2018energies Open Access

energies
Article
Application of Wind as a Renewable Energy Source
for Passive Cooling through Windcatchers Integrated
with Wing Walls
Payam Nejat 1,2, * , Fatemeh Jomehzadeh 2,3 , Hasanen Mohammed Hussen 4 ,
John Kaiser Calautit 5 and Muhd Zaimi Abd Majid 2
1 Advanced Building and Environment Research (ABER) Group, Johor Bahru 81300, Malaysia
2 School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Bahru 81300, Malaysia;
f.jomehzadeh@gmail.com (F.J.); mzaimi@utm.my (M.Z.A.M.)
3 School of Engineering, University of Tarbiat, Mashhad 510255, Iran
4 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Technology (UOT), Baghdad 35023, Iraq;
drhasanenalsaedi@gmail.com
5 Mark Group Research House, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK; j.k.calautit@gmail.com
* Correspondence: payam.nejaat@gmail.com; Tel.: +60-108-93-1457

Received: 16 July 2018; Accepted: 10 September 2018; Published: 23 September 2018
Abstract: Generally, two-third of a building’s energy is consumed by heating, ventilation and

air-conditioning systems. One green alternative for conventional air conditioner systems is the
implementation of passive cooling. Wing walls and windcatchers are two prominent passive cooling
techniques which use wind as a renewable resource for cooling. However, in low wind speed regions
and climates, the utilization of natural ventilation systems is accompanied by serious uncertainties.
The performance of ventilation systems can be potentially enhanced by integrating windcatchers
with wing walls. Since previous studies have not considered this integration, in the first part of this
research the effect of this integration on the ventilation performance was assessed and the optimum
angle was revealed. However, there is still gap of this combination; thus, in the second part, the impact
of wing wall length on the indoor air quality factors was evaluated. This research implemented
a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method to address the gap. The CFD simulation was
successfully validated with experimental data from wind tunnel tests related to the previous part.
Ten different lengths from 10 cm to 100 cm were analyzed and it was found that the increase in wing
wall length leads to a gradual reduction in ventilation performance. Hence, the length does not have
a considerable influence on the indoor air quality factors. However, the best performance was seen in
10 cm, that could provide 0.8 m/s for supply air velocity, 790 L/s for air flow rate, 39.5 1/h for air
change rate, 107 s for mean age of air and 92% for air change effectiveness.
Keywords: wind; passive cooling; windcatcher; badgir; natural ventilation; wing wall
1. Introduction
Buildings, which account for 40% of global energy consumption [1,2], play a significant role
in increasing greenhouse gas emissions which are going to rise further due to urbanization and
population growth [3]. Buildings consume energy in many parts; but more than two-thirds of this
energy is used for heating, air conditioning (HVAC) and ventilation [4].
Furthermore, many studies have revealed the relation between air conditioning systems and
problems relevant to indoor air quality (IAQ). Organic dusts can contribute to the growth of different
fungi in fans which lead to contamination of condensate trays and cooling coils. As a result of dirty
filters serious contamination problems may occur [5,6]. Hence, “Sick Building Syndrome” as well as
Energies 2018, 11, 2536; doi:10.3390/en11102536 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2536 2 of 23
metabolic diseases are more likely to occur [7,8]. Sick building syndrome symptoms are 30–200% more
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23
abundant in buildings that are air-conditioned than in those without air conditioners [9]. Long-term
exposure to unfavorable IAQ may bring occupants detrimental consequences such as illnesses and
metabolic diseases are more likely to occur [7,8]. Sick building syndrome symptoms are 30–200%
poor more
performance
abundant[10]. As reported
in buildings that areby the U.S. Environmental
air-conditioned than in thoseProtection
without air Agency [9], one
conditioners of the top
[9]. Long-
five environmental health risks is indoor air pollution. The significance
term exposure to unfavorable IAQ may bring occupants detrimental consequences such as illnessesof retaining a good quality
indoorandenvironment
poor performance comes from
[10]. the fact by
As reported thatthepeople spend approximately
U.S. Environmental 80 to 90%
Protection Agency of the
[9], one time in
of the
indoortopresidential
five environmental
and work health risks is [11,12].
locations indoor air pollution. The significance of retaining a good quality
indoor environment
Natural ventilation comes from the as
(NV) systems, fact that people
a passive spendstrategy,
cooling approximately 80 to alternatives
are suitable 90% of the time for inenergy
indoor residential and work locations [11,12].
consumption reduction, and due to their capability to reduce the problems of common air conditioning
Natural ventilation (NV) systems, as a passive cooling strategy, are suitable alternatives for
systems, these systems have become alternatives for cooling and ventilation systems [13].
