What is Manufacturing?

Production or manufacturing can be simply defined as value addition process

by which raw materials of low utility and value due to its inadequate material
properties and poor or irregular size, shape and finish are converted into
higher utility and higher valued products with definite dimensions, forms and
finish imparting some functional ability.

Value addition by manufacturing

 Broad classification of Manufacturing Processes

(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and

shape from a given material taken in three possible states:
• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
• in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
(b) Joining process
Welding, brazing, soldering etc.
(c) Removal process
Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.
(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products layer by layer
from raw materials in different form:
• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• powder – e.g., selective sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)
 What is Machining?

Machining is a manufacturing process by which jobs are produced to the

desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess
material from the preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of
cutting tool(s) moved past the work surface(s).

Principle of machining (turning)

Requirements for machining
 Process parameters and constraints in machining

While machining, industries look for several aspects or objectives to be

fulfilled such as:
1. Reduction of machining time, T mins

2. Increase in production rate, P=(1/T)A number of pieces / min, where A =

acceptance level

3. Reduction of machining cost per piece C (Rs./piece)= K1. T + K2. Tc / TL,

where Tc=actual machining time, mins; TL = Tool Life; K1 = Man-machine
hour cost, Rs. /min; K2 = consumable cost in between tool change, Rs.

4. Increase in profit Pt = R – C, Rs./piece, where R = Revenue i.e. Selling

price, Rs./piece

5. Increase in profit rate, PR= (R – C)/T, Rs./min

6. Increase in PR per unit investment

 Process parameters and constraints in machining

• MRR can be increased by increasing the values of process parameters:

cutting velocity Vc, feed s0 and depth of cut t.

Factors restraining increase in Cutting velocity

Power constraint
• Cutting velocity should not be so high that the required cutting power
exceeds the power available in the machine tool for machining.
• Cutting power requirement = Pz Vc + Px Vf
where Pz is the tangential or main
component of the cutting force, Px is the
axial component of the cutting force and Vf
is the velocity of tool feed.
 Factors restraining increase in Feed

Temperature constraint
• It has been already discussed that the cutting temperature may also rise
considerably due to large increase in feed.

Tool life constraint

• The increase in cutting forces and temperature due to increase in feed
reduces tool life.

Product quality constraint

• The dimensional accuracy and surface integrity of the machined product
may deteriorate due to drastic increase in feed through rise in
temperature, damage of the tool tip condition and vibration.
 Factors restraining increase in depth of cut

Cutting force and related constraints

• According to equation stated earlier, increase in t proportionally rises
cutting forces and the consequences.

Constraint due to machining allowance

• Presently a little amount of material is left for machining for saving
material and processing cost.
• This has been possible for improved preforming process and near-net
shape principle.
• Depth of cut cannot be greater than the machining allowance.

Job size constraint

• For machining jobs of smaller diameter or low thickness, onviously a very
small depth of cut in necessarily taken.

Tool size constraint

• Because the tool bits are very small in size, depth of cut cannot be large,
especially for expensive tool materials like diamond and cBN.
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Cutting Forces (without Sacrificing MRR)

By increasing tool rake angle, γ

Pz = t s0 τs f
• For turning of a given material having shear strength of τs with a given chip load
t.s0 the magnitude of the major force or power component is influenced by a factor
called the form factor f, given by
f = ζ – tanγ + 1 for ductile jobs
f = 2(ζ – tanγ) for brittle jobs
where ζ is the chip reduction coefficient given by
ζ = a2 / a1 = eμ(π/2 – γ)
• The above equations reveal that Pz can be reduced directly increasing the tool rake
angle γ; and indirectly by reducing the value of ζ.
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Cutting Forces (without Sacrificing MRR)

By employing lubricant (cutting fluid):

• The equation ζ = a2 / a1 = eμ(π/2 – γ) indicates that the reduction of friction (μ) at the
work-tool interfaces by employing a suitable cutting fluid causes reduction of ζ,
which in turn reduces the cutting force.
By reducing shear strength (τs )of work material under cutting conditions:
• The equation Pz = t s0 τs f indicates that Pz can be reduced without sacrificing
MRR by reducing τs .
• τs is governed by
τs = 0.74 σu ε0.6∆
where σ is the ultimate tensile strength, ε is the cutting strain and ∆ is the
percentage elongation of the work material.
• The mechanical properties σ and ∆ are often changed by putting some additives
(like lead or sulphur in the structural steels) or by some treatments (like annealing,
etc.).
• The value of cutting strain ε also decreases with increase in tool rake angle as
ε = ζ - tanγ
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Cutting Forces (without Sacrificing MRR)

By widening the cutting angle of the tool

• Among the cutting force components, the transverse component Py is most
responsible for causing elastic deformation and vibration, especially when the
workpiece is long and slender.
• Such deflection and vibration aggravate dimensional accuracy and surface finish,
and are also detrimental to the cutting tools and the machine tool.
• The force Py can be easily reduced without sacrificing MRR and even Pz by
controlling the tool geometry.
• Figure shows how Py can be reduced by
increasing the principal cutting edge
angle φ as Py = Pxy cosφ
• The transverse force Py can be also
reduced by favorably shifting the
direction of chip flow towards the X
axis by having a suitable negative
inclination angle λ.
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Cutting Temperature
By lowering principal cutting edge angle φ
• The relation θc = √(Vc. a1) depicts that the rise of cutting temperature due to increase
of Vc and s0 for high MRR can be compensated to some extent by taking tools with
lower value of φ as indicated in Figure.

