Quantum Electrodynamics

Outline
Outline
Classical versus Quantum Theory
Force/interaction mediated by
exchange of field quanta
Virtual Particles
Propagator
Feynman Diagrams
Feynman Rules
Matrix Elements
Cross sections
Electromagnetic vertex
Coupling strength
Coupling constant
Conservation laws
QED processes
Electron-proton scattering
Electron-positron annihilation
Higher order Diagrams
Precision QED tests
Running of alpha
Dirac Equation
Appendix

Nuclear and Particle Physics Franz Muheim 1

 Quantum Electrodynamics
Quantum Theory (QED)
of Electromagnetic Interactions
Classical Electromagnetism
Forces arise from Potentials V(r)
act instantaneously at a distance
QED Picture
Forces described by exchange of
virtual field quanta - photons

Propagator

Matrix element
Full derivation in 2nd order perturbation theory
Gives propagator term 1/(q2 - m2) g2
M fi = 2
for exchange boson (q − m 2 )
Equivalent to scattering in Yukawa potential

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 Virtual Particles
Electromagnetic Interaction
Forces between two charged particles are due to
exchange of virtual photons
Example:
electron-electron
scattering:
q2 e- e- → e- e-

“Photon mediates electromagnetic interaction”

No action at a distance required!
Virtual Particles
Do not have mass of physical particle
r
m X2 ≠ E X2 − p X2

known as “Off mass-shell”

e.g. non-zero for photon
r
4-momentum of virtual particle q µ = ( E q , q )
is energy and momentum transfer
between scattered particles
Virtual mass-squared q2 = EX2 - pX2
q2 > 0 and q2 < 0 possible
Propagator - how far particle is off mass-shell
Internal lines, not observable must observe ∆E ∆t ≈ ħ

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 Feynman Diagrams

A Feynman diagram is a pictorial representation of a

process corresponding to a particular transition
amplitude Aitchison & Hey
“Gauge Theories in Particle Physics”

Basic Principle
Transition amplitude for
all processes - scattering, decay,
absorption, emission - is described
by Feynman Diagrams

Feynman diagrams a most useful tool in modern

particle physics and will be used a lot in this course!
Conventions
Time flows from left to right (sometimes upwards)
Fermions are solid lines with arrows
Bosons are wavy or dashed lines
Feynman Rules
Allow to calculate quantitative results of transition
Derived from quantum field theory (QFT)
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 Electromagnetic Vertex
QED Feynman Diagram
• Initial state fermion
• Absorption or emission
of photon
• Final state fermion
Examples: e- → e- γ Bremsstrahlung
e- + γ → e- Photoelectric effect
All electromagnetic interactions are described by
vertex and photon propagator
Coupling Strength
Transition amplitude proportional to
fermion charge Mfi ∝ e
Probability/rate of γ emission or absorption
rate ∝ |Mfi|2
Rate proportional to coupling constant α

Coupling Constant
CouplingConstant
Coupling Constant
e2 1
Fine structure constant α = 4πε hc ≅ 137 SI
α ∝ e2
0

QED Conservation Laws

Momentum and energy conserved at all vertices
Charge is conserved in all QED vertices
Fermion flavour is conserved
e-→e-γ exists, but not c→ u γ
QED vertex also conserves parity
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 Basic QED Processes

Initial and final state particle satisfy relativistic

four-momentum conservation m2 = E2 - p2
In free space - Energy conservation violated for above
diagrams if all particles are real

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 Feynman Rules for QED
Each line and vertex in Feynman diagram
corresponds to a term in the matrix element
Initial and final state fermions
Fermion wave function Ψ (spinor when including spin)
Initial and final state bosons
Boson wave function includes polarisation
Internal virtual photons
Photon propagator 1/(q2 - m2) = 1/q2
Internal fermions
Spinor propagator exchanged between charged
particles similar in structure to photon propagator
Vertex
Coupling constant √α ~ e

Example:
electron-muon scattering: e- µ- → e- µ-
Transition amplitude
− iM fi = u4 ieγ ν u2 muon current
− ig µν
photon propagator
q2
u3 ieγ µ u1 electron current

γ µ and g µν are 4x4 matrices account for

spin-structure of electromagnetic interaction

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Electron-Proton Scattering
Matrix Element e- p → e- p
Transition Amplitude
use Feynman rules
simple if neglecting spins
1 e 2 4πα
M ∝e 2 e= 2 = 2
q q q
Cross section
Probability for scattering
dσ 2 e 4 16π 2α 2
∝ M ∝ 4 =
dΩ q q4
4-momentum transfer
(
q 2 = q µ qµ = p µf − piµ )
2
= p 2f + pi2 − 2 p f ⋅ pi
( r
p µf = E f , p f )
(r r
= 2me − 2 E f E i − p f pi cos θ
2
) r
piµ = ( E i , pi )
⎛θ ⎞
= −4 E f E i sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ when neglecting me
⎝ 2⎠

