CHAPTER-I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Brief History of Fluid Mechanics:

The pre-historic achievements in fluid mechanics have been taken place

erratically. The way of fundamental discoveries has been started steadily in the

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Ancient civilization was full of knowledge of

solving certain flow problems like, sailing of ships with oars and irrigation system. The

parallelogram law of vector addition was postulated by Archimedes and Hero of

Alexandria in the third century B. C. Archimedes (285-212 B. C.) has invented the laws

of buoyancy and applied them to floating and submerged bodies.

Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) has postulated his laws of motion and the law of

viscosity of the linear fluids, presently known as Newtonian Fluid. This theory has

brought the assumption of ‘perfect’ or “frictionless fluid”. The eighteenth-century

mathematicians like Bernoulli, Leonard Euler, Jean D’ Alembert, Joseph-Louis

Lagrange and Pierre-Simon Laplace have obtained many beautiful solutions of

frictionless flow problems. Euler has developed the differential equations of motion and

their integrated forms too which are now called the Bernoulli’s equations. The perfect

fluid assumptions have limitations in practical problems. These limitations were

overcome by the invention of the beautiful result known as D’ Alembert’s paradox: that

a body immersed in a frictionless fluid has zero drag. The engineers began to rely

entirely on experiments giving rise to the development of hydraulics. The

experimentalists, like Chezy, Pilot, Borda, Weber, Francis, Hagen, Poiseuille, Darcy,
Manning, Bazin and Weisbach have produced data on flows of open channels, ship

resistance, pipe flows, waves and turbines.

Finally, the unification between experimental hydraulics and theoretical

hydrodynamics began at the end of nineteenth-century. William Froude (1810-1879)

and his son Robert (1846-1924) have developed the laws of model testing, Lord

Rayleigh (1842-1919) has added the technique of dimensional analysis and Osborne

Reynolds (1842-1912) has presented the classic pipe experiment in 1883 showing the

importance of the dimensionless Reynolds number named after him. The successful

addition of the Newtonian viscous terms to the governing equations of motion by

Claude-Louis Navier (1785-1836) and George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) put another

feather to the viscous-flow theory. Unfortunately, the Navier-Stokes equations could not

provide adequate support for the analysis of arbitrary flows.

But it was the golden moment when Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953), a German

engineer has delivered a lecture on

(On Fluid motion with very small Friction) at the Heidelberg mathematic

Congress in 1904 and has published a paper which may be called the most important paper

on fluid mechanics ever written. Prandtl showed that the flow of a fluid with small viscosity

(water or air) past a body can be divided into two regions: a very thin layer close to the

body (boundary layer) where the viscosity is important and the remaining region outside

this layer where the viscosity can be neglected and the Euler and Bernoulli equations apply.

Boundary layer theory has become the single most important tool in modern flow analysis.

The boundary layer theory has reduced the mathematical difficulties in the theoretical

treatment of viscous flows and has been proved to be exceptionally useful and has given

considerable stimulation to research into fluid mechanics since the beginning of twentieth-

century. The new theory was developed quickly and soon became the airfoil theory and gas
dynamics- a keystone in modern fluid mechanics. A series of broad-based experiments by

Prandtl along with his two friendly competitors, Theodore Von n (1881-1963) and

Sir Geoffrey I. Taylor (1886-1975) have built the twentieth-century foundations for the

present state of the art in fluid mechanics.

1.2. Fluid Mechanics and its Domain:

Fluid comes from the French word “that which flows” and ‘mechanics’

corresponds to “applied mathematics”. The domain of fluid mechanics comprises

statics, Kinematics and dynamics of fluids. Newton’s laws of motion, the laws of

thermodynamics, the principle of conservation of mass and momentum, equations of

state relating fluid properties, Newton’s laws of viscosity, mixing length concepts and

restriction caused by the presence of boundaries etc. give rise to the available methods

of analysis of fluid mechanics. Fluid mechanics has played an important and dynamic

role in applied mathematics, engineering sciences and industrial fields such as

geophysics, astrophysics, geo hydrology, chemical engineering, biological system, soil

physics, filtration of solids, geothermal and oil reservoir engineering, aerodynamics and

aeronautics, designing of underground water energy storage system, nuclear power

reactors, liquid metals, electrolytes and ionized gases and so on. It deals with the study

of blood that flows in our body and the air that we breathe. It is also inevitable in

various engineering branches such as astronautics, automotive engineering, biomedical

engineering, mining and metallurgical engineering, and naval architecture.

Fluid mechanics is used in modification of rate of transfer of heat and mass in

heat exchanges, cooling towers, boilers, chimneys, artificial kidneys, heart and lung

machines, manufacture of semi-conductor devices, protection of aircrafts from intense

heating during re-entry in earth’s atmosphere and so on.

 However, the emergence of polymers has stopped the smooth functioning of

Newton’s hypothesis in explaining the various physical phenomena in fluid mechanics

paving the way to generalization of the linear constitutive equations.

1.3. General Constitutive Equations:

In his experiment in 1687, Sir Isaac Newton has considered a flow of water

between two parallel plates where the upper plate moves in water with velocity V and d

is the distance between the parallel plates and has observed that the upper plate had

experienced a force in the direction of motion which varies directly as the velocity but

inversely as the distance between them.

The relation between stress tensor and strain rate tensor as established by

Newton is given by

(1.3.1)

where

!" # $ " # %

" being the velocity component in the direction of i, is the extra stress.

The constitutive equation for isotropic, viscous, incompressible fluid is defined

as

& '() $ (1.3.2)

where & is the stress tensor, ) is the Kronecker’s delta, p is the hydrostatic pressure.

This linear relation between the stress and strain is based on the Newton’s law of

viscosity. The fluid model based on the linear constitutive equation between stress and

strain rate is called Newtonian fluid.

The classical theory of fluid mechanics is based on the linear constitutive

equation given by Newton. This constitutive equation discussed perfectly the motion of
water, glycerin and many thin oils. Also on the basis of the linear relation it was

possible to explain the theory of formation of drag, lift, skin friction, separation of the

fluid flow. Many theoretical works on the fluid flows have been done by applying the

linear constitutive equation. But the drawback of this constitutive equation came in case

of thick oils, paints, lubricants etc.

Srivastava (1961) has studied in details the constitutive equations used in fluid

mechanics. From his study, we can mention the following important facts:

Merrington (1943) has noticed that when a solution of rubber in mineral oil is

forced through a straight pipe, the fluid swells after emerging out of the tube. In 1946,

Garner and Nissan have observed that when a cylindrical rod is rotated in a container

containing metallic soap, hydro-carbon gels, high polymer solutions and a variety of

other materials, the fluid rises up to the rod to a considerable extent. This phenomenon

was demonstrated by Weissenberg (1947, 1949) and is known as Weissenberg effect.