By increasing nose radius

• Increase in tool nose radius r enables a
sizeable reduction in cutting temeparture
through reduction of φ effectively, or by
sharing of heat by wider tool tip as can be
seen from Figure.
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Cutting Temperature
By geometrical modification of tools like compound rake, chip breaker,
• As our ultimate aim is reduction of θc the geometry at the tool tip can be specially
designed to enable production of lesser forces as well as better heat dissipation of
heat through the tool.
By profuse cooling
• Cutting temperature is substantially reduced by proper selection and application of
coolant.
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Surface roughness
By controlling tool geometry
s0
• It clearly appears from Figure and equation hmax= cot ϕ+ cot ϕ1 that without sacrificing
so or MRR, surface roughness hmax can be reduced drastically by reducing φ and/or
φ1 and also by providing a wide nose radius r.
By reduction or elimination of BUE formation
• Often a lump of material called built-up-edge (BUE) develops and strongly adheres
at the tool tip.
• This BUE formation not only raises cutting force and vibration but also reduces tool
life and impairs surface finish.
• Such BUE formation can be generally reduced by proper selection of cutting tool
material, speed-feed combination and cutting fluid application.
By controlling vibration
By retention or prolonging the sharpness of the tool tip
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Reduction of Tool Damage (Wear, etc.) and Improvement of Tool Life
By appropriate selection of tool materials
• For good performance and longer service life, the cutting tool material needs to be
quite strong, hard, tough, thermo-chemically stable and diffusion-resistant depending
upon the work material, type of cutter and machining condition.
By reducing cutting force, heat generation, vibration and BUE formation
By proper selection & application of cutting fluid for cooling and lubrication
 Control over the Machining Constraints
Cutting fluid application
Purpose of employing cutting fluid
• Cooling tool and workpiece
• Lubrication at work-tool interfaces
• Washing away the debris from the cutting zone
• Improvement and protection of surface finish
 Introduction to Machine Tools
Major components of machine tools and their functions
• Any machine tool comprises of major components as follows.
– Devices for holding the blank and the cutting tool properly and firmly.
– Devices for providing motions and power to the tool and the workpiece.
– Kinematic system for transforming and transmitting the motions and power from
the power source to the tool and the workpiece.
– Automation and control systems.
– Heavy structural body to support and accommodate those systems strongly,
rigidly and safely.
Centre Lathe
• The common and frequent uses of centre lathes include the following
machining operations.

Turning: straight, taper, stepped, contour, etc.

 Facing

Chamfering
 Grooving Parting off

Thread cutting: external or internal

 Centering

Drilling
 Boring (internal turning): straight and taper

Reaming
Knurling
Centre Lathe
• The major components are as follows.
Headstock
• The headstock enables rotating the workpiece at diffident speeds as required.
• This heavy housing is mounted on the bed at its left end, receives power and
motion from a motor and transmits the same to the workpiece through a
clutch, speed gear box and the spindle.
Tailstock
• Its function is to provide support to long and heavy workpieces and often hold
and move some cutting tools for operations like drilling, reaming and boring.
• It can be shifted and fixed at any location on the lathe bed coaxially with the
head stock.
Carriage
• The carriage contains a number of mechanisms and parts in it and is made to
slide along the lathe bed.
• It is used to firmly hold the tools and move it at different feed rates.
• It derives motions usually from the spindle through a feed gear box and a feed
rod or lead screw.
Bed
• This rigid bulky horizontal beam stands firmly on two legs or columns.
• On the bed, the head stock remains bolted, the tail stock is shifted and
clamped, and the carriage slides.
Work-tool holding devices
• The blanks are usually mounted in between centres or chucks.
• The cutting tools are generally held in the tool post which is mounted on the saddle.
• Tools are often held in the tail stock quill.
Kinematics of Centre Lathe
 Classification of Lathes
Capstan and Turret lathes
• These semi-automatic lathes are very similar in construction, operation and
application.
• Figures show their basic configurations.
• In contrast to centre lathes, Capstan and Turret lathes are semi-automatic.
• Possess an auxiliary movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of
tailstock.
• Hold large no. of cutting tools: upto four in indexable tool post on the front slide,
one in the real side and upto six in the turret (hexagonal)
• Are more productive for quick engagement and parallel functioning of the tools in
addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change
• Enable repetitive production of same job with less involvement, effort and attention
of the operator for pre-setting of work speed and feed rate and length of travel of
the cutting tools
• Are relatively costlier
• Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small lot production
Differences between Capstan and Turret lathes
• Turret lathes are relatively more robust and heavy duty
• Capstan lathes generally deal with short or long rod type blanks in collet, whereas
turret lathes mostly work on chucking type jobs held in the quick acting chucks
• In capstan lathe, the turret travels with limited stroke length within a saddle type
guide block, called auxiliary bed which is clamped on the main bed.
• In turret lathe, the heavy auxiliary bed is mounted on the saddle which directly
slides with much larger stroke length on the main bed.
• Capstan lathes are horizontal axis type.
• Turret lathes are mostly horizontal type but may be also vertical type.
Single spindle automatic lathes
• They are widely used for mass production of high quality fasteners like bolts, screws,
studs, bushes, pins, shafts, rollers, handles and similar small metallic parts from long
bars or tubes and also often from separate small blanks fed automatically in the spindle
nose.
• Unlike the semi-automatic lathes, they run fully automatically including bar feeding
and tool indexing, and continuously over a long duration repeating the same machining
cycle for each product.
• Provided with upto five radial tool slides which are moved by cams mounted n a cam
shaft.
• Relatively of smaller size and power but have higher spindle speeds.
CNC lathe and turning centre
It has following advantageous features over conventional fixed or hard automation:
• High flexibility, enabling easy, quick and inexpensive changeover from one
product to another
• High positional accuracy
• Repeatability, consistency and reliability ensuring close tolerance and
interchangeability
• Ability to produce complex shaped products
• Little or no need for jigs and fixtures
• Easier and faster tool-work setting and tool-change
• Increased productivity due to lesser down time, idle time, quick tool change and
less rejections
• High and consistent accuracy, reducing time and cost of inspection and assembly
CNC lathe has following limitations:
• The initial investment and hourly rate of NC machine tools are much higher due to
its higher cost compared to its equivalent conventional machine tool
• The operators need to be more knowledgeable, skilled and well trained for process
planning, part programming and tool-work setting.
• NC machine tools are not economically viable for mass production and for
products of simple configuration.
 Shaping machine