energy consumption reduction, and due to their capability to reduce the problems of common air
A recent study estimated natural ventilation can be used effectively in 1854 locations around
conditioning systems, these systems have become alternatives for cooling and ventilation systems
the world
[13]. by calculating the natural ventilation (NV) hours. Moreover, Building Energy Simulation
(BES) shows the world’s
A recent 60 biggest
study estimated cities
natural have considerable
ventilation potentialinfor
can be used effectively energy
1854 saving
locations around by the
natural
ventilation
world by [14].
calculating the natural ventilation (NV) hours. Moreover, Building Energy Simulation (BES)
In current
shows the decades
world’s 60 cities havecities
biggest facedhavewithconsiderable
a fast growth in population
potential for energyandsaving
urbanization,
by natural so it is
ventilation [14].
critical to investigate potential ways for achieving considerable energy savings in the building sector
by applying In current
natural decades cities have
ventilation [15] faced
whichwith is aavital
fast growth in population
sustainable answer and urbanization,
to reduce so it isuse in
the energy
buildings, while providing thermal comfort, and keeping the indoor environment healthy sector
critical to investigate potential ways for achieving considerable energy savings in the building [16].
by applying natural ventilation [15] which is a vital sustainable answer to reduce the energy use in
A windcatcher, a natural ventilation system, is one of the traditional elements mounted on
buildings, while providing thermal comfort, and keeping the indoor environment healthy [16].
buildings, which operates by exploiting renewable energy of wind, and as windcatchers lack moving
A windcatcher, a natural ventilation system, is one of the traditional elements mounted on
parts,buildings,
their noise which and maintenance
operates costrenewable
by exploiting is minimum energy [17]. In the
of wind, andMiddle East, the
as windcatchers lackutilization
moving of
windcatchers dates back to thousands of years ago (Figure 1) [18,19]. Archaeological
parts, their noise and maintenance cost is minimum [17]. In the Middle East, the utilization of investigations
have windcatchers
revealed evidence of windcatcher
dates back to thousands useofnear
yearsthe
agohistorical
(Figure 1) site of Tappeh
[18,19]. Chackmaq
Archaeological (Shahrood, Iran)
investigations
which dates
have to 4000
revealed BC [20].ofThe
evidence application
windcatcher of modern
use near windcatchers
the historical specifically
site of Tappeh in populous
Chackmaq (Shahrood, indoor
Iran) whichincluding
environments dates to 4000 BC [20].
schools The application
or workplaces such ofas
modern
office windcatchers
buildings is specifically
now widely in prevalent
populous [21].
The UKindoor
is oneenvironments including
of the countries schools or
benefitting fromworkplaces such as of
the installation office
more buildings
than 7000 is now widely
windcatchers in
prevalent
recent years [22]. [21]. The UK is one of the countries benefitting from the installation of more than 7000
windcatchers in recent years [22].
Figure 1. The different types of windcatcher found in the Middle East.

Figure 1. The different types of windcatcher found in the Middle East.
Apart from the windcatcher, wing walls are another design solution to lead the outdoor air flow
Apart from the windcatcher, wing walls are another design solution to lead the outdoor air
toward internal space of the building by projecting portions of the walls perpendicularly from the
flow toward internal space of the building by projecting portions of the walls perpendicularly from
openings [23]. What causes the flow of ambient wind into and out of the room is the wind pressure
the openings
difference [23]. What
between the causes the flow
wing walls’ of ambient
windward wind into
and leeward and[24].
surfaces out Therefore,
of the room is been
it has the wind
pressure
proposed that employing a wing wall can contribute to ventilation enhancement [25]. A light pressureit has
difference between the wing walls’ windward and leeward surfaces [24]. Therefore,
been gradient
proposed that employing
generated a due
along a wall wing to wall can
oblique contribute
wind blow to ato ventilation
wall enhancement
is exploitable [25]. A light
when the windward
pressure
side gradient generated
is equipped with twoalong
laterala openings.
wall due to oblique wind
Accordingly, blow toisapushed
the airflow wall isinside
exploitable when the
by positive
windward side is equipped with two lateral openings. Accordingly, the airflow is pushed inside by
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 3 of 23
positive pressure and negative pressure induces it to exit contributing to generation of an artificial air
movement within the building [26,27].
Although windcatchers have considerable advantages, their application in regions with low
speed wind has been less beneficial [28]. As a result, the focus of previous studies was generally on
windcatchers employed in regions where the wind speed is medium to high (3 to 5 m/s). Thus, in low
wind speed conditions such as dense urban environments, implementation of windcatchers is not
efficient and studies on windcatchers are quite limited.