Weissenberg (1947, 1949) has performed experiments with various types of fluids. In

his experiments, the liquids were sheared in a gap between an outer vessel rotated at

various constant angular velocities and inner cylinder that could be either fixed rigidly

or allowed to move up and down. The phenomenon of rising the liquid in a direction

perpendicular to the plane of shearing is called normal stress effect (Poynting effect)

and that of drawing of the liquid towards the axis of rotation against the action of

centrifugal force when the liquid is sheared between two rotating plates is called

centripetal pump effect. Reiner (1957) has found that this effect is present even in air if

the distance between the bases of the cylinders is less than a certain critical distance.

The physics behind these experimental results could not be described with the help of

the linear constitutive equation given by Newton.

 This inadequacy of the linear stress and strain rate relation leads to the necessity

of generalizing the theory of Newtonian fluids. Then scientists have started to work on

the generalization of the linear constitutive equation. Oldroyd, Walters and their co-

workers have generalized the linear relation between stress and strain by experimental

results. Another group of scientists Truesdell, Noll, Coleman, Ericksen and their co-

workers have generalized the constitutive equation from the generalization of the basic

idea of fluid flow. The generalization of the linear relationship between stress and strain

rate tensor is made non-linear from the general idea of fluidity and then approximating

it to suit a particular fluid was done by Reiner (1945). Rivlin (1948) has also obtained

the similar equation by assuming that stress is a function of the velocity gradients. So,

for an incompressible & isotropic fluid, Reiner and Rivlin have derived a particular

constitutive equation and the fluid governed by that equation is known as the Reiner-

Rivlin fluid. The generalization of the constitutive equation has been done by Rivlin &

Ericksen (1951) and the fluid satisfying the constitutive equation is known as the

Rivlin-Ericksen fluid. Coleman and Noll (1960) have derived a new constitutive

equation and the fluid governed by that constitutive equation is known as the second-

order fluid.

1.4. Oldroyd and Walters Liquid:

Einstein (1906, 1911) has tried to explain the nature of colloids and suspensions

containing large number of rigid spherical particles of same radii in a Newtonian fluid

of viscosity . He has showed the effective viscosity of these fluid mixtures to be

.
*+ * ,- $ /0 1 (1.4.1)

provided /0 2 -.
 Frohlich and Sack (1946) have explained the flow behaviour of these mixtures

by assuming the elastic spherical particles. They have studied this new system with the

constitutive equation
3
$4 3
*+ 5 $ 4 6 (1.4.2)

where and are known as stress relaxation constants and strain rate relaxation

constants. Maxwell (1867) has tried to explain the nature of colloids and suspension by

considering a combination of mechanical models for Newtonian fluid (a dash pot) a

Hookian solid (a spring). He has also derived the constitutive equation for this

mechanical model as
3
$4 3
* (1.4.3)

where 4 is a material constant called stress relaxation time.

The equation (1.4.3) shows that if strain becomes constant, the stress decays

exponentially with time, thus showing the stress relaxation effect.

Jeffrey (1929) has considered the effects of strain-rate relaxation and extended

the constitutive equation (1.4.3) and proposed the new constitutive equation
3
$4 3
*+ 5 $ 4 6 (1.4.4)

to study the behaviour of high polymer solutions where 4 is the strain rate relaxation

time. Frohlich and Sack have shown that the equation (1.4.4) can explain the behavior

of dilute colloids and suspensions. Toms and Strawbridge (1953) have calculated the

material constants *# 4 # 4 experimentally for solutions of polymethyl metacrylate in n-

butyl acetate.

Oldroyd (1950) has suggested that the generalization of one-dimensional

empirical rheological equations of state, so that it is universally valid, should be done by

using the coordinate system which is convected with the material (i.e. embedded with
the material and deformed with it). He has defined the convected derivative of a mixed

77877
tensor 7 77 as

77>77
9 77877 ;<7=77 778@
9: 7 77
$ "? 7 77#? $ A"#? 77877
7?77
8
' AB"#? 77?77
7 77 (1.4.5)
;:

where A C AB denote the sum of all similar terms, one for each covariant (contravarient)

suffix.

Oldroyd has used this convected derivative to generalize the constitutive

equation (1.4.2) in many ways. One possible generalization is

9 3 9
,- $ 4 1 8 * ,- $ 4 1 8 (1.4.6)
9: 9:

Another possible generalization is

9 9
,- $ 4 9:
1 38
* ,- $ 4 9:
1 8
(1.4.7)

These constitutive equations (1.4.6) and (1.4.7) represent different liquids but

the one dimensional model for both of the two liquids is same. The liquids satisfied

these constitutive equations are named as Oldroyd’s liquid A and Oldroyd’s liquid B

respectively. The liquid A does not exhibit Weissenberg effect while liquid B does so.

The constitutive equations for these fluids are linear.

Oldroyd (1958) has again given a generalization of these two linear constitutive

equations as

)
8 $4 D 8 ' 8 ' 8 E$ F 8 $G H H) 8
)
9
*F I 8 $ 4 J9: 8 ' 8 $G H H ) 8 KL (1.4.8)

This equation (1.4.8) has satisfied both the constitutive equations for Oldroyd’s

liquid A and Oldroyd’s liquid B. It will govern Oldroyd liquid A, if

*F M N# 4 ' M4 ' O N# F G G N (1.4.9)

and liquid B, if

*F M N# 4 M4 O N# F G G N (1.4.10)

Hence the liquid governed by equation (1.4.8) can be called generalized Oldroyd

liquid. The equation (1.4.8) has explained lots of important features of non-Newtonian

fluid. A number of fluid flow problems have been solved by studying the effect of

elastic as well as the non-linear terms present in the equation (1.4.8). Tanner has

explained Rayleigh problem (1962) and Helical flow (1963), Lesile (1961) has studied

the behaviour of slow fluid flow past a sphere, Torsional oscillations of disk (19641) and

sphere (19642) have been analyzed by Frater, the fluid flow near a stagnation point has

been derived by Sharma (1959). Nanda (1963) has examined the fluid flow due to

vibrating plane by using the generalized constitutive equation given by Oldroyd.

Walters (1960) has derived a constitutive equation by considering infinite

number of Maxwell elements connected in parallel given by

3 5 :
8 P# 6 QST R 5 ' B6 8 5P# B 6U 3
(1.4.11)

XYXZ
T V5W6 S
where R5 ' B6 QF [ U4 (1.4.12)
W

\5]6 being the distribution function of the relexation time.

Walters has further generalized the constitutive equation by replacing the

ordinary integral (1.4.11) with Oldroyd’s convected one and finally the two generalized

constitutive equations are given as follows:

3 5P# : ;^ Z_ ;^ Z`
8 6 QST R 5 ' B6 ?a 5PB# B6U 3
(1.4.13)
;^ = ;^ >

3 85 : ;^ = ;^ >
P# 6 QST R 5 ' B6 ;^ Z_ ;^ Z` ?a 5
PB# B6U 3
(1.4.14)

Walters has referred the fluids governed by these constitutive equations as

liquids b and c respectively.

