITY IF MOVEMENT O F T R A F F I C W E R E UNINTERRUPTED
BY T R A F F I C SIGNALS AND O T H E R OPERATING CONDITIONS W E R E F A V O R A B L E

Figure 4. I l l u s t r a t i o n of probable e f f e c t of t r a f f i c s i g n a l s on
r e l a t i o n between average speed of t r a f f i c and t r a f f i c volume
(not based on observed data).
s e v e r a l hours might be r e q u i r e d for the f a c i l i t y to d i s c h a r g e the number of v e h i c l e s that
o r d i n a r i l y would be handled in a much s h o r t e r period of time.

E f f e c t of A c c i d e n t s on Speed of T r a f f i c
A c c i d e n t s o r disabled v e h i c l e s a r e frequently the c a u s e of s e r i o u s t r a f f i c d e l a y s .
J u s t how extensive the delay may be depends l a r g e l y on the s e v e r i t y of the accident, the
t r a f f i c volume in relation to the capacity of the f a c i l i t y at the t i m e , and the period of
t i m e r e q u i r e d to r e m o v e disabled v e h i c l e s . O n uncongested f a c i l i t i e s the delay c a u s e d
the average m o t o r i s t by even a r a t h e r s e r i o u s accident may be negligible. O n f a c i l i t i e s
c a r r y i n g n e a r - c a p a c i t y loads, the m e r e p r e s e n c e of a parked v e h i c l e can c a u s e a c o m -
plete stoppage of t r a f f i c . Oftentimes the stoppage i s a d i r e c t r e s u l t of t r a f f i c slowing
to a speed below that at which the f a c i l i t y c a n accommodate the volume of t r a f f i c d e s i r i n g
to use it.

E f f e c t of T r a f f i c - C o n t r o l M e a s u r e s on Speed of T r a f f i c
T r a f f i c - c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s m a y be divided into two categories: f i r s t , those that r e m a i n
\mchanged in t h e i r operation o r e x e r c i s e of control f r o m one period of the day to the next,
and second, those that v a r y f r o m hour to hour or f r o m day to day. A n interconnected
s y s t e m of t r a f f i c signals operating 24 hours p e r day on a fixed c y c l e m ^ h t be an e x a m -
ple of control m e a s u r e s in the f i r s t category. Signals operating on a v a r y i n g c y c l e ,
s i g n a l s operating on a p a r t - t i m e schedule, and p o l i c e - o f f i c e r direction of t r a f f i c a r e
examples of the second category. T h e effect of t r a f f i c - c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s on the average
speed of t r a f f i c depends upon which of the categories i s involved. T h o s e m e a s u r e s f a l l -
ing in the f i r s t category w i l l c a u s e little v a r i a t i o n i n speed f r o m one period of the y e a r
to the next, w h e r e a s those in the second category might c a u s e a v e r y wide and u n p r e -
dictable v a r i a t i o n .
T h e effects that t r a f f i c s i g n a l s m a y have on the speed of t r a f f i c c a n be so widely
v a r i e d between different f a c i l i t i e s and types of s i g n a l s y s t e m s that it i s futile to c o n s i d -
e r any single set of s i g n a l s a s being t y p i c a l of a l l such installations. F i g u r e 4 shows
three t y p e - c u r v e s f o r different conditions and i s m e r e l y f o r the purpose of i l l u s t r a t i n g
 42

