Port Fuel and Direct Injection Combination:

Engine Performance Benefits

Created by Group 24:

Matthew Greer
Ryan Geiger

ABSTRACT
Port Fuel Injection and Direct Injection have been utilized respectively in the
gasoline and diesel sectors of the automotive industry for decades. Recently, due to
advances in high-pressure nozzle technology and increasingly economic manufacturing
processes, direct injection can be used in gasoline engines as well. In fact, at the
forefront of fuel injection technology, companies have begun to combine both systems in
a single engine to achieve greater efficiency, power output, and torque behavior.  
 

Page  1  
TABLE OF CONTENTS  
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................3
 
1.1 Literature Review ..............................................................................................3  
 
2. BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY ...............................................................................4  
2.1 Port Fuel Injection .............................................................................................4  
2.2 Gasoline Direct Injection ...............................................................................4-5  
2.3 Dual PFI and GDI Systems ...........................................................................5-6  
 
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...............................................................................6-7
 
4. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................7  
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS / REFERENCES...............................................................8
 
APPENDICES...................................................................................................................8  
 
KEY TERMS  
Air charge: Charge refers to the volume of air inducted into the cylinder prior to
compression and ignition.
Fuel-air mixture: The engine must have a certain ratio of fuel to air: richer for increased
power and leaner for better efficiency.  
ECU: Electronic Control Unit  
Volumetric Efficiency: The ratio of the mass density of the air/fuel mixture drawn into
the cylinder during the intake stroke to the mass density of the same volume of air in the
intake manifold.  
Intake Manifold: The engine component that supplies the air or air/fuel mixture to the
cylinders.  
Runner: The last component of the intake manifold before an engine cylinder.
Naturally Aspirated: Engines without using air charge enhancements (e.g. Turbos,
Superchargers) or fuel enhancements (Nitrous Oxide).  

Figure  1:  Port  Fuel  Injection  (PFI)   Figure  2:  Direct  Injection  (DI)    

Page  2  
1. INTRODUCTION
Reduced to the simplest form, a combustion engine essentially combines fuel and
air in a specific ratio so that, through compression and ignition, power will be generated
from a combustion reaction in order to meet the requirements of the design condition.
With this fundamental framework in mind it becomes evident that, at least among high
performance and high-volume engines, the primary goal is to increase the mass flow rates
of fuel and air while maintaining the correct air/fuel ratio. The most important factor in
designing an engine with adequate air/fuel ratio is the fuel delivery system. Multiple
designs for fuel delivery systems have been implemented in the past for different
applications, having pros and cons associated with each design.  
Two of the most innovative systems are Port Fuel Injection and Direct Injection.
Many of the disadvantages to both can be improved on when combining PFI with GDI
for both high performance and high efficiency engines, the main difference being when
the injectors are active. Using PFI with GDI will increase the mass flow rate of fuel,
allow the fuel more time to atomize, vaporize, and homogenize, add cooling effects
before and during the intake stroke, and also clean carbon deposits from the runner and
cylinder.

1.1 Literature Review:

Fuel Injection was first used in manufacturing by General Motors in the 1940s for
large aircraft applications, and then utilized by multiple companies within the automotive
industry in the 1980s to replace carbureted engines. The fuel injection technology
evolved over the next two decades, primarily improving performance by altering the
location and quantity of injectors. Further development of this specific technology
reached a plateau when Port Fuel Injection was created. This fuel delivery system works
by injecting fuel individually into each intake runner, aimed directly at the top of the
intake valve. The gasoline is mixed with the air inside each intake runner, then sucked
into each cylinder during the intake stroke when the valve is open.  
Further evolution of fuel injection systems was driven by the need to improve cost
and efficiency. Direct Injection used for aircraft research in 1902 and was first used as a
mainstream method within the automotive industry as the foundation of diesel engine
technology. This system works by injecting fuel directly into each cylinder, further
increasing the amount of work done by the combustion process. The benefit was
realized early, but was not used successfully implemented in the production of gasoline
engines until the late 90s because performance was limited by other factors unrelated to
Direct Inject technology, as well market research proving there was no demand for it.
Once capability of other related technology improved, GDI could be used in the high-
volume production of gasoline engines. Today, leading automotive companies have
begun to combine Port Fuel and GDI technology into dual systems mounted on the same
engine.  

