STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

LABORATORY MANUAL

First Edition Revion 3, 2016 NJIT Press

 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
LABORATORY MANUAL

by

Cheng-Tzu Thomas Hsu, NJIT

and
Allyn C. Luke, NJIT

First Edition NJIT Press

January, 2005 University Heights
Newark, New Jersey
Revised 2016 DRAFT USA
 Copyright© 2001 by Cheng-Tzu Thomas Hsu

ALL RIGHT RESERVED

First Edition - Second Printing, January 2006

Revision 3 – January 2016 DRAFT
 CONTENTS

Page

Preface i

Introduction ii

Experiment 1. Tension Test of Metals 1-1

Experiment 2. Torsion Test of Metallic Materials 2-1

Experiment 3. Stresses, Strains and Deflection of

Steel Beams in Pure Bending 3-1

Experiment 4. Strain Measurements using Strain Rosettes in Aluminum Beams 4-1

Experiment 5. Compression Test of Steel Columns 5-1

References 6-1
 3-1

PREFACE

This laboratory manual provides the experiments for the course Strength of Materials
or Mechanics of Deformable Solids, supplementary to those in the classroom textbook.

Some experiments presented here have been developed over the years at the Newark
College of Engineering (NCE), the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), and the
authors are indebted to our former colleagues in the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering who have contributed to the preparations of this work. In recent years the
laboratory has received funding to upgradxase and modernize the Strength of Materials
Laboratory at NJIT. As a result, this laboratory manual reflects the changes and introduces
several experiments using the state-of-the-art testing equipments and new instrumentation.

All experiments presented here are written in a new format, however, a few are still
based on the earlier texts of Professor Matthew Ciesla, Mechanics of Materials-Experiments
and Problems, and Professor Paul E. Nielsen, Strength of Materials-Laboratory and problems
manual. The authors would also like to acknowledge the contribution of Professor G. F.
Ramberg, who planned the test procedure and designed and constructed the testing equipment
for the Beam Experiment.

The authors would like to thank our colleagues, Professors Paul Chan, Walter Konon,
and John Schuring, in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for many
helpful suggestions concerning the preparation of this laboratory manual. Their contributions
are greatly appreciated. Contributing editors are Methi Wecharatana and Geraldine Milano.

Newark, New Jersey

January, 2005, 2006
Revision 3 January 2016
 3-2

INTRODUCTION

PURPOSE OF THIS LABORATORY

The experiments described in this laboratory manual have the following general purposes:
(a) To study the behavior of various engineering materials through material testing.
(b) To verify the principles of the Strength of Materials as described in the lectures by
means of experiments.
(c) To demonstrate the use of instrumentations such as extensometers, strain gages, strain
rosettes and strain indicators and materials testing equipments, and to acquaint
students with some experimental testing techniques and the data acquisition system.

LABORATORY SAFETY

Your safety and the safety of those around you are of prime importance. Efforts have
been made to prevent accident and to minimize any hazard in the laboratory. Students must
follow the general safety rules posted in the laboratory and as outlined in this section. If you
have any questions about the safety of the experiments you are going to conduct, consult the
laboratory instructor before doing any tests. The applied loads in these experiments are rather
high and can be dangerous if not careful. Take your experiments seriously and conduct your
testing carefully. The following are the general safety rules that must be strictly followed by
every student. Failure to comply may result to failing the course.

General Safety Rules

1. Keep yourself and others safe –Be aware of your own and others’ safety
2. Know emergency procedures (fire escape routes, emergency phone locations and
telephone numbers)
3. Report any perceived safety hazards
4. No working alone
5. No eating or drinking in the lab
6. Wear appropriate safety equipment
7. No loose clothes and long hair around machines
8. Do not work with electrical appliances in the presence of water
9. Do not put obstructions in walkways –keep fire escape routes completely clear
10. Clean up any spills immediately
11. Know the hazards of any materials or machines with which you are working

Safety Glasses

Safety glasses must be worn at all times when work is being done in the laboratory
and especially when operating the testing machines. Safety awareness training is part of our
 3-3

educational mission. Students must learn how to keep themselves and others safe in the
laboratory.
PREPARATION FOR EXPERIMENTS

Students must prepare for each experiment by reading the instructions for that
experiment before coming to class. Quizzes can be expected to verify preparation. Apparent
failure to do so will affect your grade for that experiment. Many experiments require
calculations to be done before the experiment can be conducted. Students will perform these
calculations and submit them as homework before the start of the experiment.

ATTENDANCE

Attendance is mandatory for all first and second level courses at NJIT. Therefore,
your attendance is required at all pre-lab and lab experiment classes. Three unexcused classes
will result in a failing grade. A failing grade in the lab results in a failing grade for the course.

GRADING POLICIES

Students are expected to properly maintain their registration status. If your name does
not appear on the final grade sheet, it is not possible to assign you a grade and it will be
necessary for you to repeat the course. Personal problems should be addressed to the Dean of
Students.
The laboratory grade represents 15% of the total grade. The lab grade will be factored
with your class grade to determine your final grade. You will be assigned this factored grade
as your lecture and laboratory grade. You must receive a passing grade in both the lecture and
the laboratory to pass the course. Failure of either requires repeating both the lecture and the
laboratory. In other words, failing the laboratory means failing the course!! So, please do
all of your work.
All reports should be word processed. Graphs are to be computer generated using
Excel or any other analytical software.
The results of the experiment are the results you must work with. Do not make up
data to produce the “expected” results. Draw your conclusions based on these results. If they
are not as expected (you should have an idea of the expected results), discuss and explain the
discrepancies.
Reports are also graded on your written presentation. Is the material presented in a
logical way? Can all of the required results be found with ease? Are the results discussed
intelligently, in a good technical language? Can all the questions that enter the reader’s mind
be satisfied? Be advised that your discussions and conclusions carry more weight than
production of the right answers.
All laboratories are due as instructed by your laboratory instructors. After the due date
reports will be accepted for only 75% credit. After the reports have been returned to the class
NO late papers will be accepted.
If you feel that your grades are not what you think they should be it is your
responsibility, as it is in all your classes, to seek guidance from your instructor for the
 3-4

improvement of your performance. Poor grades usually result from a failure to answer all
questions asked. Virtually, all failures occur because of insufficient submission of reports.