However, wing walls are especially operative on sites where outdoor wind velocity is low and
wind directions are variable [29] because the wing walls amplify the pressure difference through
the openings that improves air exchange [30]. Thus, the current study proposes that when a
windcatcher is integrated with a wing wall, the natural ventilation rate should improve under low
wind speed conditions.
In our previous research [31] it was found that the integration of a two sided windcatcher with
a wing wall (TWIW) can improve the ventilation performance of the windcatcher under low wind
speed conditions and different wing wall angles (5◦ to 70◦ ) were examined. It was revealed that wing
walls in the range of 15◦ to 30◦ had the most positive effect on the ventilation parameters. Building
on previous works, this paper aims to study the effect of the length of wing wall on the ventilation
performance of windcatchers. In addition, the work will assess several ventilation parameters to better
understand the indoor airflow characteristics including the mean age of air (MAA), air change rate
and air change effectiveness (ACE) (it should be noted that only selected parameters which influence
air quality were analyzed in this paper).
2. Literature Review
In this section, previous studies which investigated the windcatcher and wing wall are presented
briefly. It should be noted that there are no studies which have considered the effect of a combination
of windcatcher and wing wall.
In a study conducted by Afshin et al. [32], a two-sided windcatcher underwent wind tunnel
experimental in several wind angles ranging from 0◦ to 90◦ to assess its ventilation performance.
The model was a typical two-sided windcatcher in the city of Yazd (Iran) with the scale reduced to
1:50. The investigation revealed that for all wind speeds, 55◦ and 39◦ are the wind angles at which
the transition angles of windward opening and house window occurred, respectively. Accordingly,
it was inferred that chimney-like performance of windcatcher occurs when wind angle exceeds the
windward transition angle (α = 55◦ ) and as the wind was perpendicular to the opening of windcatcher,
the ventilation rate was maximum.
Ghadiri et al. [33] investigated the wind-induced cross ventilation in a building with a two-sided
windcatcher and an openable window at different wind directions (0◦ –90◦ ) with 15 degree intervals
in a wind tunnel at 10 to 20 m/s wind speed. The effect of several computational parameters such
as the turbulence model, the size of domain and resolution of the grid was also explored. The CFD
results were validated against published experimental data. It was discovered that the airflow rate
was decreased on the leeward side of the windcatcher and through the window opening.
Another study by Montazeri et al. [34] aimed to investigate the performance of a two-sided
windcatcher utilizing a reduced-scale model (1:40). The measurement of volumetric airflow and the
pressure coefficient of all surfaces of the model for different air incident angles was carried out in an
open-circuit wind tunnel. In addition, numerical and analytical CFD models for the experimental
setup was developed for the accuracy validation and favorable agreement among the results was
observed. The study demonstrated that short-circuiting is revealed in the windcatcher when the
incidence angle of the wind is high and when this angle is 60, short-circuiting is maximum. Moreover,
it was established that two-sided windcatchers are capable of amending the natural ventilation in
buildings. The comparison of one-sided and two-sided windcatchers suggested the suitability of
employing one-sided windcatchers where a prevailing wind direction exists.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 4 of 23
Chandra et al. [35] studied the wing walls performance in a full-scale experimental building as well as
in models at the Florida Solar Energy Center. They evaluated two vertical walls situated nearby windows.
The air flow rate inside a room equipped with wing walls and without them was measured. It was figured
out that wing walls could generate zones of positive and negative pressure at the room openings when the
angle at which wind blows to the walls is different from the normal condition. It was concluded from this
study that wing walls are effective elements capable of providing ventilation for rooms.
Mak et al. [36] did a numerical investigation of wing wall ventilation performance under different
wing wall sizes, wind velocities and wind directions. The result indicated that the wind angle between
40◦ to 70◦ is the ideal angle at which a wing wall performs best. The study also demonstrated that
larger wing wall (1.5 m) or higher wind velocity (5 m/s) can lead to generation of greater pressure
differences between two window openings, higher average air velocity inside the room, and a higher
ventilation flow rate. It was also concluded that the performance of wing walls is satisfactory only in
single-sided ventilation. In cross-ventilation, natural ventilation might be negatively affected due to
the function of the wing wall rather than performing well.
Integration of a wing wall with a balcony was investigated by Mozaffari [37] which included
twenty distinct configurations divided into five classes of Malaysian medium-rise residential buildings.
What she studied was the air flow rate in regard to the position, size and wind wall angle in the balcony
in 0◦ and 45◦ . It was found in the study that the indoor air velocity can be boosted up to three times
with a middle positioned-wing wall in comparison with a typical balcony configuration. Furthermore,
she figured out that the maximum ventilation performance occurred in the wind angle of 45◦ .
From the review of the literature, it can be concluded that some studies have paid attention to
windcatchers and wing walls separately; however, none of them have studied the effect of windcatcher
integration with wing walls. Thus, current study represents an opportunity to investigate this research gap.