 Walters has studied a number of flow problems with these constitutive equations

(1.4.13) and (1.4.14). The fluid flow through curved pipes of circular (1963) and

elliptical (1965) cross sections have been studied by Thomas and Walters by using the

constitutive equation (1.4.14). Beard and Walters (1964) have derived the two-

dimensional boundary layer equations and has discussed the flow near a stagnation

point by using these equations.

Walters (1962) has showed that the equation of state can be simplified to

9
8
*F 8
' F 9:
8
(1.4.15)

T
for liquids with short memories, where, *F QF d546U4 is the limiting viscosity at

T
small rate of shear, F QF 4d546U4 .

The convected derivative of any contravarient tensor is given by

9< => ;< => ;< => ;e > ;e =

$ "? _ '
?
' ?8
(1.4.16)
9: ;: ;^ ;^ _ ;^ _

where " is the velocity vector. This idealized model is a valid approximation of Walters

liquid (Model B ) taking very short memories into account so that the terms involving
T
QF 4f d546 U4# O

have been neglected.

The mixture of Polymethyl Metacrylate and pyridine at 250 C containing 30.5

gm of polymer per litre and having density 0.98 gm/ml. fits very nearly to this model.

For this mixture, the relaxation spectrum as given by Walters is

Sg
d 54 6 &*F ) 546 $ h
*F 5N i 4 i j 6

N 4Mj (1.4.17)

where & N7-k# *F l7m poises (gm/cm. sec), j N7-n sec and )546 is the Dirac’s

delta function so that k0=0.60557 gm/cm.

1.5. Visco-Inelastic Fluids

Visco-Inelastic Fluids are isotropic when they are at rest and homogeneous

when they are subjected to a shear. The resultant stress depends only on the rate of

shear. However, they behave diversely in response to applied stress. A number of

rheological models have been proposed to explain such a diverse behavior. One of such

models is Reiner-Rivlin fluid.

In 1945, Reiner has generalized the linear relation between stress and strain-rate

tensor from the Stokes concept of fluidity and suggested that the stress is a function of

strain rate i.e.

3
o5 6 (1.5.1)

which for isotropic material, reduces to a polynomial relation

Afp (1.5.2)

Reiner has used Cayley-Hamilton theorem and modified the equation (1.5.2) in a

tensorial form of a polynomial of second degree as

F) $ $ q q (1.5.3)

where F# C are functions of material constants and invariants I, II, III of the

strain-rate tensor rst .

In 1948, Rivlin has studied the flow of isotropic fluid by considering the fact

that stress component is a function of velocity gradient. Rivlin has also considered the

behaviour of incompressible fluid. Thus the generalized form of the equation (1.5.3) has

been suggested by Reiner and Rivlin for isotropic incompressible fluid is

'() $ $ q q (1.5.4)

The fluid governed by this non-linear relation (1.5.4) is known as Reiner-Rivlin

fluid.
 Braun and Reiner (1952) have discussed the behaviour of fluid flow by rotating

a cylindrical rod in a liquid, flow pattern through a cylindrical tube of circular cross

section etc. They have shown that the constitutive equation given by Reiner and Rivlin

is able to explain Normal stress effect, centripetal pump effect and Merrington effect. A

number of flow problems have been studied by using the theory of Reiner and Rivlin.

Using the relation (1.5.4), Srivastava has discussed the flow pattern due to the rotation

of an infinite plate (1981), fluid flow near a stagnation point (1982), torsional oscillation

of an infinite plate (1991) and flow between two parallel plates, one of the plates is

oscillating and the other one is at rest (1961). Jain (1962) has studied the forced flow

problem against a rotating disk. Jones has analyzed the nature of fluid flow through a

pipe of circular cross section (1960) and behaviour of fluid flow between eccentric

cylinders (1964).

In the recent years, it is found impossible to solve many real fluid flow problems

with the constitutive equation (1.5.4). The normal stresses along and perpendicular to

the plane of shear is equal in simple shear flows. But experimental results yield that the

difference between two normal stresses is a function of rate of shear for real fluids. This

leads to the generalization of the constitutive equation (1.5.4).

1.6. Visco-Elastic Fluid:

Visco-elastic fluids are those fluids in which a certain amount of energy is stored

called strain energy while another amount of energy is lost due to viscous dissipation

when they are in motion. Such fluids exhibit both the viscous and elastic behaviours.

The fluid changes its state constantly and in the same time it tries to regain its original

position due to elasticity during the course of motion. But unfortunately it cannot attain
its actual position. This lag is supposed to be a measure of elasticity which is known as

the memory of the fluid.

Saliva, natural polymer, artificial silk, mucus, liquid soap, pudding, toothpaste, clay,

bitumen, dough, nylon etc. are some examples of visco-elastic fluids.

1.7. Rivlin-Ericksen Fluid

Rivlin and Ericksen (1951, 1952) have studied the theory of isotropic material

in which stress is a function of spatial gradients of velocity, acceleration, second

acceleration............., (n-1) th acceleration. They have proved that the extra stress can

be expressed as

3
ouv5 6 # v5 6 # v506 # @ @ @ @ @ # v5f6 w (1.7.1)

where, v? # x -# #k @ @ @ 7 7 are known as Rivlin-Ericksen Tensors. These Rivlin-

Ericksen Tensors can be determined from successive material differentiation of squared

line element U as

y_
5U 6 v5?6 UP UP (1.7.2)
y: _

The expressions for first and second -order Rivlin-Ericksen Tensors are

v5 6 "# $"# (1.7.3)

v5 6 / # $ / # $ "#? "?# (1.7.4)

where " & / represent i-th component of velocity and acceleration respectively.

The higher order Rivlin-Ericksen tensor is given as

; 8
v5f6 ;:
v5fS 6 $ " 8 v5fS 6 #8 $ v5fS 6 8 "# $ v5fS 68 "#8 ;

5 #z -# #k{ M 6 (1.7.5)
 The fluid governed by the constitutive equation (1.7.1) is known as Rivlin-

Ericksen fluid with complexity n. Rivlin (1956) has obtained the visco-metric fluid flow

governed by the equation (1.7.1). Markovitz and Coleman (1964) have analyzed the

visco-metric fluid flows governed by the equation (1.7.1). Examples of visco-metric

fluid flows are steady simple shear flows, steady Couette flow, steady Poiseuille flow

and steady Helical flow in an annulus.

But the Rivlin-Ericksen fluid is indistinguishable with the visco-metric

measurements from the fluid of complexity because for visco-metric flows the tensors

v5?6 # x k#|#} @ @ @ @ @ @ are equal to zero. Rivlin (1956) has calculated the exact

solutions of the visco-metric flows by using the constitutive equation (1.7.1) and

expressed it in terms of eight material constants. Markovitz (1957) has observed that the

solutions of visco-metric flows can be expressed only in terms of three material

constants without affecting the solution. Thus the modified constitutive equation is
q
'() $ v5 6 $ v5 6 $ 0 v5 6 q v5 6 (1.7.6)

where p is determined isotropic pressure.