Strength of Materials Laboratory Reports

Written laboratory reports are required for all experiments. The reports should be word
processed, spell checked and edited. To reduce the work load for everyone, report groups will consist
of three or four people. The reports are considered to have three major components, theoretical,
laboratory analysis, and editorial. The main body of the report will be a collaborative effort. ALL
members of the group will contribute to this part of the report. But EACH member of the group will
write their own Discussion and Conclusion which will be signed by that party. Each group will submit
ONE report with multiple Discussions and Conclusions.

Report Writing
Report writing is often a frustrating experience for new writers. Technical writing has
additional, special problems. Since there are half a dozen reports required for the Strength of
Materials lab a short summary on efficient report writing will be presented. It is hoped that well
before the end of the semester, students will be comfortable with the writing process and that they will
be able to concentrate on the content of reports rather than the writing process. The reports present the
opportunity to practice what will become one of the most important of engineering skills, the ability to
write competent technical reports.

General Rules
1. Use Direct Technical Language
Write simply, use as few words and as little punctuation as possible. Write in complete sentences.
As much as possible use the active voice, the agent of the action should be clear especially in
conclusion. Avoid using first person. Define all technical terms and acronyms.

2. Be Engaging
It is very important to draw your reader into your work. Careful consideration needs be given to
the first few sentences. The conclusion is the most important part of a report. The conclusion
must refer back to the introduction to bring closure or “wrap-up” to the report. Remember, your
goal is to prove a point, validate the theory and properties.

3. Edit, Edit, Edit

The quality of writing will be directly proportional to the amount of editing. Check for
correctness and completeness. Get the opinion of other readers, knowledgeable ones when
possible, for comments on how the work can be improved. Finish the report early, put it aside for
at least a day then go back and edit again. Look for smooth flow of language, complete
expression of idea and specificity of meaning. Use the spelling and grammar tools available in
Microsoft Word.
 3-5

Basic Format
Reports should include the following sections:

1. Title page with experimental objectives listed from the manual, date of the experiment, date of the
submission, names and signatures of group members.
2. Abstract – In one or two paragraphs, explain what the experiment is about, a sentence or two
about the procedure, and a simple statement of the results. Use specific values. For each
experiment, your main goal is to prove a theory or to validate specific properties.
3. Introduction –State the objective(s) of the experiment and give background information.
Begin by stating the objective of the experiment in detail. Be specific as to what values you intend
to find, such as a Modulus of Elasticity. Then present some background information that may be
found in your textbook, from websites, or other references. All references MUST be cited in your
bibliography.
4. Theory – Explain the theory or theories under consideration. What assumptions were made
developing the theory and how might the assumptions affect the experiment? What is expected of
the experiment to prove the theory? What predictions are made?
5. Experimental procedure – How was the experiment conducted? Be specific about the testing
apparatus. What measurements and observations need be made? How was the experiment
conducted? What measurements were taken?
6. Analysis of Test Results – Use tables, graphs, and sample calculations to explain the test results.
Sample calculations and sample tabulated data should be incorporated into this part of the report.
You can “copy and insert” portions of your spreadsheet to explain what data was used in the
calculations. Show step-by-step how your get from the test data to the final results.
7. Discussion of theory in terms of the experimental results. Did your results prove the theory? This
is the most important part of the entire report. Reflect back to the objective and support your
discussion with some background information. Do your results meet the guidelines of published
results?
8. Conclusions – how well was the theory validated? Justify the results in detail. Why do you think
the results are good? Cite published data to validate your results. Why are they suspicious?
Compare your results to published data and give an explanation for discrepancies. (each group
member must draw their own conclusions on each objective item.)
9. Bibliography – Cite all references used. List them alphabetically and use proper citations.
10. Appendix – Included anything related to the experiment not listed above
a. Raw data (often absorbed into spreadsheet)
b. Sample handwritten calculations – show, with neat handwritten samples, how
one gets from the measured to the target values. In support of spreadsheets,
show the computation in the cell. The results of the hand computations
should match the spreadsheet result.
c. Any extra graphs, tables, photos not incorporated into the main body of the
report
 3-6

New Jersey Institute of Technology

Strength of Materials

Laboratory Experiment 1
Tension Testing
Stress-Strain Relation
Physical Properties
Objectives:
1. Observe the Stress-Strain relation for Steel and/or other metallic material
2. For each metal tested, determine the following properties:
 Proportional Limit
 Yield Strength
 Ultimate Strength
 Young’s Modulus
 Modulus of Resilience
 Toughness
 Percent Reduction of Area
 Percent Elongation in 2 inches
3. Compare results with reference values
4. Compare formulas approximating E, Resilience and Toughness with values computed
from the Stress-Strain Curves.
PL
5. Assess the validity of the axial deflection equation,  
AE
6. Observe the characteristics of a tensile failure.

Safety Issues
 Crushing Hazard – Do not place hands or any body part into the
crush zone along the line of the piston motion
 Eye Hazard – Small pieces of metal might fly off failing specimens, Safety
Glasses Required
 3-7

 Sharp Edges – Handle failed specimens with care to avoid cuts

 3-8

Theory

An understanding of the mechanical behavior of materials is necessary and essential for the
safe engineering design of all types of structures and machines. One of the most fundamental
concepts in strength of materials is the stress-strain behavior of a prismatic bar under axial
tension. Most materials are assumed to be homogeneous, i.e. having the same material
property throughout all parts of the bar (the same material property throughout all parts of the
bar). For ductile materials such as metals, at low stress level and according to Hooke’s Law,
the stress-strain curve is a straight line, of which the slope is equal to the Modulus of
Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E) of the material, which is:

Stress  pl
E   (1-1)
Strain  pl

As the stress increases, a point on the curve where the linear stress-strain relationship ends is
commonly known as the “Proportional Limit” of the material. For some materials, two other
significant points may also be observed in close proximity to the proportional limit, which are
the Elastic Limit and the Yield Point. The former is the maximum stress that can be applied to
a member, at which upon unloading the material will return to its original length without
causing any permanent damage to the material. The latter is a critical stage of stress, Yield
Stress (y), at which yielding starts. The Yield strength of metal is one of the critical
parameters used in most engineering designs. Once loading applied beyond the elastic limit,
permanent damage is induced in the material resulting to residual strain or permanent
deformation upon unloading. This can be visualized from the necking of the test specimens,
which directly corresponds to the reduction in the cross sectional area. Non-ductile or brittle
materials do not normally exhibit a well defined Yield Point. For these materials the stress
that causes 0.2% residual strain upon unloading is commonly used as the Yield strength of the
material. At high stress level, the maximum stress that the material can withstand is usually
referred to as the Ultimate Strength,  ult . For brittle materials, rupture usually takes place at
the ultimate load. However, in ductile materials, the Rupture Strength (f) may occur after the
ultimate strength is reached as straining continues beyond the ultimate strain (ult). See the
diagram shown in Figure 1-1.