3. Materials and Methods

This research employed Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling which is established to
be reliable in terms of evaluating the ventilation and thermal performance of windcatchers [38].
As shown in Figure 2, the model was composed of a rectangular cuboid with 6 m length, 4 m
width and 3 m height which represents a small room. The windcatcher was comprised of two channels
separated by an internal partition wall. The windcatcher height was 1.5 m. The size of openings
and cross-sections of windcatcher were 1 m by 1 m. The height and size of opening was based on
typical windcatcher size as described in [39,40]. The research consisted of two main phases including
validation with experimental data and CFD study of windcatcher which are discussed in detail in the
following sub-sections.
Figure
Figure 2. The 2. The schematic
schematic of model
of model of aofroom
a roomventilated
ventilated with
witha TWIW, dimensions
a TWIW, are in centimeter.
dimensions are in centimeter.
3.1. Validation with Experimental Data
For the first phase, validation of numerical method was conducted by making comparison
between the obtained results and experimental wind tunnel testing data of reference [31]. The test
was carried out in the wind tunnel of University Technology Malaysia. Figure 3 illustrates the 1:10
scaled model used in the wind tunnel investigation. This research was based on Malaysian climate
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 5 of 23
Figure 2. The schematic of model of a room ventilated with a TWIW, dimensions are in centimeter.
3.1.
3.1. Validation
Validation with
with Experimental
Experimental Data
Data
For
For the
the first
first phase,
phase, validation
validation of of numerical
numerical method
method waswas conducted
conducted by by making
making comparison
comparison
between the obtained results and experimental wind tunnel testing data
between the obtained results and experimental wind tunnel testing data of reference of reference [31].[31].
The The
test was
test
carried out in the wind tunnel of University Technology Malaysia. Figure 3 illustrates
was carried out in the wind tunnel of University Technology Malaysia. Figure 3 illustrates the 1:10 the 1:10 scaled
model
scaled used
model in used
the wind tunnel
in the windinvestigation. This research
tunnel investigation. This was basedwas
research on Malaysian climate conditions
based on Malaysian climate
where the average wind speed is 2.5 m/s. Thus, the wind speed in wind
conditions where the average wind speed is 2.5 m/s. Thus, the wind speed in wind tunnel tunnel was set to
was25set
m/sto
to attain the Reynolds number similarity regarding the model scale of 1:10. Nevertheless,
25 m/s to attain the Reynolds number similarity regarding the model scale of 1:10. Nevertheless, the the wind
speed was adjusted
wind speed to 10 m/s
was adjusted to 10inm/s
consideration of safety
in consideration and the
of safety strength
and of models.
the strength The details
of models. of the
The details
experiment can be found in [31].
of the experiment can be found in [31].
Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The 1:10
1:10 scaled
scaled model
model in
in the
the wind
wind tunnel
tunnel used
used for
for the
the validation
validation study
study (dimensions
(dimensions are
are in
in
mm).
mm).
3.2. CFD Study of Windcatcher Performance

In the
thesecond
secondphase, the the
phase, windcatcher performance
windcatcher was investigated
performance in low wind
was investigated speed
in low conditions
wind speed
with regardwith
conditions to supply
regardrates, airflow
to supply distribution
rates, and other IAQ
airflow distribution andfactors. The flow
other IAQ equations
factors. The flowwere solved
equations
by
wereemploying
solved by the CFD codethe
employing ANYSS
CFD FLUENT
code ANYSS applied to steady
FLUENT Reynolds-Averaged
applied Navier-Stokes
to steady Reynolds-Averaged
(RANS) and three-dimensional
Navier-Stokes computations.
(RANS) and three-dimensional The methods
computations. Theused in the
methods computational
used model
in the computational
included the control
model included volumevolume
the control methodmethod
together with the
together Semi-Implicit
with MethodMethod
the Semi-Implicit for Pressure-Linked
for Pressure-
Equations (SIMPLE)(SIMPLE)
Linked Equations velocity-pressure coupling algorithm
velocity-pressure coupling with the second
algorithm withorder upwindorder
the second discretization.
upwind
All simulations were done in steady state with an isothermal state (only wind-driven was considered
as the main force for ventilation). The governing equations are presented below:
∂ρ
+ ∇ × (ρu) = 0 (1)
∂t
where ρ is density, t is time and u refers to fluid velocity vector.
Momentum conservation:
∂(ρu)
+ ∇ × (ρuu) = −∇ p + ρg + ∇ × (µ∇u) − ∇ × τt (2)
∂t
where p presents the pressure; g, vector of gravitational acceleration; µ, molecular dynamic viscosity;
and τt , the divergence of the turbulence stresses that explains auxiliary stresses as a result of
velocity fluctuations.