Rutherford Scattering
RutherfordScattering
Rutherford Scattering
Elastic Ef = Ei = E, neglect proton recoil
dσ α2
=
dΩ ⎛θ ⎞
Lab
4 E 2 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2⎠

dσ α2 E f ⎛ 2⎛ θ ⎞ ⎞
⎜ cos ⎜ ⎟ − q sin 2 ⎛⎜ θ ⎞⎟ ⎟
2
=
dΩ Lab ⎛θ ⎞ E ⎜ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2M p
2
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎟⎠
4 E 2 sin 4 ⎜ ⎟ i ⎝
⎝ 2⎠

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 e+e- Annihilation
Matrix element e+e− → µ + µ −
Neglecting spin effects
q2
1 e 4πα 2
M ∝e 2
e= 2 = 2
q q q

Cross section
Work in centre-of-mass frame
4-momentum transfer
r r 2
q 2 = q µ qµ = ( E1 + E 2 ) − ( p1 + p2 ) = ( 2 E ) 2 = s
2

Use Fermi’s Golden Rule, density of final state

normalisation of wave function
dσ E2 α2
= 2π M
2
=
dΩ CoM (2π )3 s
t 2 + u2
Correct treatment of spins M
2
= 2e 4

s2

dσ α2
=
dΩ CoM 4 s
(
1 + cos 2 θ )
4πα 2
σ (e e → µ µ )
+ − + − 87 nb
= =
3s [
s GeV 2 ]
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 Higher Order Diagrams
QED
time dependent perturbation theory
Lowest order

1
σ ∝ M ∝α2 ≈
2

137 2

Second order

1
σ ∝ M ∝α4 ≈
2

137 4

Higher orders
Order n suppressed by α = 1/1372n
Lowest order dominates if coupling constant α is small
QED converges rapidly

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 QED Precision Tests
Magnetic moment
Couples to spin of electron
r r eh
µ = gµ B S where µ B =
2m e c
Dirac Equation predicts gyromagnetic ratio g = 2
for point-like particles
Anomalous magnetic moment
a = (g-2)/2
Higher order corrections
Bullet represents external electromagnetic field
vertex vacuum muon spin-precession
polarisation in magnetic field

α
Vertex ae = a µ = = 1.1617 ⋅ 10 − 3
2π
2 loops – 7 Feynman diagrams
3 loops – 72 Feynman diagrams
4 loops – 891 Feynman diagrams
QED is most precise theory in physics
Experiment ae = (11596521.869 ± 0.041) ·10-10
Theory ae = (11596521.3 ± 0.3) ·10-10 electrons

muons
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 Running of α
Coupling constant α
Strength of electromagnetic interaction
α = e2/4π is not a constant at all distances
Vacuum
Not empty, around free electron
creation and annihilation
of virtual electron-positron pairs
Screening
Bare charge and mass of electron only visible
at very short distances
α increases with with larger momentum transfer

e+e− → µ + µ −

Classical limit
q2 = 0 Î α = 1/137
At short distances
q2 = (90 GeV)2 Î α = 1/128

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 Dirac Equation
Schroedinger equation
1st order in time derivative
2nd order in space derivatives
Klein-Gordon equation
2nd order in space and time derivatives
⎛ ∂2 r 2 ⎞ ⎛ ∂2 r 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ − 2 + ∇ ⎟⎟ψ = m 2ψ or ⎜⎜ 2 − ∇ + m 2 ⎟⎟ψ = 0
⎝ ∂t ⎠ ⎝ ∂t ⎠
negative energies (E < 0)
and negative probability densities (|Ψ|2 < 0)
Dirac
Dirac equation
Dirac Equation
Equation

1st order in time and space derivatives

r r
⎛ 0 ∂
⎜ iγ
∂t
⎞
+ iγ ⋅ ∇ − m ⎟ Ψ = 0 or (iγ µ
)
∂µ − m Ψ = 0
⎝ ⎠
γµ are 4x4 matrices
⎛ Ψ1 ⎞
Solutions of Dirac equation ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Ψ2 ⎟
Wave function with 4-component spinor Ψ=⎜ ⎟
Ψ
⎜ 3⎟
⎜Ψ ⎟
r
(
Ψ ( x , t ) = N u( p) exp − ipν xν ) ⇒ E = ± p2 + m 2 ⎝ 4⎠

2 positive energy solutions, E > 0

2 negative energy solutions, E < 0
Dirac Equation not examinable
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