• The main function of shaping machines is to produce flat surfaces in different planes.
• Figure shows the basic principle of generation of flat surface by a shaping machine.
• The cutting motion provided by the linear forward motion of the reciprocating tool
and the intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the bed
along with the job results in producing a flat surface by gradual removal of excess
material layer by layer in the form of chips.
• The vertical infeed is given either by descending the tool head or by raising the bed
or both.
• The single point tool is clamped in the vertical slide (clapper box) which is mounted
at the front face of the reciprocating ram, whereas the workpiece is directly or
indirectly (in a vise) mounted on the bed.
The major parts of shaping machine are:
• Ram: it holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation
• Bed: it holds and imparts feed motions to the job (blank)
• Housing with base: the basic structure and also accommodates the drive
mechanisms
• Power drive with speed and feed change mechanisms.
 Milling machine

• Milling machines are widely used to produce flat surfaces in any orientation
as well as surfaces of revolution, helical surfaces and contoured surfaces of
various configurations.
• Such functions are accomplished by slowly feeding the workpiece against
rotating multi-edge cutting tools as indicated in Figure.
• Up milling needs stronger holding of the job and down milling needs
backlash free screw-nut systems for feeding.
The major parts of milling machine are:
• Milling arbour: to hold and rotate the cutter
• Ram: to support the arbour
• Machine table: on which job and job holding devices are mounted to provide
the feed motions to the job.
• Power drive with Speed and gear boxes: to provide power and motions to the
tool-work
• Bed: which moves vertically upward and downward and accommodates the
various drive mechanisms
• Column with base: main structural body to support other parts.
 Classification of Milling machines
According to configuration as:
(a) Knee type: In such machine, the table with the job travels horizontally over
thebed (guides) in axial (x) and transverse (y) directions and the bed with the
table and the job on it moves vertically (z direction) up and down.
(b) Bed type: In these milling machines, the milling head instead of the bed is
moved up and down for vertical feed.

According to the orientation of the spindle as:

(a) Plane horizontal knee type: It possesses a single horizontal axis milling arbor;
the work table can be linearly fed along three axes (x, y and z).
(b) Horizontal axis (spindle) and swiveling bed type: They posses one additonal
swiveling motion of the table.
(c) Vertical spindle type: In this machine, the only spindle is vertical and works
using end mill type and face milling cutters; the table may or may not have
swiveling features.
(d) Universal milling machine: These versatile milling machines not only
possesses not only possesses both horizontal milling machine arbor and
vertical axis spindle, the latter spindle can be further tilted about one (x) axis
or both the horizontal axes ( and y) enabling machining jobs of complex
shapes.
 Bed type milling machine

Knee type milling machine

Plane horizontal knee type
Vertical spindle type
Universal milling machine
CNC Milling machine:
• Replacement of hard or rigid automation by developing and using CNC
• Advantageous characteristics of CNC machine tools over conventional ones
are:
 Flexibility in automation
 Change-over (product) time, effort and cost are much less
 Less or no jigs and fixtures are needed
 Complex geometry can be easily machined
 High product quality and its consistency
 Optimum working condition is possible
 Lesser breakdown and maintenance requirement