the nature (not the extent) of the v a r i a t i o n s in speed that might r e s u l t ffom v a r i o u s types
of installations. T h e item of greatest s i g n i f i c a n c e which these c u r v e s a r e intended to
i l l u s t r a t e i s that where t r a f f i c i s controlled by s i g n a l s and the possible capacity of the
f a c i l i t y has been r e a c h e d , there may be a wide range i n average o v e r - a l l speed with
v e r y little change in t r a f f i c volume. T h e r e a s o n f o r the a l m o s t perpendicular drop in
the speed c u r v e in F i g u r e 4 i s that the possible capacity of the f a c i l i t y i s governed by
the capacity of the i n t e r s e c t i o n s . When the c a p a c i t i e s of the intersections a r e r e a c h e d ,
queues of waiting v e h i c l e s w i l l f o r m , thereby i n c r e a s i n g delay and t r a v e l t i m e . T h e v o l -
ume of t r a f f i c p a s s i n g the intersections w i l l not change appreciably until the queues b e -
come so long that no m o r e storage space e x i s t s between i n t e r s e c t i o n s . When that c o n -
dition o c c u r s , both average speed and t r a f f i c volume w i l l approach z e r o , following the
c o u r s e of the lower (broken) portions of the c u r v e s in F i g u r e 4. T r a f f i c volume cannot
be used a s an index of t r a v e l t i m e on a signalized s t r e e t u n l e s s the volume i s a l w a y s
l e s s than the possible capacity of the s t r e e t . A l s o , f o r t r a f f i c volumes below p r a c t i c a l
c a p a c i t i e s and where conditions other than t r a f f i c volume r e m a i n unchanged, there i s
little v a r i a t i o n i n t r a v e l time with changes m t r a f f i c volume.

Scheduling of Speed Studies

A n y sampling technique in which use i s made of s h o r t - p e r i o d speed studies f o r d e t e r -
mining average t r a v e l t i m e on an annual b a s i s must take into consideration the effect of
the f i v e v a r i a b l e s d i s c u s s e d above, both singly and in combination one with the others.
If p r e c i s e r e s u l t s a r e sought, t r a v e l - t i m e studies should be so scheduled a s to include
a complete range in t r a f f i c volumes f o r e v e r y condition and combination of conditions
of weather, c h a r a c t e r of t r a f f i c , and t r a f f i c control n o r m a l l y expected during the y e a r
on the f a c i l i t y under investigation. T o expand the r e s u l t s of these t r a v e l - t i m e s t u d i e s ,
a r e c o r d would be needed of the number of hours of the y e a r during which each set of
conditions was effective. A l s o , f o r each t r a f f i c volume r a t e , it would be n e c e s s a r y t o
obtain the f r e e - f l o w i n g speed and the speed for completely congested conditions, if c o m -
plete congestion i s experienced. T h e a s s e m b l y of s u c h detailed information i s within
the r e a l m of possibility but would be regarded by most a s being e n t i r e l y i m p r a c t i c a b l e .
It i s obvious that a c c u r a c y must be s a c r i f i c e d for s i m p l i c i t y if a workable s c h e m e i s to
be devised.
I n seeking a p r a c t i c a l sampling technique, the greatest handicap faced by the c o m m i t -
tee has been the l a c k of a known annual average t r a v e l time f o r a f a c i l i t y which might be
used a s a control f o r checking an expanded study s a m p l e . T h e determination of a true
annual average t r a v e l t i m e i s regarded a s so tedious and c o s t l y an operation that it i s
questionable whether it i s worthwhile that it be a c c u r a t e l y determined on any f a c i l i t y ,
even to s a t i s f y r e s e a r c h needs. Hence, any recommendation a s to the scheduling of
t e s t s to produce a representative sample must be based, for the p r e s e n t at l e a s t , upon
common judgment.
B e c a u s e of the existence of significant v a r i a t i o n s in speed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s throughout
the y e a r , a m i n i m u m schedule should sample speeds during the s e a s o n s of the y e a r ,
and, during each s e a s o n , a n o r m a l working day and a week end. T o sample p r o p e r l y
the speed of t r a f f i c for any one day, the 24-hour period should be divided into s e v e r a l
s h o r t e r periods during each of which the v a r i o u s elements that affect the speed of t r a f -
f i c r e m a i n substantially unchanged. F o r example, a knowledge of l o c a l conditions on
a p a r t i c u l a r f a c i l i t y might suggest the following subdividions f o r a working day, Monday
through F r i d a y : A . M . peak 7:00 - 9:30, midday b a s e 9:30 - 4:00, P . M . peak 4:00 - 6:30,
evening 6:30 - 12:00, night 12:00 - 7:00.
Saturday and Sunday should l i k e w i s e be divided into a m i n i m u m number of periods
during each of which the c h a r a c t e r and volume of t r a f f i c , and t r a f f i c - c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s ,
r e m a i n e s s e n t i a l l y constant. Holidays might be c l a s s e d a s Saturdays o r a s Simdays, d e -
pending upon the s i m i l a r i t y of conditions.
T h e r e i s no reason to think that speeds during the v a r i o u s p e r i o d s of a day need a l l
be sampled on the s a m e day. T e s t s for the 7:00 - 9:30 p e r i o d , f o r example, might be
, made on a T u e s d a y (or they might extend o v e r s e v e r a l d a y s ) , and f o r the 4:00 - 6:30
period on Wednesday of the week following. A m i n i m u m schedule f o r a s e a s o n , M a r c h
through M a y , might be a s shown in T a b l e 6.
 43

