▪ Subject 1 ( Blackout ) ▪

◊ Definition :

▪ A power outage (also called a power cut, a power out, a power

blackout, power failure or a blackout) :
▪ is the loss of the electrical power network supply to an end user.
▪ There are many causes of power failures in an electricity network. Examples of
these causes include faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission
lines, substations or other parts of the distribution system, a short circuit, cascading
failure, fuse or circuit breaker operation.

◊ Effects :
▪ What are the effects of power outage?
▪ Power outages bring production lines to an abrupt halt. This may translate into loss
of material, breakdown of machinery, and loss of productive time. This may also
cause supply chains to shut down altogether.

5 Industries that would be Affected Most by a Power

Outage ( Blackout ) :

1. Manufacturing Industries

2. Financial Corporations

3. Consulting and Information Technology (IT) Services

4. Data Centers

5. Medical Facilities

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 ▪ Subject 2 HVDC ,( High Voltage DC ) ▪

◊ Definition :

▪ The system which uses the direct current for the transmission of the power
such type of system is called HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) system .
▪ The HVDC system is less expensive and has minimum losses.
▪ It transmits the power between the unsynchronized AC system.

◊ Component of an HVDC Transmission System:

▪ The HVDC system has the following main components.

 Converter Station
 Converter Unit
 Converter Valves
 Converter Transformers
 Filters
o AC filter
o DC filter
o High-frequency filter
 Reactive Power Source
 Smoothing Reactor
 HVDC System Pole

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◊ APPLICATIONS OF HIGH VOLTAGE DC
TRANSMISSION :

1. CONNECTING REMOTE GENERATION

Some energy sources, such as hydro and solar power, are often located hundreds or
thousands kilometers away from the load centers. HVDC will reliably deliver electricity
generated from mountain tops, deserts and seas across vast distances with low losses.
2. INTERCONNECTING GRIDS
Connecting AC grids is done for stabilization purposes and to allow energy trading.
During some specific circumstances, the connection has to be done using HVDC, for
example when the grids have different frequencies or when the connection has to go
long distances over water and AC cables cannot be used because of the high losses.
3. CONNECTING OFFSHORE WIND
Wind parks are often placed far out at sea, because the wind conditions are more
advantageous there. If the distance to the grid on land exceeds a certain stretch, the
only possible solution is HVDC - due to the technology’s low losses.
4. POWER FROM SHORE
Traditionally, oil and gas platforms use local generation to supply the electricity needed
to run the drilling equipment and for the daily need of often hundreds of persons
working on the platform. If the power is instead supplied from shore, via an HVDC
link, costs go down, emissions are lower and the working conditions on the platform are
improved.
5. DC LINKS IN AC GRIDS
HVDC links within an AC grid can be successfully utilized to strengthen the entire
transmission grid, especially under demanding load conditions and during system
disturbances. Transmission capacity will improve and bottlenecks be dissolved.

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 ▪ Subject 3 ( Smart Grid ) ▪

◊ Definition :
▪ A smart grid is an electricity network based on digital technology that is used to supply
electricity to consumers via two-way digital communication.
▪ This system allows for monitoring, analysis, control and communication within the supply
chain to help improve efficiency, reduce energy consumption and cost, and maximize the
transparency and reliability of the energy supply chain.
▪The smart grid was introduced with the aim of overcoming the weaknesses of conventional
electrical grids by using smart net meters.

◊ Applications of a Smart Grid System :

Basic applications of smart grids are

 They improve the adeptness of transmission lines

 Quick recovery after any sudden breakage/disturbance in lines and feeders
 Cost Reduction
 Reduction of peak demand
 They possess the ability to be integrated with renewable energy sources on a large level
which leads to sharing of load and reduction of load on large scale

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 ▪ Subject 4 ( Synchronization ) ▪

◊ Definition :
In an alternating current electric power system, synchronization is the process of matching the
speed and frequency of a generator or other source to a running network. ... If two segments of a
grid are disconnected, they cannot exchange AC power again until they are brought back into
exact synchronization.

◊ Applications :
 Synchronizing lamps :
Formerly, three light bulbs were connected between the generator terminals and the system
terminals (or more generally, to the terminals of instrument transformers connected to
generator and system). As the generator speed changes, the lights will flicker at the beat
frequency proportional to the difference between generator frequency and system frequency.
When the voltage at the generator is opposite to the system voltage (either ahead or behind
in phase), the lamps will be bright. When the voltage at the generator matches the system
voltage, the lights will be dark. At that instant, the circuit breaker connecting the generator to
the system may be closed and the generator will then stay in synchronism with the system.

 Synchroscope :
Another manual method of synchronization relies on observing an instrument called a
"synchroscope", which displays the relative frequencies of system and generator. The pointer
of the synchroscope will indicate "fast" or "slow" speed of the generator with respect to the
system. To minimize the transient current when the generator circuit breaker is closed, usual
practice is to initiate the close as the needle slowly approaches the in-phase point. An error of
a few electrical degrees between system and generator will result in a momentary inrush and
abrupt speed change of the generator.

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 ▪ Subject 5 ( Corona ) ▪

◊ What is Corona Effect or Corona Discharge?:

▪ When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose
spacing is large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the
condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low.

▪ However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical
disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called
corona.

▪ The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of

ozone, power loss and radio interference.

▪ The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope
becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the
applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between the
conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation.

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◊ Corona effect or corona discharge in transmission lines
and power system may be defined as:
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line is known as corona

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 ▪ Subject 6 ( Skin Effect ) ▪

◊ Definition :
▪ Skin effect is a behavior or tendency of alternating current to flow through the
surface (outer layer) of a conductor instead of the core of the wire in power system
transmission lines.
▪In this scenario, the current density is lager near the surface of the wire or conductor
and decreases with greater depths in the conductor which leads to increase in
resistance of the conductor, thus increase the overall power loss in the power system
(generally transmission lines).

◊ The skin effect in an AC system depends on some factors

like:-

1. Shape of conductor.
2. Type of material.
3. Diameter of the conductors.
4. Operational frequency.