Page  3  
2. BENEFITS OF TECHNOLOGY
Port Fuel Injection and Gasoline Direct Injection have their own unique benefits
and drawbacks; they contribute in different ways to the process of fuel injection. Many of
the efficiency related disadvantages of each can be circumvented by switching to the
other system under a given load case. Additionally, when combining the two, the output
power advantages will combine to create a truly superior mode of operation.

2.1 Port Fuel Injection:

Port Fuel Injection was created as a solution to the unwanted side effects caused
by single point fuel delivery systems (e.g. carbureted and throttle body injection
systems). Having an injector dedicated to each cylinder allows for more consistent fuel
delivery between cylinders, which reduces the power differences, thus increasing
performance and reducing unwanted vibration. Each injector can be controlled
individually by the ECU, making proper tuning much more accessible.
Condensation of fuel anywhere before the cylinder is unwanted because it will
waste fuel, alter the air/fuel ratio, and decreases fuel efficiency. PFI still allows for some
fuel to condense inside of the runners but there is far less waste because the fuel does not
pass through the main body of the intake (i.e. Intake Manifold Plenum). For this reason,
PFI is a drastic improvement upon single point fuel delivery systems.
The combustion process is a chemical reaction that creates unwanted byproducts.
Some take the form of toxic chemicals that travel through the exhaust system and into the
environment, while others exist as carbon deposits on surfaces that should remain clean
for ideal performance. Spraying clean fuel at the back of the intake valve removes carbon
deposits and decreases the amount of toxins released into the environment.
For both power output and efficiency, it is key that the temperature of the air
charge is as low as possible prior to combustion. The density of the air/fuel mixture
increases, as the temperature decreases, contributing to a higher release of energy when
the air charge is combusted. The cooling effect in PFI systems is caused by the injectors
spraying fuel slightly upstream of the intake valve.
Additionally, designing an engine with injectors in this location provides more
time for the fuel to atomize, make an emulsion with air, and then vaporize to create a
homogenous mixture that is better suited for combustion. The volume of the air/fuel
mixture that will be accepted into the cylinder is dependent on the set displacement of the
piston. Therefore, by increasing the density of the set volume of the air and fuel, the
overall volumetric efficiency will increase. Preparing the charge in this way is a huge
improvement from single point injection systems but is not yet ideal. It improves but does
not eliminate engine knocking: a phenomenon that drastically limits engine performance.

2.2 Gasoline Direct Injection:

Direct Injection technology sprays fuel directly into the cylinder at a very high
pressure. This can be as much as 100 times greater than the lower pressure nozzles of
Port Fuel Injection systems. The higher-pressure results in a very well atomized spray,
then vaporizes completely by absorbing heat from the hot air of the cylinder. The fraction
of fuel vaporized by the end of the intake stroke is directly related to volumetric
efficiency; therefore, GDI systems have high volumetric efficiency.