Figure 1-1 shows a typical stress-strain diagram for ductile steel in tension. The engineering
(nominal) stress is calculated using the original cross-sectional area (P/A) whereas the
strain is determined from the ratio of the elongation over the initial length of the member
( = L). According to Hooke’s law, i.e.  = E, where E is the Modulus of Elasticity or
Young’s Modulus, the elongation of the member can be calculated from:

L PL
  L   (1-2)
E AE
 3-9

True Stress-Strain curve


E’
Ultimate stress,  ult
D Conventional or
Engineering
Yield stress,  y E stress-strain curve
B C Fracture
A
Proportional limit,  pl
 f

 pl
E=
 pl
O

Linear Perfect Strain Necking
region  pl plasticity 
hardening u f
or yielding

Figure 1-1 Typical stress-strain diagram for ductile metal in tension

1. Four equations are under consideration:

P
a.   normal stress from axial loading
A

b.   normal strain from axial deformation
l

c. E  Young’s Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity

Pl
d.   axial deformation
AE

Identify each variable and indicate how it will be determined for or from the experiment. (note that equation d is derived from
equations a, b, and c.)
 3-10

2. Define the properties under consideration:

Proportional Limit Modulus of Resilience
Yield Strength Toughness
Ultimate Strength Percent Reduction of Area
Young’s Modulus Percent Elongation in 2 inches
3. From your text find equations for the Modulus of Elasticity, Resilience and Toughness.
Calculate those theoretical, approximate values. (Which is theoretical and which
approximate?).
4. For a 7000-pound load range within the linear elastic region, using a published value for
E, a 2-inch gauge length and the dimensions of the specimen tested, predict the axial
deflections, that is, the change of the deformation. Enter into table 2 for comparison with
experimental results. If using the Instron test apparatus, the gauge length will be different.

Procedure
Before testing, review all safety issues with the lab instructors.
You may be using the MTS test apparatus in the basement of the Architecture building or the
Instron test apparatus in Colton Hall. Your Lab Instructor will decide.

1. Measure and record the diameter of the rod to be tested.

2. Measure and record the distance between the punch marks designated as the gauge
length.
3. Prepare the testing apparatus and set to zero
4. Place the specimen in the grips. Make sure that both ends
5. Attach the extensometer (if applicable) to test apparatus.
6. Slowly apply a load to the specimen, the objective is to reach the yielding load in
one smooth stroke. After the yield, operate until the specimen breaks.
7. Remove the extensometer from the specimen then remove the specimen from the
machine.
8. Measure and record the final diameter at the break.
9. Measure the largest distance across the break between two punch marks indicating
the original gauge length.

Required Data

Measurement Value
Initial load lbs.
Maximum load lbs.
Initial diameter inch
Final diameter inch
Initial gauge length inches
Final length inches

Table 1. Required data

 3-11

Analysis

1. Compute and plot the experimental stress-strain diagrams of each test specimen.
2. Draw a second stress-strain curve of each test specimen, magnifying (detailing) the linear
elastic portion (not exceeding the proportional limit) of the stress-strain curve.
3. From the test data and the experimental stress-strain diagrams, determine the following
material properties of materials:
a. Proportional limit
b. Yield strength
c. Ultimate strength
d. Modulus of Elasticity (or Young’s Modulus)
e. Percent elongation in the 2-inch gage length
f. Percent reduction of cross sectional area
g. Modulus of resilience, and
h. Toughness
4. Using the references, find the value or range of values for the properties determined.
5. Using formulas where appropriate, calculate (predict) the Modulus values.
6. Compute the percent difference between the referenced or predicted values and the
experimental values.
7. Determine the elongation () of all test specimens from the theoretical equation, using the
load at 50% of the yield strength and the experimental E values. Compare these predicted
elongations with the experimental values from the tests.
8. Tabulate all experimental and predicted values for different materials.

Experimental Reference Calculated % error

Property
Proportional Limit na
Yield Strength na
Ultimate Strength na
Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of Toughness
% Reduction of Area na
% Elongation of gauge na
length
δ = PL/AE Compare
(P=7000 lbs., L=2 in, to raw data
use reference E, zero data)

Table 2. Summary Table of Results

 3-12

Thought Questions (These questions are meant to direct your thinking in

particular directions so you can draw expected conclusions. The
answers by themselves do not complete the assignment, your
conclusions are required)

1. What were the percentage differences between the measured and the referenced and/or
calculated values for each of the properties? Comment on differences. Is this difference
acceptable? Was the material tested what it was said to be?
2. What does the ability to predict reference values say about the principles of stress and
strain that underlay this experiment?
3. Compare the Modulus of Elasticity, Modulus of Resilience and the Modulus of Toughness
determined from the Stress-Strain Curve to values calculated from formulas. Are they in
reasonable agreement? If not, why not? Which determinations give the best results?
4. Knowing the load and final area at failure, compute the actual stress on the rod at that
moment and compare this value to the final values of the engineering stress as expressed
in the stress strain diagram. What accounts for this difference?
5. What is the Toughness value? What does it describe? What is the Modulus of Resilience
and how does it differ from the Toughness values? Describe the behavior of this material
as it responds to increasing load.
6. What was the mode of failure? What observations lead you to that conclusion?
 3-13

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 2

TORSION TEST OF METALLIC MATERIALS

OBJECTIVE

1. To study the linearly elastic behavior of metallic material under torsion and to determine
the shear modulus of elasticity, G, and Poisson’s Ratio, , for metals using torsional stress-
strain relationships.

2. To study the complete behavior of metallic materials under torsion and to determine
qualitatively the relationship between torsional load and angle of twist for a full range of
strains till failure.

3. To determine whether the metallic materials fail in tension, compression, or shear when it
is subjected to pure shear.