Turbulence kinetic energy (K):
∂(ρK) h i
+ ∇ × (ρKu) = ∇ × αk µe f f ∇K + GK + Gb − ρε (3)
∂t
where p presents the pressure; g, vector of gravitational acceleration; , molecular dynamic
viscosity; and , the divergence of the turbulence stresses that explains auxiliary stresses as a result
of velocity fluctuations.
Turbulence kinetic energy (K):
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 ∂(ρK) 6 of 23
+∇×( ) = ∇ × ∇K + + − (3)
∂t
Energy dissipation
Energy dissipation rate rate (ε):
(ɛ):
∂(ρε) ε ε
∂(ρε)∂t + ∇ × ( ε ) = ∇ ×h ∇ε i+ ε( + ) − ε2 (4)
+ ∇ × (ρεu) = ∇ × αε µe f f ∇ε + C1ε ( Gk + C3ε Gb ) − C2ε ρ (4)
∂t K K
where Gk indicates source of turbulent kinetic energy ascribed to average velocity gradient; Gb, source
where Gk indicates
of turbulent source caused
kinetic energy of turbulent kinetic force;
by buoyancy energy ascribed
and ,to averagePrandtls
turbulent velocity numbers; Gb ,
gradient; and
source
C1ε, C2ε of
andturbulent kineticempirical
C3ε represent energy caused
model by buoyancy force; αk and αε , turbulent Prandtls numbers;
constants.
and CThe
1ε , C2ε and
COST 732C3εguideline
represent[41]empirical model
for studies of constants.
environmental wind flow was the instruction upon
which the position and size of the computational domain in the wind
The COST 732 guideline [41] for studies of environmental currentflow waswas
study the based.
instruction upon
The COST
which the position that
732 recommended and the
sizedomain
of the computational
lateral extension domain in the current
(the distance between study was based. The
the computational COST
domain
732 recommended that the domain lateral extension (the distance between the
lateral boundaries and building sidewalls) for a building with height of H should be 5H (Figure 4). computational domain
lateral
For theboundaries and building
inlet, the boundary has tosidewalls)
extend 5Hfor a building
in flow with
direction asheight of H should
well, whilst for the be 5H (Figure
outlet, extension4).
For thedomain
of the inlet, the boundary
behind has to extend
the building should5H bein
15Hflowto direction
provide the as well,
flow whilst
with a for the outlet,
condition extension
to re-develop
of the domain behind the building should be 15H to provide the flow with
in back of the wake region, since fully developed flow is commonly presumed as the boundary a condition to re-develop in
back of the in
condition wake region,
steady RANSsince calculations.
fully developed Theflow is commonly
vertical extension presumed
rangingas from
the boundary
4H to 10H condition
with
in steady RANS
consideration of calculations.
the blockage The vertical
effect extension
is proposed ranging
by COST 732from
[41],4H to 10H
hence withselected
5H was consideration of the
to minimize
blockage
the blockageeffect is proposed by COST 732 [41], hence 5H was selected to minimize the blockage effect.
effect.
Figure 4. The CFD domain of the model.
3.2.1. Mesh Generation

The production of the computational grid was carried out by utilizing the Gambit 2.4.6 software
(Canonsburg, PA, USA) and then exported to ANSYS FLUENT (16, ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA)
for simulation. Since the geometry shape was complex, a non-uniform mesh was applied for the
computational volumes (Figure 5). The meshed model consisted of 6.5 million elements and 1.5 million
nodes. To ensure the accurate capture of the flow field in the simulations, the mesh refinement around
the windcatcher and openings was done. Flux balance and grid sensitivity analysis are the methods
on which the mesh was based and will be described in Section 4.1.1.
(Canonsburg, PA, USA) and then exported to ANSYS FLUENT (16, ANSYS, Canonsburg, PA, USA)
for simulation. Since the geometry shape was complex, a non-uniform mesh was applied for the
computational volumes (Figure 5). The meshed model consisted of 6.5 million elements and 1.5
million nodes. To ensure the accurate capture of the flow field in the simulations, the mesh refinement
Energies the11,
around2018, 2536
windcatcher and openings was done. Flux balance and grid sensitivity analysis are 7 ofthe
23
methods on which the mesh was based and will be described in Section 4.1.1.
Figure
Figure 5.
5. Mesh
Mesh generation
generation on
on the
the computational
computational model.
model.