TABLE 6
SCHEDULE O F T R A V E L - T I M E STUDIES F O R ONE SEASON O F A Y E A R
Example

P e r i o d sampled
H o u r s included Date and hour of study
Type P e r i o d of day
Working day A . M . peak 7:00 - 9:30 T u e s d a y , M a r c h 27, 8:00 - 9:00
Midday b a s e 9:30 - 4:00 T u e s d a y , M a r c h 27, 10:30 - 11:30
P . M . peak 4:00 - 6:30 T h u r s d a y , A p r i l 12, 5:00 - 6:00
Evening 6:30 - 12:00 Wednesday, A p r i l 18, 8:00 - 9:00
Night 12:00 - 7:00 T h u r s d a y , A p r i l 19, 1:30 - 2:30
Saturday Forenoon 8:00 - 12:00 Saturday, A p r i l 7, 9 : 3 0 - 1 0 : 3 0
(or holiday) Afternoon 12:00 - 5:00 Saturday, A p r i l 7, 2:00 - 3:00
Evening 5:00 - 12:00 Saturday, A p r i l 7, 10:00 - 11:00
Simday E a r l y morning 12:00 - 9:00 a. m. Sunday, May 6, 7:00 - 8:00
L a t e morning 9:00 - 1:00 p. m. Sunday, May 6, 12:00 - 1:00
Afternoon 1:00 - 7:00 Sunday, M a r c h 18, 3:00 - 4:00
Evening 7:00 - 12:00 Sunday, May 20, 10:00 - 11:00

A schedule along the g e n e r a l line of the .above example should a l s o be p r e p a r e d f o r

the other three s e a s o n s of the y e a r . T h e schedule should be modified in the event a b -
n o r m a l conditions p r e v a i l on the date tests a r e scheduled; however, attempt should be
made to include within the tests a s a m p l e of weather conditions i n the degree that these
conditions o c c u r throughout the y e a r . E x t r e m e s in weather that occur only once o r
twice a y e a r should b e d i s r e g a r d e d .
T h e t r a v e l time obtained during e a c h t i m e period appearing on the schedule i s r e -
presentative of the t r a v e l time f o r a c e r t a i n segment of the y e a r l y t r a f f i c . T h e average
t r a v e l t i m e for the y e a r i s the average of the r e s u l t s of the v a r i o u s t e s t s , weighted a c -
cording to the number of v e h i c l e s per y e a r which use the f a c i l i t y during each of the
t i m e p e r i o d s of the y e a r r e p r e s e n t e d i n the schedule.
T h e committee c a n offer no a s s u r a n c e that a schedule p r e p a r e d i n the suggested m a n -
ner w i l l f u r n i s h a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s f o r a l l types of f a c i l i t i e s . However^ for s t r e e t s that
a r e seldom o r never loaded to t h e i r possible capacity, the r e s u l t s obtained would doubt-
l e s s be within the l i m i t s of a c c u r a c y of the f i e l d testing procedure employed. O n f a c i l i -
t i e s w h e r e the t r a f f i c demand i s often in e x c e s s of the possible capacity of the s t r e e t ,
a s evidenced by frequent delays of unpredictable duration, a m u c h m o r e extensive test
p r o g r a m than that suggested m u s t be scheduled. T r a v e l t i m e mounts v e r y r a p i d l y under
the conditions l a s t d e s c r i b e d .
It i s e x t r e m e l y doubtful tha^t a s a t i s f a c t o r y procedure c a n be developed f o r estimating
an average t r a v e l time f o r some y e a r i n the future. A t s u c h t i m e in the future a s the
volume of t r a f f i c has reached the possible capacity of the f a c i l i t y , t r a f f i c w i l l e i t h e r
d i v e r t i t s e l f to other f a c i l i t i e s (thereby upsetting t r a f f i c f o r e c a s t s ) or t r a v e l time w i l l
soar A l s o , the possible capacity of a f a c i l i t y i s sensitive not only to c h a i s e s in weath-
e r conditions and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r a f f i c but to p h y s i c a l changes to the f a c i l i t y o r i n
the t r a f f i c - c o n t r o l d e v i c e s employed. T h e f i r s t two f a c t o r s named m a y not c h a ^ e a p -
p r e c i a b l y f r o m y e a r to y e a r , but our m o r e congested f a c i l i t i e s a r e undergoing a l m o s t
constant change either in their p h y s i c a l dimensions or in the m e a s u r e s used to control
and regulate t r a f f i c . However, f o r the solution of s p e c i f i c p r e s e n t - d a y p r o b l e m s , some
of the methods d e s c r i b e d may find useful application.