Submitted by __________________ SPECIMEN

Group _______ Section __________ Cylindrical bar
Date Performed _________________ Materials ___________________
Date Submitted _________________ Dimensions __________________
Instructor ______________________
 3-14

THEORY

Assume that the material is linearly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic (material having the
same properties in all directions), and for a solid cylindrical section twists under an externally
applied torque T, shown in Figure 2-1 in accordance with the torsion Formula (found in any
standard Strength of Materials text book):

Tr Tr
   (2-1)
J IP
where
 = torsional shear stress at a point on the surface of a cylinder
T = twisting moment
r = radius of the cylinder
d = diameter of the cylinder
d 4
Ip = J = polar moment of inertia of the cross section about its center =
32

The angle of twist of a cylindrical bar is also related to the applied torque, T as given
below:
T T
   (2-2)
GJ GI P

where  = angle of twist having a unit of radians per unit of length

and the total angle of twist  is :
TL TL
   (2-3)
GJ GI P

where  = total angle of twist having a unit of radians.

L = length of the bar over which the angle of twist measured
G = shear modulus of elasticity
GIP = GJ = torsional rigidity

Since the material is linearly elastic, the Hooke’s law in shear is given by:

  G or   (2-4)
G
where  = shear strain in radians.
Thus
Tr Tr
   (2-5)
GJ GI P
or
r
  (2-6)
L
 3-15

Note that the above formulas are valid only below the proportional limit and, therefore, above
the proportional limit only qualitative conclusions can be drawn, such as, the load increases,
decreases, or remains constant as the angle of twist increases.

T
T
 z
d = 2r

L
(a) Shear stress in a circular bar under torsion

σmax σmin = -
Tzk Tzk
d = 2r
z
σmin σmax = 

(b) Tensile and compressive stresses acting on a stress element oriented at 45

Figure 2-1 Solid cylindrical bar under twisting moment

By subjecting a circular cylinder to torsion, a condition of pure shear can be produced at

every point in the body (excluding the part of the cylinder within or near the clamps or
chucks) and shear properties are usually determined in this manner. By this method the shear
stress can be calculated by the above torsion formula (see Figure 2-1), and based on the force
equilibrium in a stressed element, one can obtain the following relations:

 max    min   (2-7)

where  max and  min are the tensile and compressive stresses oriented at 45 to the
longitudinal axis Z as indicated in Figure 2-1b.

Figure 2-2 illustrates the strains in pure shear for a solid cylindrical bar under twisting
moment as shown in Figure 2-1;
 3-16

(a) Shear distortion of a stressed element orientation at  = 0

(b) Distortion of a stressed element oriented at  = 45

Figure 2-2 Strains in pure shear in a stressed element

The positive normal strain in max-direction (see Figure 2-2b) produced by max is
equal to  max / E   
E
Also, the stress min produces a positive strain in max-direction equal to  / E , therefore, the
total normal strain in max-direction is

  
 max    1    (2-8)
E E E
 3-17

where  is called the Poisson’s Ratio. The max is a positive normal strain, representing
elongation in max-direction. The normal strain min in min-direction is a negative normal
strain of the same amount, which represents shortening. These normal strains, max and min are
consistent with the deformed shape of Figure 2-2a, which produces elongation in the 135
diagonal and shortening in the 45 diagonal. From the geometry of the deformed element
which relates the shear strain  to the normal strain max in the 135 direction (Figure 2-2b),
one has

  2 max (2-9)

Equation (2-9) has been used to calculate the shear strains, , under applied torque T.
Also, Equations (2-1) and (2-9) have been used to determine the relations between the
torsional shear stress  and shear strain  under applied torque T. From the above linear
relationship or Equation (2-4), one can attain the shear modulus of elasticity G, or the
Poisson’s ratio  from Equation (2-8), or

 
 max   1     G 1   
2 E E

E
thus G  (2-10)
21   

Note that while Poisson’s ratio can be determined in a tension test by measuring the lateral
contraction, it will require such very precise measurements that it is more practical to
determine the tensile and shearing moduli of elasticity and compute Poisson’s Ratio from
these. Since in this torsion test the tensile modulus of elasticity is not determined, one can
refer to a text for the generally accepted value, and with that and your own value for shearing
modulus of elasticity one can calculate Poisson’s Ratio using Equation (2-10).

SAFETY ISSUES

 Eye Hazard – Small pieces of metal can fly off failing specimens, beware splashes of
surface conditioning compounds, Safety Glasses Required.
 Sharp Edges – Handle failed specimens with care to avoid cuts
 Failed Specimens can be hot (why?) Beware of burns.
 3-18

TEST PROCEDURE

1. Measure and record the diameter of the test specimen.

2. Make sure the solid cylindrical bar is fit securely into the torsion testing machine.
3. Start the data acquisition program, which acknowledges its readiness to collect data.
4. Repeat a second test if needed.
5. Construct a table to collect the data of loads and deformations during the test as shown in
data sheet.
6. Find the final diameter of test cylindrical bar and sketch its failure mode.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

1. Use a spreadsheet to plot the torsional shear stress-shear strain curve from the computer
file to a stress level below the proportional limit. Determine the experimental shear
modulus of elasticity from this curve using Equation (2-4). Then in conjunction with
Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity E, from a reference value, calculate Poisson’s
ratio from Equation (2-10).
2. Calculate the theoretical torque and compare to the experimental results.
3. Plot the experimentally obtained torsional shear stress , and shear strain  , curves on two
graphs, one for the entire data set (elastic and plastic behavior) and another one for the
first phase (linearly elastic behavior) of torsion tests. Use the data given to you by the
instructor. Compare and discuss the results.
4. Compare the values of the shear modulus of elasticity, G, and Poisson’s ratio, , obtained
from the test with the authoritative values found in the text book or other resources.
Discuss the test results.
5. Describe the behavior of this material as it responds to increasing load. Pay special
attention to the region above the yield where linear elastic theory no longer applies.
6. Sketch and describe the appearance of the failed bar, and discuss the mode of failure
(ductile failure as compared to brittle failure). It is suggested to photograph the test
specimen for inclusion in your report.
7. Discuss and conclude whether the ductile metallic materials generally fail in tension,
compression, or shear when it is subjected to pure shear.

POSTLAB QUESTIONS

(These questions are meant to direct your thinking so you can draw expected conclusions.
The answers by themselves do not complete the assignment, your conclusions are
required.)
1. Two equations are used to calculate the torsional stresses. What are they? Explain what is
experimentally necessary to prove these equations.
 3-19

2. What does your text tell you about the failure modes of ductile and brittle materials when
they are subjected to pure shear? Did this material fail in tension, compression or shear?
What observations bring you to that conclusion?
 3-20

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 3

STRESSES, STRAINS AND DEFLECTION OF

STEEL BEAMS IN PURE BENDING

OBJECTIVE

1. To compare the theoretical strain predictions with the strain measurements obtained from
both the electrical and mechanical strain gage methods.