3.2.2. Boundary Conditions

Guidelines of AIJ [42] and COST 732 [41] were the two sources used to specify the boundary
conditions. The turbulent kinetic energy k and the airflow velocity U were imposed at the inlet which
were based on [43], with the approaching flow streamwise velocity that obey the power law with an
exponent of 0.25 corresponding to a sub-urban terrain. Regarding
Regarding the wind speed range in regions
with low wind
wind speed,
speed, the
the velocity
velocity was
was 2.5
2.5 m/s
m/s at 10 m.m. Assumption of local equilibrium
equilibrium of PPkk = εɛ
contributed to acquisition of The values of εɛ for the the k-epsilon
k-epsilon turbulence
turbulence models
models [41].
[41]. Apart from
ground or bottom wall that had its wall functions
functions adjusted for roughness,
roughness, other wall boundaries
applied the standard
standard wall
wall functions
functions (Table
(Table1)1)[44].
[44].On
Onthe
thebasis
basisofof[45],
[45],this
thishas
hastotobebedetermined
determinedbybya
aroughness constantCC
roughnessconstant s together
s togetherwith
withan
anequivalent
equivalentsand-grain
sand-grainroughness
roughnessheightheight kkss.. The
The horizontal
non homogeneity of the ABL was limited by adapting sand-grain roughness height and roughness
constant to the inlet profiles, following
following the
the equation
equation ofof [46]:
[46]:
9.793
= 9.793z0
ks = (5)
(5)
Cs
where represents the aerodynamic roughness length of the sub-urban terrain (Figure 6). The
where z0 represents the aerodynamic roughness length of the sub-urban terrain (Figure 6). The selected
selected values of a roughness constant and sand-grain roughness height were 1.0 and 1.0 mm,
values of a roughness constant and sand-grain roughness height were 1.0 and 1.0 mm, respectively.
respectively. The top and the sides of the domain were designed as symmetry boundary conditions
The top and the sides of the domain were designed as symmetry boundary conditions representing
representing zero gradient and zero normal velocity for the variables at the top and side wall. Zero
zero gradient and zero normal velocity for the variables at the top and side wall. Zero statistic pressure
statistic pressure was applied at the boundary wall.
was applied at the boundary wall.
In this study, mean age of air (MAA) was another factor for indoor air quality in which the
In this study, mean age of air (MAA) was another factor for indoor air quality in which the concept
concept of age of air defined by Sandberg was employed and could be described as the elapsed
of age of air defined by Sandberg was employed and could be described as the elapsed duration since
duration since entrance of air into the space from an opening [47].
entrance of air into the space from an opening [47].
In the current study, the estimation of the local mean age of air resulted from solving the
In the current study, the estimation of the local mean age of air resulted from solving the equation
equation of user-defined scalar (UDS) transport. The diffusivity of the UDS transport equation was
of user-defined scalar (UDS) transport. The diffusivity of the UDS transport equation was assumed as:
assumed as:
(2.88 × 10−5 )ρ + µeff /Sct (6)
with ρ indicating the density of the air; µeff , the effective viscosity of the air; and Sct , the turbulent
Schmidt number which is 1.2 in this study. The related boundary conditions was set to 0 for inlet and
outlet diffusers of Windcatcher. For the convection and diffusion terms of the scalar transport equation,
Second-order discretization is applied.
(2.88 × 10−5)ρ + μeff/Sct (6)
with ρ indicating the density of the air; μeff, the effective viscosity of the air; and Sct, the turbulent
Schmidt number which is 1.2 in this study. The related boundary conditions was set to 0 for inlet and
outlet diffusers of Windcatcher. For the convection and diffusion terms of the scalar transport
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 8 of 23
equation, Second-order discretization is applied.
Table1.1.The
Table Thebrief
briefofofboundary
boundaryconditions
conditionssettings
settingsininCFD.
CFD.
Factor Domain
Factor Domain
Macro-climate Fluid zone
Macro-climate
Micro-Climate Fluidzone
Fluid zone
Micro-Climate Fluid zone
Top: Symmetry
Top: Symmetry
Walls Side:
Side:Symmetry
Symmetry
Walls
Bottom:
Bottom:Wall
Wall
Velocity
Velocity Inlet
Inlet ABL
ABLProfile
Profile
Pressure
Pressure Outlet
Outlet 00Pa
Pa
Operating
OperatingPressure
Pressure Atmospheric
Atmospheric
Viscous
ViscousModel
Model k-ε(standard)
k-ε (standard)
Near-Wall
Near-WallTreatment
Treatment Standard
Standard wallwallfunctions
functions
Solver
SolverType
Type Pressure-based
Pressure-based
Time Steady
Time Steady
Gravity 9.81 m/s2 2
Gravity 9.81 m/s
35
30
25
Vertical heigh (m)
20
15
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5
U/Uref
Figure6.6.Atmospheric
Figure Atmosphericboundary
boundarylayer
layer(ABL)
(ABL)profile
profileofofthe
theapproach
approachflow.
flow.