Page  4  
 Additionally, through the dispersive action of increased vaporization, the air/fuel
mixture is well homogenized. Homogeneous mixtures are more efficient at extracting
heat from the piston and cylinder. GDI systems permit higher compression ratios because
they lower the surface temperature of the combustion chamber and thus result in greater
power output.
The fuel is sprayed at the beginning of the intake stroke, when the internal
components are still hot from the last expansion (combustion) stroke. Following the
intake stroke, the temperature of the air/fuel mixture sharply increases during the
compression stroke. This is in response to the increasing pressure via work performed by
the piston. By design, combustion within a cylinder is meant to initiate only at a single
point, i.e. where the spark plug ignites the air/fuel mixture. When this occurs properly, a
single flame wall will expand from the point of ignition and achieve the maximum
efficiency to perform the work of expansion within the cylinder. However, a sharp
increase in temperature during the compression stroke can often induce a phenomenon
referred to as knocking, which is caused by the high temperature induced by a high
compression ratio. Knocking is when multiple points of ignition erupt, spontaneously and
unintentionally, at other points in the cylinder. Each new point of ignition will perform
work counter to that of the design principle; knocking will cause problems such as loss of
efficiency, timing interference, and even aggressive engine wear.
Direct Injection reduces the likelihood of knocking effects by cooling the air
charge prior to compression. Often, the risk is completely eliminated. For ideal injection
analysis, GDI technology “... has the effect of lowering the air temperature ... by
approximately 20°C. As a result, even under wide-open throttle operation at low engine
speed, the gasoline direct injection test engine exhibited a 6% higher power output as
compared to that of a port fuel injection engine.” (Welshans, Part 10)
The drawbacks of GDI technology revolve almost entirely on the state and cost of
current technology. Since the systems require such high pressure, they are more
expensive and difficult to implement. A higher pressure pump is also associated with
parasitic losses. Additionally, direct injectors are noisy and can create service issues
because of carbon deposition. Carbon deposition occurs on the backside of the intake
valve because some of the fuel escapes the combustion chamber due to the fact that there
is so little time for vaporization.

2.3 Dual PFI and GDI Systems:

When combining the two systems, and using them at the same time, the pre-
homogenization of the air charge lowers the fuel spray requirement of the Direct
Injection nozzle and therefore, the directly injected fuel can completely homogenize in
what little time is left before the ignition event. Through this mechanism, the two systems
complement each other extremely well for the purpose of achieving a proper air/fuel
mixture that is well homogenized and supremely primed for combustion. The end
result is that the combination achieves greater power output and volumetric efficiency
than either of the two modes individually.
The additional air charge cooling characteristics help eliminate engine knocking,
which could not be done using Port Fuel Injection systems alone. The reduction in
knocking risk permits higher compression ratios and thus, an even higher power output.
Knocking is a more prevalent issue when the engine is under maximum load and the

Page  5  
combustion chamber is reaching very high temperatures. For this reason, some
companies choose to use PFI for low rpm and power load cases, while switching to GDI
when more power or speed is required. This decision is also supported by the noise level
of GDI systems: using PFI only at low speeds allows companies like Ford to reduce
engine noise at idle and during stop and go traffic or through cities.
Lastly, combining the two systems reduces the incidence of carbon deposition and
the engines do not need to be serviced as often. Although GDI can cause carbon
deposition, the tandem PFI washes clean any affected surfaces.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In recent years, several of the world’s largest car manufacturing companies have
adopted a dual fuel delivery system combining Port Fuel Injection and Direct Injection.
Ford is currently the leader in manufacturing engines with this dual fuel delivery system,
having several engines that effectively employ the concept. The new technology has been
primarily applied to the 2018 line of F-150s that can be purchased with five different
engine configurations. The first being the redesigned naturally aspirated 3.3-liter V6 that
is a redesign of the 2017 naturally aspirated 3.5-liter V6. In addition, there is the 2.7-liter
EcoBoost V6 and 5.0-liter EcoBoost V8, along with the same regular and high-output
versions of the 3.5-liter EcoBoost V6 from 2017. All of the redesigned engine options use
low-pressure PFI in combination with high-pressure GDI and have all displayed
improvements in engine performance.

Torque
Engine Model Horsepower Hp Improvement Torque
Improvement
2017 3.5L
282 hp @ 6500 253 lbft @ 4250
Naturally
RPM RPM
Redesign

Aspirated V6
Gained Gained
8 hp 12 lbft
2018 3.3L
290 hp @ 6500 265 lbft @ 4000
Naturally
RPM RPM
Aspirated V6

2017 2.7L
325 hp @ 5750 375 lbft @ 2750
EcoBoost
RPM RPM
Redesign

(Turbo) V6
Same Gained
hp 25 lbft
2018 2.7L
325 hp @ 5750 400 lbft @ 3000
EcoBoost
RPM RPM
(Turbo) V6