2. To experimentally determine the location of the neutral axis in the beam cross section and
compare it with the theoretical predicted value.

3. To examine the validity of the assumption made in the flexural analysis of beams that
cross sections remain plane during bending.

4. To compare the theoretically predicted deflections with the measured experimental values.

Submitted by __________________ SPECIMEN

Group _______ Section __________ Material Steel Beam . .
Date Performed _________________ Section S818.4 .
Date Submitted _________________ 3
Clear Span 12 ft and 6 4 inches
Instructor ______________________
 3-21

THEORY

Consider a simply supported beam under four-point bending which is illustrated in Figure 3-
1 .If the cross-section of a beam is symmetrical about its neutral axis, the maximum tensile
and compressive stresses are equal.

Mzy My
Thus, the flexure formula x     (3-1)
Iz I
Mc M Pa
Becomes  t ( at bottom)    c ( at top )    (3-2)
I S S
where  t = the maximum tensile stress
 c = the maximum compressive stress
S = section modulus = Iz / c
Mz = M = Pa = bending moment about the z-axis
(with respect to the neutral axis)
Iz = I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the z-axis
c = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme element in y-direction
a = distance from support to the applied load

Figure 3-1 A simply supported beam under four-point bending

 3-22

From the Hooke’s law or the theory of linearly elastic analysis, one has

x  E x (3-3)

Mc M Pa
or  t ( at bottom)    c ( at top )    (3-4)
EI ES ES

where E = modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus

 t = the maximum tensile strain
 c = the maximum compressive strain
EIz = EI = flexural rigidity

DEFLECTION

Deflection calculations are an important part of structural analysis and design, and the design
engineers are normally required to verify that the deflections under service loads are within
tolerable limits as specified by the Standard Specifications and Codes.

There are several methods available for the calculation of deflections in structures. They are
double integration method, moment-area method, conjugate beam method, and matrix
structural analysis method, etc., and can be found in most Strength of Materials and Structural
Analysis textbooks. The Double Integration method enables us to determine not only
the deflection at any location of the structures but also the deflection profile or elastic curve of
the structures.

Figure 3-1 shows a simply supported beam under four-point bending. In the case of
a prismatic beam with constant EI, the differential equation of the deflection curve (or the
elastic curve) of a beam is as follow:

d2y Mz M
  (3-5)
dx 2 EI z EI

where Mz = M = bending moment about the z-axis

E = Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
Iz = I = moment of inertia about the z-axis, and
EIz = EI = flexural rigidity

From the bending-moment expression of the beam, and the boundary conditions, one can
solve the above governing differential equations and attain the following deflection curve or
elastic curve:

y  
Px
6 EI
3aL  3a 2  x 2 ,  y  
P
2 EI
aL  a 2  x 2   0  x  a (3-6)
 3-23

y  
Pa
6 EI
 
3Lx  3 x 2  a 2 , y  
Pa
2 EI
 L  2x  a  x  L  a (3-7)

c   max 
Pa
24 EI

3L2  4a 2  (3-8)
Pa L  a 
A  B  (3-9)
2 EI

where
y = deflection in the y-direction (positive upward)
y = dy/dx = slope of the deflection curve
 c = -y (L/2) = deflection at midpoint C of the beam (positive downward)
 max = -ymax = maximum deflection (positive downward)
 A = - y (0) = angle of rotation at left-hand end of the beam (positive clockwise)
 B = - y (L) = angle of rotation at right-hand end of the beam
(positive counterclockwise)

(a) Coordinate System

(b) Deflection curve

 3-24

(c) Beam with four-point bending

Figure 3-2 A simply supported beam under four-point bending

TEST APPARATUS

The experimental setup is shown in Figure 3-3, which consists of a beam tester and the loads
weight 50 lbs each .The instrumentations include the strain indicator and the switching and
balancing unit. Also, ten strain gages and eleven sets of mechanical strain gages are installed
on one face of the steel beam S818.4. The locations are shown in Tables 3-1and 3-2,
respectively.

TABLE 3-1 Electrical Strain Gage at TABLE 3-2 Mechanical Strain Gage near
mid-span mid-span

Number Distance from Bottom Number Distance from Bottom

1 8.08 inches 1 8.21 inches
2 6.69 2 6.77
3 5.93 3 6.05
4 5.12 4 5.37
5 4.50 5 4.71
6 3.77 6 4.04
7 3.00 7 3.37
8 2.18 8 2.67
9 1.40 9 2.03
10 0.40 10 1.39
11 0.47
 3-25

Figure 3-3 Test setup for a simply supported beam S818.4 under four-point bending

The mechanical (Whittemore) strain gage is commonly used to precisely measure a change in
length of less than one-ten thousandth of an inch, and must be handled carefully to prevent
damage. To make a reading, the two conical points are inserted into the two gage holes with
the axes of the cones perpendicular to the surface on which the measurement is being made,
and the instrument is pressed gently against the surface.

The electrical strain gage operates on the principle that, when strained (elongated or
contracted), the electrical resistance of a wire changes because of change in length and/or
change in cross section. This change in resistance is measured by a Wheatstone Bridge in
which the variable resistance has been graduated to read directly in microinches per inch of
strain. Each gage consists merely of a very fine wire within a protective covering which has
been cemented to the surface of the specimen.
 3-26

TEST PROCEDURE

1. Use of Measurements Group P-3500 and SB-10 for Strain Measurements

a) P-3500 Strain Indicator
-Set Amp Zero to 0
-Set Gage Factor to 2.015
-Set Balance to 500
-Press RUN button to read strain

b) SB-10 Switch and Balance Unit

-Adjust gage to a zero reading on the P-3500 by selecting the channel of interest
and adjusting the Balance knob on the SB-10 for that channel
-After loading, measure the strains by selecting the channel of interest and reading
the P-3500 display.

2. Use of Demountable Mechanical (DEMMEC) Gage for Strain Measurements

-Set the gage into the 10.0000 inch invar punch bar and zero the gage. The
DEMMEC now reads 0 at 10.0000 inches.
-Using the DEMMEC measure the gage lengths at the various levels, the distance
between the various gaging points. Deviation +/- from 0.0000 is +/- deviations
from 10.0000 inches.
-After loading record readings, The readings are +/- s. Divide by the gage length
to compute the strain.