3.2.3. Solution Convergence and Flux Balance

3.2.3. Solution Convergence and Flux Balance
Since no common metrics are available to decide solution convergence, it is significant to consider
Since no common metrics are available to decide solution convergence, it is significant to
investigative residual levels along with relevant variables [48]. This study monitored the solution
consider investigative residual levels along with relevant variables [48]. This study monitored the
convergence and relevant variables (Figure 7), and absence of changes between iterations led to
solution convergence and relevant variables (Figure 7), and absence of changes between iterations
completion of the solution. The property conservation was checked if achieved, which was performed
led to completion of the solution. The property conservation was checked if achieved, which was
by conducting mass flux for the converged solution, besides monitoring solution variables and
performed by conducting mass flux for the converged solution, besides monitoring solution variables
residuals. For the selected boundary zones, computing the mass flow rate was carried out utilizing the
and residuals. For the selected boundary zones, computing the mass flow rate was carried out
flux reportthe
utilizing panel
fluxin FLUENT.
report panelFor simulating
in FLUENT. a wind
For catcher,
simulating the mass
a wind flowthe
catcher, rate balance
mass was balance
flow rate below
<1% of smallest flux through domain boundary.
was below <1% of smallest flux through domain boundary.
4. Results and Discussion
The results of CFD simulation, which were obtained from the performance of the windcatcher,
are presented in this section. At first, the CFD model was compared against the experimental data of
previous study conducted by authors to validate the computational model. In the next stage,
Energies 2018, 11,with
windcatcher 2536 different wing wall lengths were assessed. The aim was to analyze the effects
9 of 23
of
different length of wing wall on the indoor air quality factors.
(a)
(b)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. (a)
(a) Solution
Solution convergence
convergence and (b) solution
and (b) solution monitoring.
monitoring.
4. Results
4.1. andand
Validation Discussion
Sensitivity Analysis
The
It results
is of of CFDimportance
paramount simulation,to which
makewere obtained
validation from
study the to
prior performance
conducting of thesimulation
CFD windcatcher,in
are presented
detail in this section.
since numerical At first,
simulation the CFD
is always model by
followed was comparedand
uncertainty against the[49].
errors experimental data
The numerical
of previous
method was study conducted
validated by authors
by comparing to validate
the CFD the the
results and computational
experimentalmodel. In the next
data acquired from stage,
wind
windcatcher
tunnel testingwith different
of TWIW wing
scaled wallpublished
model lengths were assessed.
by authors Theprevious
in the aim wasstudy
to analyze
[31]. the effects of
different
The length of wingutilized
windcatcher wall oninthe
theindoor air quality
previous study factors.
had similar geometrical construction and the
simulation using the same CFD code and model set up. The comparison between air velocity of CFD
4.1. Validation and Sensitivity Analysis
and that of experiment shown in Figure 8 was made in six points, I1 to I6, in inlet diffuser together
with It
sixispoints, O1 to O6,
of paramount in outlet diffuser.
importance to make validation study prior to conducting CFD simulation in
detail since numerical simulation is always followed by uncertainty and errors [49]. The numerical
method was validated by comparing the CFD results and the experimental data acquired from wind
tunnel testing of TWIW scaled model published by authors in the previous study [31].
The windcatcher utilized in the previous study had similar geometrical construction and the
simulation using the same CFD code and model set up. The comparison between air velocity of CFD
and that of experiment shown in Figure 8 was made in six points, I1 to I6, in inlet diffuser together
with six points, O1 to O6, in outlet diffuser.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 10 of 23
Figure 8. The inlet and outlet channel used for validation of CFD with experiment (dimensions are in
Figure 8. The inlet and outlet channel used for validation of CFD with experiment (dimensions are in
mm). 8. The inlet and outlet channel used for validation of CFD with experiment (dimensions are in mm).
Figure
mm).