The Rivlin-Ericksen fluid theory discusses the concept of ‘shear dependent

viscosity’ and ‘normal stress difference’ but Coleman (1962) has noticed that it does not

satisfy the phenomena which lead to Boltzman-Voltera theory of linear visco-elasticity

(gradual stress relaxation). From his work, it is revealed that a Rivlin-Ericksen fluid

does not experience the loss of stress at rest. Noll (1958) has started the study of further

development of Rivlin-Ericksen theory from the more general definition of fluidity.

 1.8. Noll’s Simple Fluid

Noll (1958) has defined a particular class of fluid having the property that all

local states of mass and density are intrinsically equivalent in response, with all

observable differences in response being due to definite differences in past theory. This

fluid has been named Noll’s Simple fluid. The physics of Simple fluid is more general

than the Rivlin-Ericksen fluid as it discusses ‘shear dependent viscosity’, ‘normal shear

differences’ and ‘gradual stress relaxation’. Many real fluid flow problems are solved

by using the constitutive equation of Noll’s Simple fluid.

The constitutive equation of incompressible simple fluid referred by Noll is

35 6 •pF €: 5 6
~T :
(1.8.1)

where the functional ~ is isotropic and it obeys the following identity for the history

function €:: 5 6 and for orthogonal tensor ‚.

•pFƒ‚€: 5 6„ †
~T •pFƒ€: 5 6†‚
‚ ~T
: … : …
(1.8.2)

‚ … is the transpose of ‚ and has its trace fixed by some convection such as

•pF €: 5 6
7 ~T :
N (1.8.3)

The history function €:: 5 6 is defined as

€:: 5 6 :5 ' 6 : 5
…
' 6 (1.8.4)

where :5 ' 6 is the deformation gradient at time 5 ' 6.

Noll (1958) has shown from his work that Rivlin-Ericksen tensor is given by

y‡
v5f6 5'-6f I !€:: 5 6%L (1.8.5)
y•‡ •pF

Coleman and Noll (1960) have shown that in case of very slow motions if

particular smoothness is added on the functional ~ then the local behaviour of a simple

fluid is approximated by Rivlin-Ericksen fluid. Coleman (1962) has stated that two
important concepts about the simple fluid. Firstly, the theory of simple fluids reduces

exactly to that of Rivlin-Ericksen fluids under some kinematical situations. Secondly,

Rivlin-Ericksen fluid is obtained as an approximation to the simple fluid in the limit of

slow motions if the functional ~ is a memory functional.

In our study, we have considered the Visco-elastic fluid characterized by

Walters liquid (Model B ).

The above mentioned literature has been reviewed from Srivastava (1968).

1.9. Heat and Mass Transfer:

Heat transfer and mass transfer are natural processes which take places in the

field of power engineering, refrigeration and air conditioning, chemical engineering,

metallurgical engineering etc. They are also widely used in porous industries.

1.9.1. Heat Transfer:

Heat transfer refers to the transmission of thermal energy from a region of

higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. The transfer of thermal energy

continues until the object and its surroundings reach the state of thermal equilibrium.

The energy transfer by heat flow cannot be measured directly.

The concept of heat flow is widely used in many branches of science and

engineering like Automotive Engineering, Chemical process industry, Thermal

Insulations, Thermal Engineering of electronic devices and system, Material Processing,

Power Plant Engineering, Bio-hear Transfer, Aerospace Technology, etc.

Heat transfer takes place in three basic ways. They are

(i) Conduction

(ii) Convection

(iii) Radiation
1.9.2. Conduction: In this process of heat transfer, energy transmission takes place

from the region of high temperature to the region of low temperature by the kinetic

motion or the direct impact of the molecules, as in the case of fluid at rest, and by the

drift of electrons as in the case of metals.

The heat transfer equation for conduction is defined from the Fourier Law as

;…
ˆ ' v (1.9.2a)
;^

where q is the rate of heat flow in x-direction by conduction, k is the thermal

conductivity, A is the area normal to the x-direction, T is the temperature and x is the

length variable.

1.9.3. Convection: Convection is the process of transfer of thermal energy between an

object and its surroundings due to the motion of the fluids. Convection is the combined

effect of conduction and fluid flow.

Heat transfer by convection is divided into the following categories:

Free convection: Fluid motion that is caused solely by the action of buoyancy

forces arising from the density variation created by the temperature difference in

the field of gravity is termed as free convection or natural convection. It plays an

important role in all experiments associated with heating and cooling. Free

convection flows display a boundary layer character.

Forced convection: Fluid motion which is created by external agencies (such as

pump, blower, wind, vehicle motion, etc.) is called forced convection. The

motion of a fluid can be created by a body force within the system in which heat

transfer occur.

Mixed convection: In mixed convection, both the mechanism of free and forced

convection are equally important.

 1.9.4. Newton’s law of Cooling:

The heat transfer due to free convection is described by

‚ v5‰Š ' ‰ 6 (1.9.4a)

where ‚ is the rate of heat transfer to the surrounding fluid proportional to the area A

and the difference between the object temperature ‰Š and free stream temperature ‰ .

The constant of proportionality is called the convection heat-transfer co-efficient.

1.9.5. Radiation: Radiation is the process of transmission of heat energy through empty

space by electro-magnetic waves. At normal or especially at elevated temperature all

substances, solids as well as liquids and gases radiate energy. Heat transfer by radiation

plays an important role in many heating or cooling operations and equipments such as

combustion of fossils fuels, operation of a furnace, thermal cracking, the tube stills in

petroleum refineries etc.

1.9.5a. Stefan-Boltzmann Law:

The total energy that radiates per unit surface area of a black body per unit time

is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body’s absolute temperature.

But for a grey body, the total energy radiated per unit area per unit time is

defined as

‹ Œ&‰ • (1.9.5a.1)

where E is the energy radiated per unit area per unit time, Πthe emissivity, & the Stefan-

Boltzman constant and T is the absolute temperature.

1.9.5b. Planck Radiation Law:

The intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area into a fixed direction from

the blackbody is a function of wavelength at a fixed temperature.

Mathematically, the Planck’s law can be expressed as:

 Ž• •
‹ 54# ‰6 “” (1.9.5b.1)
W‘ Y–
’ [>•

where —7—— } ˜ -NS ™ r š›œr• (Planck's Constant).

-7kn ˜ -NS ž
›Ÿ (Boltzmann Constant).

k ˜ -N F
x› (Speed of light).

1.9.6. Mass Transfer:

Mass transfer is the movement of mass from a region of higher concentration to

the region of lower concentration. The difference in concentration between two bodies

is the guiding force for the movement of the matter from one position to another in mass

transfer. Mass transfer occurs in many processes, such as absorption, evaporation,

adsorption, drying, precipitation, membrane filtration, and distillation. Mass transfer is

used by different scientific disciplines for different processes and mechanisms. The

phrase is commonly used in engineering for physical processes that involve diffusive

and convective transport of chemical species within physical systems.

Some common examples of mass transfer processes are the evaporation of water

from a pond to the atmosphere, the purification of blood in the kidneys and liver, and

the distillation of alcohol. In industrial processes, mass transfer operations include

separation of chemical components in distillation columns, absorbers such as scrubbers,

adsorbers such as activated carbon beds, and liquid-liquid extraction. Mass transfer is

often coupled to additional transport processes, for instance in industrial cooling towers.