3. Use of CDI Digital Dial Indicator for Deflection Measurements

-Set the gage reading to zero
-After loading record the deflections

4. Procedure
a) Zero the electrical gages
b) Measure the gage lengths
c) Zero the deflection gage
d) Apply load to the beam by placing weights onto the loading pans in 200 lbs.
increments (the weights are 50 lbs. apiece). With the level arms setup for a load
factor of 10, this will produce incremental loads of 2000, 4000 and 6000 lbs.
Make readings of all the electrical and mechanical strain gages, and the deflection
gage between each loading and unloading increment.
 3-27

ANALYSIS OF DATA

1. Based on Equation (3-4), calculate the theoretical unit strain on the top and bottom
surfaces of the steel beam for each of the loads P (not P1). Note that it is sufficient to
determine c and t only because only two points are needed to determine the theoretically
linear strain distributions across the cross-section.
2. Draw a graph of the theoretical strains for each of the loads, using the beam depth as the
ordinate (y-axis) and strain as abscissa (x-axis).
3. On the same graph, show as separate points the measured strains. Indicate which are
measured with the electrical strain gage and the mechanical strain gage for each of the
loads, i.e., (a) loading, (b) unloading.
4. Using linear regression analysis, the neutral axis can be obtained by the y-intercept of the
regression equations.
5. From Equation (3-8), calculate the theoretical maximum deflections at mid-span of the
beam for each of the loads P (not P1).
6. Collect all dial gage readings of the deflection measurements for each of the loads during
loading and unloading, and compare their results with the theoretical elastic- deflection
values.
7. Compare the experimental deflection measurements with the theoretical values for zero,
2000 lbs. and 4000 lbs. while undergoing loading and unloading.

REPORT

1. Construct a table which compares the theoretical and the experimental maximum tensile
strains at the bottom of the beam and the maximum compressive strains at the top as
shown in Table 3-3. Discuss the results and findings.

TABLE 3-3 Comparison of theoretical and experimental stresses and strains

 t (psi) at bottom  c (psi) at top

Theoretical Electrical Mechanical Theoretical Electrical Mechanical
Loads, P (lbs) strain strain gage strain strain gage
gage gage
2000
Loading 4000
6000
4000
Unloading 2000
0
Note: the above table is the sample for the stress comparison
 3-28

2. Plot graphs showing the theoretical strains and the measured strains both by electrical and
mechanical strain gages for each of the loads, including loading and unloading. Use the
depth of the beam as the y-axis, and the strain as the x- axis of the graphs.
3. Determine and show the locations of the neutral axis in the beam cross section on the
graphs for each load. Discuss the results and findings.
4. Discuss and conclude the validity of the assumption that beam cross-sections remain plane
during bending.
5. Prepare a table as shown in Table 3-4 which lists all the deflections at mid-span of the test
beam determined by Equation (3-8), the theoretical elastic-analysis and by the
experimental measurement using the dial gage.

TABLE 3-4 Mid-span deflection

Loads, P  c (inches)  c (exp .) /  c ( theo.)

(lbs.) Theoretical Experimental
2,000
Loading 4,000
6,000
4,000
Unloading 2,000
0
Average Value
Standard Deviation

6. Discuss and conclude the test results and findings such as:
(a) Are the dial gage measurements made while loading the steel beam the same as those
made while unloading;
(b) How do your calculated deflections compare to the actual measured deflections for
each of loads? Is the theoretical analysis conservative or does it understate the actual
deflection?
(c) What are the limitations of the theoretical formulas, Equation (3-5) through Equation
(3-9), that are being used in the structural design?

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS

1. Was there good agreement between the theoretical predictions of strain and the
experimentally measured strains?
2. Which strain gaging method seems to give the best results?
3. What is your determination of the neutral axis? How did you reach this value?
4. What measurement dictates the precision of the determination of the neutral axis?
 3-29

5. Was there good agreement between the theoretical predictions of deflections and the
measured deflection? Do you believe the expression for deflection is conservative?
6. Were the theories under consideration proved? If so, how? And if not, why?
7. How does the experiment demonstrate that plane sections do indeed remain plane under
bending?

EXPERIMENT 3

Strains and Stresses in Pure Bending of Steel Beams

Load P Electrical Strain Mechanical Strain

Gage Reading Gage Reading
(microinches per inch) (in)

0 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________

2,000 lbs 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________

4,000 lbs 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________

6,000 lbs 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________
 3-30

EXPERIMENT 3 (continued)

Load P Electrical Strain Mechanical Strain

Gage Reading Gage Reading
(microinches per inch) (in)

4000 lbs . 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________

2000 lbs . 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________

0 lbs 1. _______ 6. ________ 1. _______ 6. ________

Central 2. _______ 7. ________ 2. _______ 7. ________
Deflection 3. _______ 8. ________ 3. _______ 8. ________
(in.) 4. _______ 9. ________ 4. _______ 9. ________
________ 5. _______ 10. ________ 5. _______ 10. ________
11. ________
 4-1

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 4

STRAIN MEASUREMENTS USING STRAIN ROSETTES IN ALUMINUM

BEAMS

OBJECTIVE

1. To study the strain measurements of a simply supported aluminum beam in a general case of
plane stress by means of the Mohr's Circle analysis.

2. To verify theoretical computations of the combined stresses at several point on a beam with
the experimental results.

3. To experimentally determine the combined stresses (the actual state of stress) at several
points on a beam using the Strain Rosettes

Submitted by __________________ SPECIMEN

Group ________ Section ___________ Material _____________________
Date Performed __________________ Section _____________________
Date Submitted __________________ Clear span _____________________
Instructor __________________
 4-2

THEORY

Consider an element in plane stress as shown in Figure 4-1; this element is infinitesimal in size
and can be sketched as a rectangular parallelpiped.  x and  y are designated as normal stresses
acting on the x- and y-face of the element, respectively. The shear stress  xy acts on the x-face in
the direction of the y-axis, and  yx acts on the y-face in the direction of the x-axis.
They are equal, i.e.  xy =  yx. The positive sign conventions of these plane stresses are depicted
in Figure 4-1

(a) two-dimensional view in x-y axis

(b) two-dimensional view in x-y and n-t axes

Figure 4-1 An element in case of plane stress

 4-3

Any Strength of Materials textbook will show that the axial strain in n-direction is given by:

n   x cos 2    y sin 2    xy sin  cos , or (4-1a)

x y x y  xy
n   cos 2  sin 2 (4-1b)
2 2 2

Since each strain gage measures the normal strain in only one direction, at least three strain
gages are needed to determine the strains in a plane stress element, as indicated as A, B, and C in
Figure 4-2.

