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Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents

Talat Zubair (13038) Muhammad Daniyal Altaf Tai (18723)

Muhammad Waleed (18782) Muhammad Ahsan Iqbal (19328)

Muhammad Shaheer ( )

[This research is done for the course Foundations of Human Behavior as a term project.]
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 2

Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 3

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 4

Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 5

Results ................................................................................................................................. 6

Limitations .......................................................................................................................... 7

Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 8

Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 8

References ......................................................................................................................... 10

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Appendix 2: Summary of Responses

Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 3

Abstract

Smoking is often associated with having low self-esteem and a low self-esteem is also linked

with smoking. To test both of these claims, we conducted a research to determine how, whether

negatively or positively, are smoking habits and self-esteem score related, if they are related at

all. We used three categories to determine different smokers and non-smokers and the average

daily consumption of cigarettes to identify smoking habits. To measure self-esteem, we used

Rosenberg’s scale. Then, we performed a correlational analysis on the variables, followed by a

two-tailed non-directional hypothesis to test the significance of the correlation coefficient.

Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 4

Introduction

There have been multiple researches all across the world to study the correlational and

causal relationship between smoking habits and individuals’ self-esteem. (Said et al., 2016)

carried out a study on 899 students from various schools, using a self-administered questionnaire

as an instrument for the study Also, to measure self-esteem, a validated self-esteem scale was

used. The study’s results concluded that self-esteem is a major reason for individuals to start

smoking, however, other factors are also involved. Similarly, (Xu, Liu, Sharma & Zhao, 2015)

conducted a cross-sectional study in four municipal areas of Chongqing using a questionnaire

administered to 536 native young male smokers aged 18–45 years old. Their research showed

that young adult males with higher education were more likely to have a better understanding of

smoking being harmful to health and showed more positive attitudes towards smoking-related

hazards among young adult male smokers. These findings further confirm that awareness of the

health hazards posed by smoking was correlated with education. (Awotedu et al., 2006)

presented another questionnaire-based study involving all seven tertiary institutions of learning

in the ECP, viz. the Universities of Transkei, Fort Hare, Port Elizabeth and Rhodes University,

and the Border, Eastern Cape and Port Elizabeth Technikons. A total of 1728 students were

interviewed out of a student population of 30,080. Stratified random sampling was used to select

the students. Two-way tables were used to test the independence of the variables and chi-square

tests were applied. A ‘p’ value of below 5% was used as a test of significance. A total of 1 728

students were selected to be interviewed. A sample size of 1728 students allowed for a 25%

average smoking rate, a 10% error rate, with 95% confidence intervals. In another research

conducted by (Khosravi et al., 2016), 4,853 students completed a self-administered multiple-

choice anonym questionnaire for the first phase of study. One year later, the same questionnaire
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 5

was distributed to the same students in order to study the changes in their smoking behavior. The

research revealed that there is evidence for relationship between smoking stages and self-esteem,

but no claim can be made about the causality. Using these researches as are reference points, we

have conducted a non-directional correlational research to determine if there is any relationship

between smoking cigarettes and self-esteem among adolescents in our culture.

Methodology

To test our hypothesis, we prepared a survey questionnaire that i. Categorized the

audience based on their smoking habits, where categorization was done among three categories

(Khosravi et al., 2016); a. smokers (who have smoked 100 cigarettes and more in their lifetime),

b. Non-Smokers (I have never smoked (even a puff)) and c. Experimenters (who have tried

cigarettes (even a puff),but have smoked less than 100 cigarettes in their lifetime), ii. Identified

the number of average cigarettes consumed daily (Awotedu et al., 2006) and iii. Determined an

individual’s self-esteem score using the Rosenberg’s scale (Winch & Rosenberg, 1965). The

sample size for the survey was 46, including 35 male respondents and 11 female respondents

between the ages 16 and 24. After cleaning and pre-processing the data, we performed two

correlational analysis: i. between Count (Average Count of Cigarettes Consumed Daily) and

Self-Esteem Score, and ii: between Category (Based on Smoking Habits) and Self-Esteem Score

using Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient and 0.01 as Level of Significance for two-tailed

hypothesis testing. Below we show the two hypotheses.

H0 = There is no correlation between Self-Esteem and Smoking Habits

H1 = There is a correlation between Self-Esteem and Smoking Habits

Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 6

Results

The Pearson Coefficient(r) for relationship between the Count and Self-Esteem Score is

-0.253, which indicates a weak negative correlation, whereas the Linear Squared Correlation

Coefficient (R2) is 0.064, proving that the relationship between two variables is quite weak.

Furthermore, the two-tailed hypothesis with 0.01 as level of significance gives a p-value of 0.09,

which leads to the conclusion that null hypothesis cannot be rejected and average number of

cigarettes consumed daily does not have a correlation with self-esteem.

Similarly, the Pearson Coefficient(r) for relationship between the Category and Self-

Esteem Score is -0.121, which indicates a negative relationship, whereas the Linear Squared

Correlation Coefficient (R2) is 0.015, highlighting that the correlation between the two variables

is non-existent. The two-tailed hypothesis with 0.01 as level of significance gives a p-value of

0.421, which leads to the conclusion that null hypothesis cannot be rejected and that an

individual’s self-esteem does not have an association with them being a regular smoker, non-

smoker or experimental smoker

The results of our analysis are illustrated in Figure 1 and 2, and Table 1.