DEFINITIONS
Spot speed. A spot speed i s the speed, in mph, of a v e h i c l e a s it p a s s e s a given l o -
cation on a s t r e e t o r highway. T h e t e r m "average speed" denotes the mean speed of
spot speeds f o r a s p e c i f i e d period of t i m e .
44

Travel time. The total time required to traverse a given distance, including all traf-
fic "itopsTncTdelays. (May also have "average travel time")
Over-all speed. The total distance traversed, divided by the total travel time, ex-
pressed in mph.
Average over-all speed. The average of the over-all speeds of all vehicles on a given
roadway during a specified period of time.
Over-all travel speed. The speed over a specified section of highway, being the dis-
tance divided by over-all travel time. The average for all traffic, or component there-
of, is the summation of distances divided by the summation of over-all travel times.
Time^mean speed. The averages of spot speeds or over-all speeds.
Space-mean speed." The speed corresponding to the average travel time over a given
distance.
Volume. The number of vehicles moving in a specified direction or directions on a
given lane or roadway that pass a given point during a specified period of time, v i z . ,
hourly, daily, yearly, etc.
Density. The number of vehicles occupying a unit length of the moving lanes of a
roadway at a given instant. Usually expressed in vehicles per mile.
Critical density. The density of traffic when the volume is at the possible capacity
on a given roadway. At a density either greater or less than the critical density the vol-
ume of traffic will be decreased. Critical density occurs when all vehicles are moving
at or about the optimum speed.
Possible capacity. The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on
a lane or roadway during one hour, under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
Practical capacity. The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on
a roadway or in a designated lane during one hour without the traffic density being so
great as to cause unreasonable delay, hazard, or restriction to the drivers' freedom to
maneuver under the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.

REFERENCES
1. American Association of State Highway Officials, "Road User Benefit Analysis for
Highway Improvements, Part I , " Washington, D. C., 1952.
2. Berry, Donald S., and Green, Forest H . , "Techniques for Measuring Over-All
Speeds in Urban Areas," Highway Research Board, Proceedings, 1949 (pp. 311-318).
3. Sawhill, Roy B . , "Travel Time Techniques on a Two-Lane Rural Highway," Insti-
tute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Unive'rsity of California, Berkeley,
California, January 1952.
4. Berry, Donald S., "Evaluation of Techniques for Determining Over-All Travel
Time," Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley, California, January 1952.
5. Committee on Highway Capacity, Highway Research Board, "Highway Capacity
Manual,"U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D . C . , 1950.
6. Wardrop, John Glen, "Some Theoretical Aspects of Road Traffic Research," The
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, Proceedings, June 1952, Part II.
7. Association of Casualty and Surety Companies, "Manual of Traffic Engineering
Studies,"60 John Street, New York City, 1953.
8. Forbes, T. W., and Reiss, Robert J . , "35-Millimeter Airphotos for the Study of
Driver Behavior," Highway Research Board, Bulletin 60, 1952 (pp. 59-66).
9. Berry, Donald S., and Vantil, C.J., "An Evaluation of Methods for Measuring
Delay at Intersections," California Street and Highway Conference, Berkeley, Proceed-
ings, 1954. HBB:OR^67