THE THEORY OF ALTRUISM AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR:

LITERATURE REVIEW AND MODEL DEVEWPMENT

Raymond A. Hopkins, McDonnell Douglas Corporation

Thomas L. Powers, The University of Alabama at Binningham

ABSTRACT

Altruism provides a useful framework for understanding the psychological basis of consumer product choice in a
global economy. The exact relationship between the variables of altruism and product choice has not been fully
investigated. This paper reviews the literature and proposes a research framework to explore the influence of
altruistic behavior on product choice.

INTRODUCTION

The notion of altruism provides a useful framework for understanding consumer motivations in a domestic vs.
foreign product choice decision. Altruistic behavior is an action that is motivated by the ultimate goal of
increasing another's welfare (Batson, 1991). The relationship between the factors associated with altruism and
product choice has not been fully investigated in the literature (Federouch, 1990; Olsen, Granzen and Biswas,
1993). As the number of international competitors in the domestic market place multiplies, American marketing
executives in the consumer goods industry are increasingly under pressure to develop and implement innovative
product philosophies and marketing campaign strategies. The major research problem is to understand factors
influencing the American consumer's choice between products of U.S. and foreign manufacture. The purpose of
this study is to propose a model of altruistic behavior applied to product choice, and to propose a research design to
test this model.

BACKGROUND
August Comte (1851) is credited with the first use of the term altruism. He maintained some social behavior was
unselfishly motivated to benefit others. There has been disagreement about the precise definition of altruism,
however. Many authors agree that altruistic behavior voluntarily benefits another without the expectation of
reward (Krebs, 1970). Batson (1991) has most recently defined altruism as a motivational state with the ultimate
goal of increasing another's welfare. Research into altruistic behavior can be directly traced to several theoretical
sources. Gouldner's (1960) proposition regarding the prevalence of the universal norm of reciprocity; Leed's
(1963) norm of giving; Piaget's (1932) and Kohlberg's (1958, 1969) approach towards the development of moral
judgment; and Aronfreed's ( 1968) conceptualization of conscience development. Researchers have advanced the
study of altruistic behavior in two major theoretical directions to answer different questions. One direction has
lead to attempts to explain the development of altruistic behavior; the other has involved attempts to explain how
altruistic behavior is fostered and how individuals decide to offer their help.

The development of altruistic behavior has been explained within at least four frameworks: sociobiology,
psychoanalysis, social learning, and cognitive development (Bar-Tal, 1976; Bryan and London, 1970; Mussen and
Eisenberg-Berg, 1977; Rushton, 1976; Sharabany and Bar-Tal, 1982; Staub, 1979). Only the latter two approaches
have stimulated much research on the development of altruistic behavior. Two theoretical frameworks, the
exchange approach and the normative approach, suggest explanations why individuals help others. The exchange
approach suggests individual behavior maximizes rewards and minimizes costs, to obtain profitable outcomes
(Homans, 1961; Lerner, 1977). The second framework suggests that altruistic behavior is regulated by three social

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norms: the norm of giving (Leeds, 1963), the norm of social responsibility (Berkowitz and Daniels; 1963), and the
norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960).

Arriving at irrefutable conclusions about altruistic behavior processes is difficult in the face of contradictory results
ftom studies examining situational and personal variables. That individuals encounter a variety of situations
evoking differing reactions makes it hard, if not impossible, to predict altruistic behavior without knowing the
meaning of a situation for a specific individual, his personality, and behavior patterns. Research findings ~elating
to situational and personal variables appear to be inconsistent, clearly indicating the necessity of mote work and
providing a need to extend the literature. An examinatior> of the present literatute addressing altruistic behavior
indicates that researchers have ~:sted independent variables linked to characteristics involving somt:vne who helps,
someone who receives (Krebs, 1970), and the situation in which they find themselves. Researchers have based
their testing on the assumption that clwacteristics of the benefactor, the recipient, and the situation induce
altruistic behavior. Their examination bas included four general levels of independent variables: 1) personality
traits; 2) temponuy psychological states; 3) social roles and demographic variables; and 4) social norms.

PROPOSED RESEARCH DESIGN

The theory of altruism provides a useful basis for applying a model to international product choice. This concept of
behavior is traceable to the universal norm of reciprocity (Gouldner, 1960), the norm of giving (Leeds, 1963),
Piaget's (1932) and Kohlberg's (1958, 1969) approach towards the development of moral judgment; and
Aronfreed's (1968) conceptualization of conscience development. Taken as a whole, the theory of altruism
attempts to explain human behavior in terms of an interaction between cognitive, cultural, and behavioral
determinants (Bar-Tal, 1976, pp. 14-37).

In order to clarify the issue noted above, a research framework is proposed that will focus on identifying
correlations between consumer ethnocentrism, cognitive moral development, and altruistic behavior values, as
independent variables, and the purchase choice of American consumers make between products of U.S. and foreign
manufacture. This proposed relationship is seen in the figure below. The research design follows the guidelines of
nonexperimental research defined by Kerlinger ( 1986, p. 348) and the concepts of Ex Post Facto research designs
(Campbell and Stanley, 1963, p. 70). It will compare a group which has been exposed to an experimental variable
or treatment with one which has not.

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