These towers couple heat transfer to mass transfer by allowing hot water to flow in

contact with hotter air and evaporate as it absorbs heat from the air.

In astrophysics, mass transfer is the process by which matter gravitationally

bound to a body
 Mass transfer finds extensive application in chemical engineering problems. It is

used in reaction engineering, separations engineering, heat transfer engineering, and

many other sub-disciplines of chemical engineering.

The basic modes of mass transfer are convection and diffusion.

Convection: It refers to transfer of mass due to the movement of the fluid, as for

example, the transport of oxygen in the body due to the fluid motion.

Diffusion: It is the process in which the mass is transferred due to the

concentration difference, e.g. vaporization of water into air.

1.9.6a. Flick’s Law in Diffusion:

Law I: Flick’s first law states that the diffusion flux is proportional to the

concentration gradient across the plane.

Mathematically,

¡¢ ¥¢¦ .
'£¤

where ¡¢ is the diffusion flux, D is the diffusion coefficient and ¦ is the species

concentration.

Law II: Flick’s second law states that the rate of change of concentration is

proportional to the rate of the concentration gradient at any point in the field.

Mathematically,

;¦
¥¢7 !£¤
¤ ¥¢¦% .
;:

1.9.6b. Soret effect:

This is a mass flux due to a temperature gradient and appears in the species

continuity equation when there is a multicomponent mixture where each species has its

own diffusional velocity. Whenever there is a temperature gradient in the mixture, Soret
effect is present. The higher the temperature gradient, the larger is the Soret effect.

Pressure diffusion is usually negligible but not the Soret effect. This effect is found

when solving the species mass fraction equations. The Soret coefficient is the ratio of

the thermal diffusion coefficient divided by the ordinary diffusion coefficient.

1.9.6c. Dufor Effect:

This is enthalpy flux due to a concentration gradient and appears in the energy

equation for a multicomponent mixture. These effects depend on thermal diffusion

which is generally very small but can be sometimes significant when the participating

species are of widely differing molecular weights.

1.10. Porous Media:

In recent years, the flow through porous media has been studied in a large scale

because of its application in industrial, bio-physical and hydrological problems,

particularly in petroleum, chemical and nuclear industries. Porous medium has played

an important role in the study of the flow of blood and other fluids and electro-osmosis,

biological membranes and filters in bio-chemical engineering. This study is also useful

to understand the mechanism of transfer heat from the deep interior of the earth to a

shallow depth in the geothermal regions which is of vital importance in the present day

grave power crisis. Porous medium is one of the prime factors to study the subjects in

chemical engineering like, the permeation chromatography, liquid chromatography,

filtering of gases etc. Moreover the necessity of pores in metallic, plastic and enamel

cooling, paper textiles, rubber and leather, erection of concrete structure is inevitable.

The study of behavior of fluid saturated porous media is known as Poromechanics

1.11. Porous material:

A porous material is a material containing pores either connected or non-

connected, dispersed within it in a regular or a random manner provided that such pores

occur relatively frequently within the solid. Flow of fluids is allowed through the

interconnecting pores of the solid material. The small pores distributed throughout the

solid porous material may be effective or ineffective. Effective pores mean those holes

through which the fluid can actually pass while ineffective pores correspond to those

holes through which fluid cannot pass. There is a variety of artificial and natural porous

materials such as sponges, a pack of sand, a piece of dolomite rock, sandstone,

limestone, wood, foamed plastics, human lung, etc.

1.11.1. Porosity

The porosity of a porous material is defined as the ratio of the volume actually

occupied by the holes to the total volume of the material. It is symbolized by §7 Thus,

e¨H©?’ ¨ª «¨a’• ¨ª ¬ «¨a¨©• ?¬:’a ¬H

§
:¨:¬H e¨H©?’ ¨ª :Ž’ «¨a¨©• ?¬:’a ¬H

1.11.2. Permeability:

Permeability in fluid mechanics is a measure of the ability of a porous material

to allow fluids to pass through it. It is generally symbolized by or k. The value of

permeability is determined by the structure of the porous material. It is roughly a

measure of the mean square per diameter in the material.

1.11.3. Darcy’s Law:

Henry Darcy (1856) has performed a number of experiments on flow of water

through porous medium and thus established an empirical law known as Darcy’s Law.

According to this law the flow is linearly dependent upon the pressure gradient and the

gravitational force.

This law for a steady flow can be written as

-
¢̂ ' 5¤( ' ¯ °± 6 (1.11.3.1)
®

where ¢̂ is the mean filter velocity or Darcy’s velocity of the flow, is the coefficient of

viscosity, ² is a tensor of permeability, p is the pressure, g is the acceleration due to

gravity, ¯ is the density of the fluid and °± is the unit vector in the vertical direction

pointing downwards.

1.11.3a. Consequences of Darcy’s law:

If there is no pressure gradient over a distance, no flow occurs.

If there is a pressure gradient, flow will occur from high pressure towards low

pressure.

The greater the pressure gradient, the greater will be the discharge rate.

The discharge rate of fluid will often be different-through different formation

materials- even if the same pressure gradient exists in both cases.

1.11.3b. Limitations of Darcy’s law:

It is applicable for slow viscous flow.

It is valid only on macroscopic scale.

Temperature is assumed to be remaining constant.

1.11.3c. Inadequacy of Darcy’s law:

Inadequacy of Darcy’s law occurs in the formulation of boundary condition at

the edge of the porous medium. The inadequacy of the classical Darcy’s law for

isotropic porous medium, leads to the necessity of generalizing the linear relationship
between the discharge velocity and pressure gradient. Numerous investigations have

given generalization of Darcy’s law and a number of hydrologist, geologist, petroleum

geologists, and chemical engineers have studied the flows in porous medium.

1.12. Magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD):

Magnetohydrodynamics is that branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the

study of motion of an electrically conducting fluid in presence of an applied magnetic

field. Movement of a conducting fluid in a magnetic field produces an induced electric

current in the fluid. The magnetic field exerts a force, known as the Lorentz force,

leading to a modification of the flow field. Solid or fluid material moving in a magnetic

field experiences an electromagnetic force. If the material is electrically conducting and

a current path is available, electric current ensue. Alternatively, currents may be induced

by change of the magnetic field with time.

Such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, salt water etc. Hannes Alfven in

1942, for the first time, used the word Magnetohydrodynamics for which he received

the Novel Prize in 1970. The word Magnetohydrodynamics is derived from the words

‘magnet’ means magnetic field, ‘hydro’ means liquid and ‘dynamics’ means movement.

The governing equations of MHD describing the motion of conducting fluid in a

magnetic field are basically, the combinations of Navier-Stokes equations of fluid and

Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism. The differential equations of MHD have to

be solved simultaneously either by analytically or numerically.

Some important applications of MHD are as follows:

MHD is used in the generation of electrical power with the help of an

electrically conducting fluid through a magnetic field.