Figure 4-2 Three strain gages, A, B, and C arranged in an element

From the configuration of strain gages shown in Figure 4-2,

x y x y  xy
A   cos 2 A  sin 2 A (4-2)
2 2 2
x y x y  xy
B   cos 2 B  sin 2 B (4-3)
2 2 2
x y x y  xy
C   cos 2 C  sin 2 C (4-4)
2 2 2

Solving the above three equations simultaneously, one can find x, y, and xy, the two normal
strains and one shear strain in a plane stress element.
 4-4

For the 60 strain rosettes:

A = 0 B = 60 C = 120

3
sin 2A = 0 sin 2B =
2
3
sin 2C = -
2
1
cos 2A = 1 cos 2B = -
2
1
cos 2C = -
2

Figure 4-3 60 strain rosettes

From Equations (4-2), (4-3) and (4-4); one yields:

A  x (4-5)
 x  3 y  3 xy
B  (4-6)
4
 x  3 y  3 xy
C  (4-7)
4

Solve the above Equations (4-5), (4-6), and (4-7), one obtains:

x  A (4-8)
y  1
3  2 B  2 C   A  (4-9)
 xy   23   C   B  (4-10)

(i) For the 45 strain rosettes:

A = 0,  B = 45, and  C = -45 or 135,

and
x  A (4-11)
y  B  C   A (4-12)
 xy   B  C (4-13)
 4-5

Figure 4-4 45 strain rosettes[

In the case of biaxial stress (Figure 4-1), Hooke’s law of plane stress-strain relation or the
constitutive law for a linearly elastic material is given by:

x 
E
 x   y  (4-14)
1 2
y 
E
 y   x  (4-15)
1 2
and
 xy  G xy (4-16)

where E = Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity

 = Poisson’s ratio
G = Shear modulus of elasticity

Now, the stress analysis of a simply support beam as illustrated in Figure 4-5, usually begins by
determining the normal and shear stresses acting at any points on the cross sections of the beam.
When the Hooke’s law holds, or the beam behaves in a linearly elastic manner, the following
normal and shear stresses from the flexural and shear formulas as seen in most standard Strength
of Materials textbooks, can be used:

Mzy My
Flexure formula: x     (4-17)
Iz I
 4-6

VyQ VQ
and Shear formula: `  xy   (4-18)
bI z bI

where Mz = M = bending moment about the z-axis,

Iz = I = moment of inertia about the z-axis,
y = distance from the z-axis,
Vy = V = Shear force in y-axis,
b = width of the cross-section,
Q = first moment of the cross-sectional area outside of the point in the
cross section where the stress is being found.

TEST APPARATUS

Six strain rosettes have been cemented to an aluminum beam as indicated in Figure 4-5; gage 2,
4 and 6 are 45 rosettes and gages 1, 3 and 5 are 60 rosettes.

Figure 4-5 Tested aluminum beam with six strain rosettes

(E = 10.3  106 psi and G = 4.1  106 psi)
 4-7

TEST PROCEDURE

This test is conducted using a Vishay Micro Measurements System 5000 data acquisition
system. This equipment is capable of conditioning and reading signals from strain gages,
thermocouples, L VDTs, high range signals like those coming from DCDTs and tiltmeters or any
device providing scaled voltage signals. In this experiment the System 5000 is used to measure
and reduce the data from 5 rosettes, comprising 15 strain gages, and the applied load.

1. Start the computer and load the Strain Smart program.

2. Open, arm, and start the Lab4 program.
3. Apply a 25,000 lb load to the beam.
4. Click on the Read button.
5. Release the load and turn off the testing machine.
6. Identify the data file, and using the Strain Smart program reduce the data into Excel
comma delimited format.
7. Copy the data to floppy disk.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

1. Calculate the theoretical values of the combined stresses, x and xy using the flexural and
shear formulas, Equations (4-17) and (4-18), at each rosette location.

2. The data file contains the strains measured by each rosette element and the experimentally
measured principal stresses at each rosette location. For extra credit the strain gage data can
be reduced by hand using Equations (4-8), (4-9), (4-10) for the 60° rosettes and Equations
(4-11), (4-12), (4-13) for the 45° rosettes, however the principal stresses that result should
match those given by the data file. (The hand computations are not needed to fulfill the
purpose of the experiment).

3. Using the theoretical values of x and xy, draw the theoretical Mohr's Circles for the six
Rosette locations.

4. On top of the theoretical Mohr's Circle plot the experimental principal stresses and connect
them with a circle.

5. Note that gages 1, 2 and 3 are sufficiently far from the loads on the beam, so that the
theoretical and experimental values should correspond. Gage 4, being under the concentrated
load, is affected by the localized response of the beam to the concentrated load.
 4-8

REPORT

1. Prepare a table as shown in Table 4-3 which compares the maximum tensile stress,
compressive stress and shear stress determined experimentally and theoretically for each
rosette.

TABLE 4-3 Comparison of theoretical and experimental values of combined stresses at

each gage.

Gage Theoretical Experimental stress  exp eriment 

No. Stress (psi) Strain Stress (psi) stress ( theoretical )
x x x
y y y
xy xy xy
max max
min min

2. Discuss the test results and draw conclusions. The discussion will cover the values
discovered and the correspondence between the theoretical and experimental values.
The conclusion will cover how well the theory was supported by the experiment.

SUGGESTED QUESTIONS
1. How well did the theory predict the experimental
measurements at each of the six
points?

2. If any of the experimental Mohr's Circles happens to be

radically different from its
theoretical partner, what might be the cause of the differences?
 5-1

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 5

COMPRESSION TEST OF STEEL COLUMNS

OBJECTIVE

1. To study some of the important parameters which affect column buckling, such as
slenderness ratio and least radius of gyration.
2. To determine the relationship between critical stress and the slenderness ratio of steel
columns.
3. To confirm the validity of Euler’s analysis of Pcr, the critical buckling load and the
relationship of Pcr to column slenderness.

Submitted by ___________________ SPECIMEN

Group _______ Section __________ Lengths of bars, ranging from _________
Date Performed _________________ to _________
Date Submitted _________________ Material _________________________
Instructor ______________________ Diameter _________________________
 5-2

THEORY

Structural members that support compressive loads are commonly called columns, and one of the
inherent difficulties with compressive loads applied in this manner is the possibility of a
geometric instability of buckling. The longer a column, the greater the likelihood of buckling for
any given cross-section and modulus of elasticity. In practical structural design, it is necessary to
determine what limiting load may be carried by a column before buckling occurs.