Correlation Analysis
Self-esteem Count Category
Self-esteem Pearson Correlation 1 -.253 -.121
p-value .090 .421
Sample size 46 46 46
Count Pearson Correlation -.253 1 .533**
p-value .090 .000
Sample size 46 46 46
Type Pearson Correlation -.121 .533** 1
p-value .421 .000
Sample size 46 46 46
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 1
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 7

Limitations

The first and most apparent limitation in our research is the small sample. We were able
to get a total of 46 responses, which is enough for our assignment is insufficient to provide any
concrete evidence. Secondly, our survey was only targeted towards well-educated individuals,
having access to internet and ability to read English and did not consider the lower class, less-
educated audience, having no means of accessing the survey. Thirdly, the research does not
account for other factors that could prove to be good predictors, such as how long has it been
since the person started smoking, their education background, financial status, academic
performance and family, considering these factors can have an impact on an individual’s
decision to start smoking. In addition to this, the questionnaire used in the study was the
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale which contains 10 questions to gain an insight of an individual’s
self-esteem. However, there are some drawbacks to such questionnaires. An individual’s answer
can vary with his mood or the moment he answered the questions. For example, if a person was
asked to fill a questionnaire in a particularly good mood then his answers would be different than
those if he were asked to fill it on bad day. Furthermore, people’s distorted sense of their own
self-esteem might lead them to underestimate or overestimate their answers creating a bias which
might not reflect the truth. Lastly, one limitation is that the scale is rather a reductionistic
approach that aims to simplify and quantify the complex notions of self-esteem.
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 8

Recommendations

Since our sample consisted of a very limited audience, we recommend broadening the

scope of the research by targeting a broader and more diverse demographic, that is, adolescents

from all family, educational and financial backgrounds. Secondly, self-esteem is a complex

concept that cannot be measured quantitatively but can be better understood and studied using

qualitative or descriptive research. In this regard, we also recommend conducting an longitudinal

observational study over a long period of time, which can prove to be more efficient in terms of

obtaining more precise and specific results, where an individual’s smoking habits are monitored

and his self-esteem over various intervals is measured.

Conclusion

For our research, we chose to study the correlation between Self-Esteem and Smoking

Habits in adolescents. As part of the literature review, we studied various studies conducted on

the same topic. Using techniques from a couple of these studies, we conducted our research

based on categorization of individuals into three groups based on their smoking habits,

identification of the average number of cigarettes smoked daily and reference to Rosenberg’s 10-

question survey to calculate self-esteem score. We formulated the null hypothesis as no

correlation between the smoking cigarettes and self-esteem against the alternative hypothesis that

there is correlation between the two variables. Our results concluded that null hypothesis cannot

be rejected, and the two variables are not correlated. However, the results of the survey are not

sufficient to make generalized statement, since our sample size was quite small and consisted of

only one set of the entire population. Moreover, we did not take into account other factors that

can lead to smoking cigarettes in individuals, along with factors that can have an impact on an
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 9

individual’s self-esteem. For this, we recommend using a larger sample size of a more diverse

demographic, taking more factors into consideration and conducting a longitudinal observational

research to get more in-depth insights.

Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 10

References

• Awotedu, A., Jordaan, E., Ndukwana, O., Fipaza, N., Awotedu, K., & Martinez, J. et al.

(2006). The smoking habits, attitudes towards smoking and knowledge regarding anti-

smoking legislation of students in institutions of higher learning in the Eastern Cape

Province of South Africa. South African Family Practice, 48(9), 14-14d. doi:

10.1080/20786204.2006.10873456

• Awotedu, A., Jordaan, E., Ndukwana, O., Fipaza, N., Awotedu, K., & Martinez, J. et al.

(2006). The smoking habits, attitudes towards smoking and knowledge regarding anti-

smoking legislation of students in institutions of higher learning in the Eastern Cape

Province of South Africa. South African Family Practice, 48(9), 14-14d. doi:

10.1080/20786204.2006.10873456

• Khosravi, A., Mohammadpoorasl, A., Holakouie-Naieni, K., Mahmoodi, M., Pouyan, A., &

Mansournia, M. (2016). Causal Effect of Self-esteem on Cigarette Smoking Stages in

Adolescents: Coarsened Exact Matching in a Longitudinal Study. Osong Public Health And

Research Perspectives, 7(6), 341-345. doi: 10.1016/j.phrp.2016.10.003

• Khosravi, A., Mohammadpoorasl, A., Holakouie-Naieni, K., Mahmoodi, M., Pouyan, A., &

Mansournia, M. (2016). Causal Effect of Self-esteem on Cigarette Smoking Stages in

Adolescents: Coarsened Exact Matching in a Longitudinal Study. Osong Public Health And

Research Perspectives, 7(6), 341-345. doi: 10.1016/j.phrp.2016.10.003

• Winch, R., & Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Social

Forces, 44(2), 255. doi: 10.2307/2575639

• Xu, X., Liu, L., Sharma, M., & Zhao, Y. (2015). Smoking-Related Knowledge, Attitudes,

Behaviors, Smoking Cessation Idea and Education Level among Young Adult Male
Smoking Habits and Self-Esteem in Adolescents 11

Smokers in Chongqing, China. International Journal Of Environmental Research And

Public Health, 12(2), 2135-2149. doi: 10.3390/ijerph120202135