 MHD is used in describing the rheological behavior of blood in biological

system.

MHD is related to engineering problems such as plasma confinement, liquid

metal cooling of nuclear reactors and electromagnetic casting, etc.

The concept of MHD is applied in Geo-physics to study the flow pattern in the

core of the earth.

Application of MHD is also found in Astrophysical problems which include

solar structure, especially in the outer layers, the solar wind bathing the earth

and other planets and interstellar magnetic fields.

1.12.1. Hall Effect:

The Hall Effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)

across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor and a

magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.

1.12.1a. Hall Coefficient:

The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the

product of the current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the

material from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type, number,

and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current.

1.12.1b. Ohmic Heating:

Ohmic heating is an advanced thermal processing method wherein the food

material, which serves as an electrical resistor, is heated by passing electricity through

it. Electrical energy is dissipated into heat, which results in rapid and uniform heating.

Ohmic heating is also called electrical resistance heating, Joule heating, or electro-

heating, and may be used for a variety of applications in the food industry. During

conventional thermal processing, either in cans or aseptic processing systems for

particulate foods, significant product quality damage may occur due to slow conduction

and convection heat transfer. Ohmic heating volumetrically heats the entire mass of the

food material, thus the resulting product is of far greater quality than its canned

counterpart.

1.13. Non-dimensional Parameters:

All equations representing physical phenomena should be dimensionally correct

so that a non-dimensional parameter may be generated by simply dividing one side of

the equation by the other. The principle of similarity may be used to develop non-

dimensional parameters for model prototype relation to ensure geometric, kinematic and

dynamic similarity by consideration of dimensions, velocities and forces involved

between the two. Some of the non-dimensional parameters are mentioned below:

1.13.1. Reynolds Number:

The Reynolds number R is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of the

ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and consequently, it quantifies the relative

importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions. Reynolds number

frequently arise when performing dimensional analysis of fluid dynamics and heat

transfer problems, and such can be used to determine dynamic similitude between

different experimental cases. The concept was introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in

1851, but the Reynolds number is named after Osborne Reynolds, who popularized its

use in 1883.
Mathematically, it is defined as

³´
,
µ

where,

V = characteristic velocity of the fluid.

L = characteristic length.

G = kinematic viscosity of the fluid

1.13.2. Grashof Number:

The Grashof number is a dimensionless number which approximates the ratio of

the buoyancy to viscous force acting on a fluid. It is frequently used in both mechanism

of heat transfer and mass transfer to study the situation involving natural convection. It

becomes important only at very small velocities of flow, particularly, if the motion is

caused by buoyancy forces. At lower Grashof number, the flow becomes laminar but it

becomes turbulent for higher values of Grashof number. It is named after the German

engineer Franz Grashof.

Mathematically, it is defined as

¸h5¹ S¹ 6´º
¶· , for vertical flat plates.
µ•

¸h5¹ S¹ 6¼ º
¶» , for pipes,
µ•

where the subscripts L and D indicate the length scale basis for the Grashof number, g is

acceleration due to gravity, j is the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient and G is

the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

There is analogous form of the Grashof number used in case of natural

convection mass transfer problems i.e.

¸ + !½¾#¿ S½¾#¾ %´º

¶ µ•
,
 + ÀÁ
where ' ,ÀÂ 1.
Ã

Here,

€¬#• = concentration of species at surface.

€¬#¬ = concentration of species in ambient medium.

Ĭ = concentration of species a.

1.13.3. Prandtl Number:

The Prandtl number Åa is a dimensionless number and is defined as the ratio of

momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) and thermal diffusivity. It gives the relative

magnitude of the thermal boundary layer compared to viscous boundary layer. The

Prandtl number is just a constant of the material and does not depend on the property of

the flow. For gases it is always of the order of unity and for liquids it may vary in a

wide range. For air Åa N7l, for water at 60 Æ, Åa l whereas for glycerin Åa l }N7

It is named after the German Physicist Ludwig Prandtl.

Mathematically, it is defined as

G ¯G€«
Åa
Ç Ÿ

where,

K = thermal conductivity of the fluid.

ρ = density of the fluid.

ν = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

C p = specific heat at constant pressure.

µ = dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

α = thermal diffusivity of the fluid.

1.13.4. Eckert number:

The Eckert number ‹• is a dimensionless number used in flow calculations. It is

defined as the ratio of the kinetic energy of the fluid and enthalpy and is used to study

energy dissipation of the fluid flow. For air ‹• - when the velocity of the sound

velocity and the temperature difference is of the order of 100È. It is introduced by

Ernst R.G. Eckert.

Mathematically, it is defined as

É
‹•
€« ʉ

where,

V = characteristic velocity of the fluid flow.

€« = specific heat.

ʉ= the characteristic temperature difference of the fluid flow.

1.13.5. Hartmann Number:

The Hartmann number M is defined as the ratio of electromagnetic force to the

viscous force and was introduced by Hartmann to describe his experiments with viscous

MHD channel flow. The magnitude of Hartmann number indicates the relative effects

of magnetic and viscous drag. For the lower value of M, the Lorentz force is very small

and it implies the low or moderate conductivities of the fluid.

Mathematically, it is defined as

&
Ë ÌF Í

where,

ÌF= the strength of the applied magnetic field.

L = characteristic length.
 &= electrical conductivity of the fluid.

= dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

1.13.6. Sherwood Number5ÎÏ 6:

The Sherwood number ÐÑ is a dimensionless number used in mass transfer

mechanism. It is defined as the ratio of convective mass transfer to conductive mass

transfer. The number is named in honour of American Chemical Engineer Thomas

Kilgore Sherwood.

Mathematically, it is defined as

ŸÍ
ÒŽ
£

where,

L= characteristic length.

K= mass transfer co-efficient.

D= mass diffusivity.

1.13.7. Nusselt Number:

Nusselt number d© is dimensionless number and is defined as the ratio of

convective heat transfer to the conductive heat transfer. It is used to study the heat

transfer characteristics of the fluid flow. It is named after German Engineer Ernst

Wilhelm Nusselt.

Mathematically, it is defined as

Í
d©
Ÿ

where,

L = characteristic length.

h = convective heat transfer co-efficient.

 K = thermal conductivity of the fluid.

The values of Nusselt number close to 1 characterize laminar flow while larger

values of Nusselt number represent turbulent flow.

1.13.8. Schmidt Number:

The Schmidt number ÐÓ is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of

momentum diffusivity (viscosity) and mass diffusivity. It is used to characterize fluid

flows in which there are simultaneous momentum and mass diffusion convection

processes. It physically relates the relative thickness of the hydromagnetic layer and

mass transfer boundary layer. It was named after German Engineer Ernst Heinrich

Wilhelm Schmidt.

Mathematically, it is defined as

G
Ò•
£

where,

G = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

D = mass diffusivity of the fluid.