2017 5.0L
385 hp @ 5750 387 lbft @ 3850
EcoBoost
Redesign

RPM RPM
(Turbo) V8 Gained Gained
10 hp 13 lbft
2018 5.0L
395 hp @ 5750 400 lbft @ 3850
EcoBoost
RPM RPM
(Turbo) V8
Table  1:  Ford’s  performance  improvements  after  redesign  
with  dual  fuel  injection  systems  from  2017  to  2018

Page  6  
 Testing was done by Bronislaw Sendyka and Marcin Noga with Toyota’s 2005 D-
4S dual ignition system. Figure 3 (see appendix) shows the effect on torque and brake
specific fuel consumption when using different ratios of fuel delivered through PFI and
GDI when combined. The graph proves that there is a specific ratio of fuel (XDI
representing the fraction of fuel that is delivered through GDI) that should be delivered
through the two injection methods for the highest torque and lowest brake specific fuel
consumption.

4. CONCLUSION
The increase in demand for higher performing engines caused an evolution in fuel
delivery systems. Multi point fuel delivery was designed as a solution to the
disadvantages of single point delivery. Multi point used as Port Fuel Injection improves
volumetric efficiency, provides a cooling effect to the fuel and contact surfaces, allows
more time for atomization and vaporization of fuel, and cleans carbon deposits from
critical surfaces. All of these factors directly increase engine performance.
Evolution of fuel delivery systems continued, leading to the utilization of Direct
Injection for gasoline engines. GDI has similar effects as PFI, but within the cylinder. In
addition, it greatly reduces risk of engine knocking, which permits a higher compression
ratio and therefore greater power output. When compared to PFI specifically, GDI
increases fuel efficiency by a large amount.
Although both fuel delivery systems cause large improvements in engine
performance, there are still disadvantages to both. Most of these disadvantages can be
countered by using a combination of both fuel delivery systems. PFI compliments GDI
because it decreases the demand for fuel from the injectors directly in the cylinder and
also provides a cleaning effect. This has multiple affects, but ultimately has a very
positive influence on engine performance. GDI compliments PFI by solving the issue of
engine knocking, which is a huge hindrance on efficiency and the maximum achievable
engine power.
This specific method of dual fuel delivery is just starting to hit the consumer
vehicle market. Ford is currently the leader in utilization of combined high-pressure GDI
and low-pressure PFI. In 2018, Ford designed three of the five engine options for the new
F-150 using this technology and has confirmed a direct improvement in engine power
and efficiency from their 2017 models. Toyota has also done research and testing to
attempt to develop this technology for their applications. Although Toyota is not at Fords
level of manufacturing this technology, they have also reported significant benefits when
using both.

Page  7  
Acknowledgements / References
Quote 1:
Welshans, Terry. “A Brief History of Aircraft Carburetors and Fuel Systems Part
10: Fuel Injection.” EngineHistory.org, Aircraft Engine Historical Society, 2013, Accessed 5 Dec. 2018.
enginehistory.org/Accessories/HxFuelSys/FuelSysHx10.shtml.
Figures 1 & 2:
Tracy, David. “The 2018 Ford F-150 Gets A New Engine And More Horsepower.” Jalopnik.com, 2017, Accessed 5
Dec. 2018.
Jalopnik.com/the-2018-ford-f-150-gets-a-new-engine-and-more-horsepow-1796143724.
Figures 3 & 4:
Sendyka, Bronislaw, Marcin Noga. “Combustion Process in the Spark-Ignition Engine
with Duel-Injection System.” IntechOpen.com, Advances in Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel
Technologies, 2013, Accessed 5 Dec. 2018
intechopen.com/books/advances-in-internal-combustion-engines-and-fuel-technologies/combustion-process-
in-the-spark-ignition-engine-with-dual-injection-system
Appendices

 
Figure  3:  Traces  of  torque  and specific fuel consumption as a function of the fraction of fuel provided through
direct injection for engine speed of 2000 RPM and the throttle opening 20%

 
Figure  4:  Engine  total  efficiency  and  relative  increase  of  the  engine  total  efficiency  for  dual-­injection  
operation  in  relation  to  operation  with  indirect  fuel  injection.  

Page  8