In 1744, the Swiss famous mathematician Leonard Euler (1707-1783) published the result of
critical or buckling load Pcr, for a slender column, known as Euler load,

 2 EI
Pcr  (5-1)
 KL  2

where Pcr = critical or buckling load,

E = modulus of elasticity,
I = moment of inertia about the weak axis,
L = length of the column
K = effective length factor, K=1 for pinned-ended column
rg = radius of gyration (usually written without the subscript)

The critical stress, cr, can be written as

P  2E
 cr  cr 
A   KL
r
2 (5-2)

where L/rg = L/r = slenderness ratio, and

I = Arg2, = Ar2

The radius of gyration, rg, is usually written simply as “r” in the context of Euler’s analysis.

Note that columns will buckle in the direction of the least moment of inertia, I.
If the column is made of round bar with a diameter of d, then

r= r  I 
 
d 4 d
 d 2 4   4
64
A 
For a pinned-ended column, K=1, Equation (5-2) becomes
 5-3

L r  
 2E
 cr
(5-3)

Equations (5-2) and (5-3) are valid only when the critical stress is equal to or below
the proportional limit, pl. The critical slenderness ratio can be represented as,
L  2E
   (5-4)
 r c  pl

When a column is of intermediate length, or called intermediate columns, the critical stress in the
column will reach over the proportional limit as illustrated in Figure 5-1. In this case, the
column undergoes inelastic buckling, and a theory of inelastic buckling such as tangent modulus
theory, the reduced or double modulus theory, and the Shanley theory, is needed.

Figure 5-1 Critical stress versus slenderness ratio

 5-4

TEST APPARATUS

The column testing device is shown in Figure 5-2 which consists of a MTS closed-loop servo
controlled hydraulic testing machine, the automatic control and electronic data acquisition
system, as seen in the tension test (Experiment 1).

Figure 5-2 Column test setup

 5-5

SAFETY ISSUES
Crushing Hazard – Only a trained operator is allowed to operate the MTS machine.
Do not place hands or any body part into the 55,000 pound crush zone along the line
of the piston motion.

TEST PROCEDURE
1. Several test specimens of AISI 1020 steel must be prepared and ready for testing.
i. Use three specimens of ¼” diameter with lengths of approximately 3”, 12”, and 24”
ii. Use three specimens of ½” diameter with lengths of approximately 3”, 12”, and 24”
2. Measure and record the actual lengths and diameters of all test specimens.
3. Construct a data sheet with the following column headings, as seen in Table 5-1: Diameter of
Bar, Length of Bar, Load at Failure, Stress at Failure, and Slenderness Ratio.
4. After positioning the test specimen, the load is applied to the end of the bar through a
hardened steel hemisphere resting on a hardened steel surface. Thus the ends of the bars are
hinged and the force is applied very nearly along the axes of the bars. Use K = 1.
5. Apply the load very slowly at a stroke rate of 0.015 in/min until the load reaches a maximum
and starts to decrease, then remove the load immediately as the column starts to buckle.

TABLE 5-1 Specimen details and test results. Suggested table for your report.

Specimen Diameter Length (in.) Pcr (lb.) cr (psi) L/r

Number (in.)
 5-6

ANALYSIS OF DATA

For the experimental Euler’s curve compute the radius of gyration, rg, and the slenderness for
each column. From the loads, compute the stresses at failure for each column. From the
slenderness compute the Euler Pcr. Plot the experimental results as points and the Euler’s
prediction as a line (it will be necessary to sort all the data by L/rg to produce this graph).
1. Plot Euler’s formula, Equation (5-2) with K=1, which is similar to the Euler’s curve shown in
Figure 5-1.
2. On the same graph, plot a point for each column tested using cr as ordinate and L/r as
abscissa.
3. For those experimental points which do not agree with the Euler’s analytical expression, a
curve-fitting or and empirical straight-line formula may be used. For the intermediate
columns, the equation of a straight line is,

 cr  A  B L  r (5-5)

where A and B are the constants to be determined. To determine A and B, draw the straight line
which most nearly fits the plotted points and is tangent to or intersects Euler’s curve. Select any
two points on the line and read the co-ordinates of these two points. By substituting these
numerical values for the variables in Equation (5-5), two simultaneous equations are formed
which can be solved for the constants A and B.

REPORT

1. Make a table listing all specimen details, critical load, critical stress and slenderness ratio.
2. Plot both analytical and experimental curves of critical stress versus slenderness ratio similar
to Figure 5-1.
3. Discuss and conclude your test results and analyses.

QUESTIONS TO DIRECT YOUR THOUGHTS

(These questions are meant to direct your thinking in particular directions so you can draw
expected conclusions. The answers by themselves do not complete the assignment.. The answers
to these questions should be written into the conclusion rather than answering individually. )

1. Was the critical load correctly predicted by Euler’s analysis?

2. What was the relationship between slenderness and Pcr?
3. What was the range of intermediate columns? Can you find a model, some equation to
mathematically describe column behavior in the intermediate range? What models the long
columns? The short columns ?
4. Do you conclude that Euler’s analysis of columns is valid or not ?
 5-7

EXPERIMENT 5

Compression Test of Steel Columns Data Sheet

Length (in.) Diameter (in.) Critical Load (N)

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 6-1

REFERENCES

1. ASTM Specifications (American Society for Testing and Materials Specifications), 1916
Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103. Note that the ASTM Specifications are revised every
year and consist of many volumes. Sometimes a particular standard gets moved from one
volume to another.

2. Manual of Steel Construction, published by the AISC (American Institute of Steel

Construction), Inc., One East Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60601, USA.

3. Aluminum Construction Manual published by the Aluminum Association, Inc., 900, 19th
Street NW, Washington, D.C. 20006, USA.

4. Paul E. Nielsen, “Strength of Material-Laboratory and Problem Manual”, Eight Edition,

Newark College of Engineering, Newark, New Jersey USA, 1957.

5. Mathew Ciesla, “Mechanics of Materials-Experiments and Problems”, Sixth Edition, New

Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey, USA, 1976.

6. James M. Gere, “Mechanics of Materials”, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole, A division of

Thomson Learing, 2001. 926 pages.

7. Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russell Johnston, Jr., “Mechanics of Materials”, 2nd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1992, 740 pages.

8. G. S. Holister, “Experimental stress Analysis”, Cambridge University Press, 1967, 322 pages.