1.14. Some Approximations:

1.14.1. Boussinesq Approximation (buoyancy):

In fluid dynamics, the Boussinesq approximation, named for Joseph Valentin

Boussinesq, is used in the field of buoyancy-driven flow (also known as natural

convection). It states that density differences are sufficiently small to be neglected,

except where they appear in terms multiplied by g, the acceleration due to gravity. The

essence of the Boussinesq approximation is that the difference in inertia is negligible

but gravity is sufficiently strong to make the specific weight appreciably different

between the two fluids.

1.14.2. Rosseland Approximation

The Rosseland approximation is a simplification of the Radiative Transport

Equation (RTE) for the case of optically thick media. It introduces a new diffusion term

into the original energy transport equation with a strongly temperature-dependent

diffusion coefficient.

1.15. Dynamical Equations for Walters Liquid (Model B ):

Let Ô 5 -# #k6 be the rectangular co-ordinates of a point P. If three functions

P P !Ô %# 5 # z -# # k6 in a neighbourhood of P possesses a unique inverse

Ô Ô !P %# 5 # z -# #k6, we say that P has curvilinear co-ordinates P . For fixed

Ô # Ô Õ Ô 0 the transformations Ô Ô !P % give surfaces, called curvilinear surfaces.

The intersection line of any two curvilinear surfaces defines a curvilinear line so that

through a point P, there pass three non-dimensional curvilinear lines defining co-

ordinates of point P. If tangents to the curvilinear lines at P are rectangular, the

curvilinear co-ordinates are called orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates. For orthogonal

curvilinear co-ordinates, the square of the line element is

5U 6 5 UP 6 $ 5 UP 6 $ 5 0 UP
06
(1.15.1)

In orthogonal curvilinear co-ordinates, the dynamical equations can be written as

follows:

The equation of continuity:

; Ž– Ž• Žº
;^ Ö
× " 5z6Ø N (1.15.2)
ŽÖ

The equation of momentum:

 ; Ž– Ž• Žº g5 6 ;Ž= g5 6 ;ŽÖ
¯/ Ž– Ž• Žº ;^ Ö
× &5 z6 $ Ž= ŽÖ ;^ Ö
' Ž= ŽÖ ;^ =
Ø (1.15.3)
ŽÖ

where is the density.

The acceleration a(i) is given by

;e5 6 e5 6 ;e5 6 e5 6 ;Ž= e5 6 ;ŽÖ

/5 6 $ × ;^ Ö $ ' Ø (1.15.4)
;: ŽÖ ŽÖ ;^ Ö Ž= ;^ =

The above equations can be written in the Cartesian co-ordinates x, y, z by

putting 0 - { P# Ô# Ù for P # P # P 0 and u, v, w for v(1), v(2), v(3)

respectively. Their forms in cylindrical polar co-ordinates r, , z can be obtained by

putting 0 -# { P #P Ú# P 0 Ù and "a # "Û # "± for v(1), v(2), v(3)

respectively. These equations reduce to their forms in spherical polar co-ordinates

# Ú# Ü if we put -# # 0 Ú{ P #P Ú# P 0 Ü and

"a # "Û # "Ý for v (1), v (2), v (3) respectively.

In this article, we present dynamical equations for Walters liquid (Model B ) has

in Cartesian co-ordinates form:

Let x, y, z be the rectangular Cartesian coordinates and u, v, w be the velocity

components in three directions. Then the equation of continuity is

;© ;e ;Š
$ $ N (1.15.5)
;^ Þ ;±

The equations of motion are

;gßß ;gßà ;gßá

¯/^ ;^
$ ;Þ
$ ;±

;gàß ;gàà ;gàá

¯/Þ $ $
;^ ;Þ ;±

;gáß ;gáà ;gáá

¯/± ;^
$ ;Þ
$ ;±
(1.15.6)

Where

;© ;© ;© ;©
/^ ;:
$ ;^
$ " ;Þ $ ;±
 ;e ;e ;e ;e
/Þ ;:
$ ;^
$ " ;Þ $ ;±

;Š ;Š ;Š ;Š
/± $ $" $
;: ;^ ;Þ ;±

are the acceleration components and the components of stress for Walters liquid (Model

B') are given as:

;© ; ; ; ; ;© ;©
&^^ '( $ *F ;^ ' F D,;: $ $ " ;Þ $ 1 ' × ,;^ 1 $
;^ ;± ;^

;e ;© ;© ;Š ;© ;©
, $ 1 $, $ 1 KE (1.15.7)
;^ ;Þ ;Þ ;^ ;± ;±

;e ; ; ; ; ;e ;e
&ÞÞ '( $ *F ' F D,;: $ $ " ;Þ $ 1 ' × ,;Þ 1 $
;Þ ;^ ;± ;Þ

;e ;© ;e ;Š ;e ;e
,;^ $ ;Þ 1 ;^ $ , ;Þ $ ;±1 ;±KE (1.15.8)

;Š ; ; ; ; ;Š ;Š
&±± '( $ *F ;±
' F D,;: $
;^
$ " ;Þ $
;±
1 ;± ' × , ;± 1 $

;Š ;© ;Š ;Š ;e ;Š
, ;^ $ ;± 1 ;^ $ , ;Þ $ ;±1 ;Þ KE (1.15.9)

;© ;e ; ; ; ; ;© ;e
&^Þ *F ,;Þ $ ;^1 ' FI ,;: $ $ " ;Þ $ 1 ,;Þ $ ;^1 '
;^ ;±

;© ;e ;© ;e ;e ;© ;Š ;e ;© ;e ;© ;e ;©
J;^ ;^ $ ,;Þ $ ;^1 ;Þ $ , ;± $ ;^
1 ;±K ' J ,;Þ $ ;^1 ;^ $ ;Þ ;Þ $

;Š ;e ;©
, ;Þ $ ;± 1 ;± KL (1.15.10)

;© ;Š ; ; ; ; ;© ;Š
&^± *F , $ 1' FI , $ $" $ 1, $ 1'
;± ;^ ;: ;^ ;Þ ;± ;± ;^

;© ;Š ;© ;e ;Š ;© ;Š ;Š ;© ;Š ;© ;Š ;©
J;^ ;^ $ ,;Þ $ ;^1 ;Þ $ , ;± $ ;^ 1 ;± K ' J , ;± $ ;^
1 ;^ $ ;± ;±
$

;Š ;e ;©
, $ 1 KL (1.15.11)
;Þ ;± ;Þ
 ;e ;Š ; ; ; ; ;e ;Š
&Þ± *F ,;± $ ;Þ 1 ' F I ,;: $ ;^
$ " ;Þ $ ;±
1 ,;± $ ;Þ 1 '

;e ;Š ;© ;e ;Š ;e ;Š ;Š ;© ;Š ;e ;Š ;e
J $ , $ 1 $ , $ 1 K'J , $ 1 $ $
;Þ ;Þ ;Þ ;^ ;^ ;± ;Þ ;± ;± ;^ ;^ ;± ;±

;Š ;e ;e
, $ 1 KL (1.15.12)
;Þ ;± ;Þ

.16. Motivation of the Present work:

The study of visco-elastic fluid flows has attracted the attention of researchers in
recent years because it is widely applied in various branches of science and technology.
The effects of magnetic field on the flow of an electrically conducting fluid play an
important role due to its applications in the fields of astrophysics, geophysics and
engineering sciences. The flow through porous medium is quite prevalent in nature and
is widely used in industrial, bio-physical and hydrological problem, particularly in
petroleum, chemical and nuclear industries. The process rates in atomic power
engineering, chemical engineering, space research and various branches of industry and
agriculture has been accelerated by the application of heat and mass transfer theory.
These interesting and important facts have made the author encouraged to investigate
the flow pattern of visco-elastic fluid along with various flow mechanisms.
In our study, the visco-elastic fluid model characterized by Walters liquid
(Model B') is adopted to investigate the flow pattern and analyze the flow behaviours
under different valid and suitable boundary conditions. The results reveal various
aspects of the additional terms in the constitutive equation as compared to Newtonian
fluid.
Chapter II accommodates the survey of literature in non-Newtonian fluid.
In chapter III, an analysis of the steady free convective flow and heat transfer of

a visco-elastic fluid confined between a long vertical wavy wall and a parallel flat wall

of equal transpiration has been analyzed. The x axis is taken along the length of the

walls while the walls are given by y= cos(Kx) and y=d and the transpirations at the

walls are taken as v=- v0sin(Kx).The equations governing the fluid flow and heat

transfer have been solved by perturbation technique. Expressions for the zeroth-order

and first order velocity, temperature, skin friction, heat transfer coefficient at the walls
and pressure drop are obtained. The first order velocity, pressure drop, and skin friction

coefficient have been presented graphically to observe the visco-elastic effects in

combination of other flow parameters involved in the solution.

In chapter IV, an analysis of visco-elastic oscillatory flow and heat transfer

through a porous medium bounded by two infinite horizontal parallel porous plates in

presence of a transverse magnetic field and a heat source has been presented when one

plate is kept at rest while the other is oscillating in its own plane. The temperature of the

stationary plate is assumed to be constant whereas the temperature of the other plate

varies periodically with time about a steady mean. The equations governing the fluid

flow and heat transfer have been solved analytically. The expressions for velocity,

temperature, non-dimensional skin-friction at the plates, the coefficient of rate of heat

transfer from the plates to the fluid in terms of Nusselt number in non-dimensional

form, the amplitudes and phases of the fluctuating parts of skin friction and coefficient

of heat transfer are obtained and illustrated graphically to observe the visco-elastic

effects in combination of other flow parameters involved in the solution. It is noticed

that the momentum and thermal fields are significantly affected by the visco-elastic

parameter.

In chapter V, an analysis of free convective flow with dissipation of a visco-

elastic fluid through a porous medium bounded by an oscillating porous plate in the slip

flow regime in presence of a transverse magnetic field is presented. The equations

governing the flow field are solved by perturbation technique and expressions for

velocity, temperature and skin friction are obtained. The velocity and temperature fields

are illustrated graphically whereas the skin friction coefficient is presented numerically

to observe the visco-elastic effects in combination with other flow parameters involved
in the solution. It is observed that the flow field is significantly affected by the visco-

elastic parameter in comparison with Newtonian fluid flow phenomena.

In chapter VI, an analysis of unsteady, two-dimensional free convective MHD

visco-elastic flow with heat and mass transfer past a semi-infinite moving vertical

porous plate with variable suction in presence of homogeneous first-order chemical

reaction and temperature dependent heat generation is presented. The equations

governing the flow field are solved by perturbation technique. Expressions for velocity,

temperature, mass concentration and skin friction coefficient are obtained. The velocity

field and the skin friction coefficient are illustrated graphically to observe the visco-

elastic effect in combination with other flow parameters involved in the solution. It is

observed that the flow field is significantly affected by the visco-elastic parameter.

In chapter VII, an analysis of unsteady MHD flow of an electrically conducting

visco-elastic fluid confined between two horizontal parallel non conducting plates in

presence of a transverse magnetic field and Hall current is presented. The lower plate is

a stretching sheet while the upper one is an oscillating porous plate, which is oscillating

in its own plane. The motion of the fluid is produced by the stretching of the lower

plate. A constant suction is applied at the upper plate and the stretching velocity is taken

to be a linear function of distance along the channel. The equations governing the flow

field are solved by perturbation technique. Expressions for velocity distribution of the

flow field and non-dimensional skin friction coefficient are obtained and presented

graphically to observe the visco-elastic effect in combination of other flow parameters

involved in the solution. The flow field is observed to be considerably affected by the

visco-elastic parameter.
 In chapter VIII, an analysis of visco-elastic free convective transient MHD flow

over a vertical porous plate through porous media in presence of radiation and chemical

reaction with heat and mass transfer is presented. A transverse variable suction velocity

is applied on the porous plate. The equations governing the fluid flow, heat and mass

transfer are solved by applying multiple perturbation technique. The expressions for

transient velocity, temperature, mass concentration and non-dimensional skin friction at

the plate are obtained and the expressions for transient velocity and non-dimensional

skin friction at the plate are illustrated graphically to observe the visco-elastic effect in

combination of other flow parameters involved in the solution.

In chapter IX, an analysis of mixed convective MHD flow with heat and mass

transfer from a vertical plate in presence of ohmic heating and viscous dissipation has

been presented. The governing equations of the momentum, thermal and concentration

fields are solved by perturbation technique. Expressions for velocity, temperature,

concentration profiles and non-dimensional skin friction coefficient are obtained and

illustrated graphically to observe the visco-elastic effect on velocity profile and skin-

friction coefficient in combination of other flow parameters involved in the solution.

In chapter X, an analysis of free convective MHD flow with heat and mass

transfer over a vertical plate moving with a constant velocity in presence of Dufour and

Soret effect has been presented. The fluid is considered to be non-Newtonian

characterized by Walters liquid (Model B ). The surface temperature is assumed to

oscillate with small amplitude about a non-uniform mean temperature. The system

representation is such that the Pâ -axis is taken along the plate and Ôã-axis is normal to the

plate. The equations governing the fluid flow, heat and mass transfer are solved by

perturbation technique. Analytical expressions for velocity, temperature and

concentration field, non-dimensional skin-friction coefficient are obtained. The first-

order velocity profile and skin friction coefficient are obtained numerically and

illustrated graphically to observe the visco-elastic effect in combination of other flow

parameters involved in the solution. It is observed that the flow field is significantly

affected by the visco-elastic parameter in comparison with Newtonian fluid flow

phenomena. Possible applications of the present study include engineering science and

applied mathematics in the context of aerodynamic, geophysics and aeronautics.

In chapter XI, a general conclusion of the present work is presented.

Finally, the thesis is affixed with a wide range of bibliography on the subjects
dealt in various chapters.
The differential equations involved in these flow problems are solved by
analytical method. Different numerical methods may also be applied to solve the flow
problems and can be verified with the results.
This chapter is followed by the survey of literature based on the investigations of
relevant non-Newtonian fluid, dealt in the thesis.