Figure 9 compares the CFD simulation results against wind tunnel experimental data of small
Figure 9 compares the CFD simulation results against wind tunnel experimental data of small
Figure
scaled model9 compares
in the wind thespeed
CFD of simulation
10 m/s. Air results
flowagainst wind tunnel
distribution between experimental data
inlet (I) points is of small
uneven,
scaled model in the wind speed of 10 m/s. Air flow distribution between inlet (I) points is uneven,
scaled model in the wind speed of 10 m/s. Air flow distribution between inlet (I) points
particularly the airflow adjacent to the partition wall (I4–I6) with the airflow speed significantly higher is uneven,
particularly the airflow adjacent to the partition wall (I4–I6) with the airflow speed significantly
particularly
at the center the
(I5) airflow adjacent
and a similar to can
trend the be
partition
observedwallfor(I4–I6) with
both the CFDthemodelling
airflow speed significantly
and experimental
higher at the center (I5) and a similar trend can be observed for both the CFD modelling and
higher at the center
data. Whereas (I5) andchannel
in the exhaust a similar(O),trend can benear
the airflow observed for both
the partition wallthe CFD modelling
(O1–O3) and
was at a lower
experimental data. Whereas in the exhaust channel (O), the airflow near the partition wall (O1–O3)
experimental data. Whereas in the exhaust channel (O), the airflow near
speed in comparison with the airflow near the exhaust opening (O4–O6). A similar trend can bethe partition wall (O1–O3)
was at a lower speed in comparison with the airflow near the exhaust opening (O4–O6). A similar
was at a lower
observed for thespeed in comparison
experiment except for with the airflow
point O3 which nearcanthe
beexhaust opening
attributed (O4–O6).
to error A similar
in measurement
trend can be observed for the experiment except for point O3 which can be attributed to error in
trend can be observed for the experiment except for point O3 which can
or positioning/angle of the hot wire anemometer in the channel. The average difference between be attributed to error in
measurement or positioning/angle of the hot wire anemometer in the channel. The average difference
measurement or positioning/angle of the hot wire anemometer in the channel. The
the different points was 7%; hence, it was established that the simulation’s accuracy was reasonable average difference
between the different points was 7%; hence, it was established that the simulation’s accuracy was
between
enough tothe different
carry out thepoints
study.was 7%; hence, it was established that the simulation’s accuracy was
reasonable enough to carry out the study.
reasonable enough to carry out the study.
9 Expriment CFD
9 Expriment CFD
8
8
7
7
6
6
(m/s)
velocity(m/s)
5
5
Airvelocity
4
4
3
Air
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
Inlet and
Inlet and outlet
outlet points
points
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Validation of
Validation of
9. Validation CFD
of CFD results
CFD results against the
results against
against the experimental
experimental results.
results.
Figure the experimental results.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 11 of 23
4.1.1. Sensitivity
4.1.1. Sensitivity Analysis
Analysis
Grid Adaption
Grid Adaption
The independency of the numerical model from the grid size was assessed by evaluating different
The independency of the numerical model from the grid size was assessed by evaluating
number of grids (1.5, 3, 6 and 9 million elements). A mesh sensitivity analysis was the basis of the
different number of grids (1.5, 3, 6 and 9 million elements). A mesh sensitivity analysis was the basis
computational mesh which was performed by further simulations with same boundary conditions and
of the computational mesh which was performed by further simulations with same boundary
domain but different mesh sizes. The error indicator was presumed to be the area-weighted average
conditions and domain but different mesh sizes. The error indicator was presumed to be the area-
value of the inflow velocity in the vertical height of the windcatcher inlet channel (Figure 10) due to
weighted average value of the inflow velocity in the vertical height of the windcatcher inlet channel
grid refinement from 1.5 million coarse elements to 9 million fine ones. The maximum error between
(Figure 10) due to grid refinement from 1.5 million coarse elements to 9 million fine ones. The
fine and medium mesh did not exceed 1%. Hence, no notable effect was observed when numerical
maximum error between fine and medium mesh did not exceed 1%. Hence, no notable effect was
model with finer mesh was repeated. Therefore, applying the medium mesh (6 million) was accurate
observed when numerical model with finer mesh was repeated. Therefore, applying the medium
enough and finer mesh was not necessary.
mesh (6 million) was accurate enough and finer mesh was not necessary.
6
Air velocity (m/s)
0
1.5 M 3M 6M 9M
Mesh size
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Grid
Grid sensitivity
sensitivity analysis
analysis of
of different sizes: 1.5
different sizes: 1.5 million,
million, 33 million,
million, 66 million
million and
and 99 million.
million.
Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity Analysis of
of Turbulence
Turbulence Model
Model
It is
It is fundamentally
fundamentally important
important to to validate
validate turbulence
turbulence model
model toto ensure
ensure CFD
CFD simulation
simulation is is reliable.
reliable.
Verifying the capability of the selected turbulence model to render the most precise
Verifying the capability of the selected turbulence model to render the most precise flow prediction flow prediction
was
was the
the purpose
purpose ofof turbulence
turbulence sensitivity
sensitivity analysis. Therefore, the
analysis. Therefore, following three
the following three turbulence
turbulence models
models
were appraised: (1) the standard k-ε (Sk-ε) model, (2) the realizable k-ε (Rk-ε)
were appraised: (1) the standard k-ε (Sk-ε) model, (2) the realizable k-ε (Rk-ε) model and (3) model and (3) the
the
renormalization group k-ε model (RNG k-ε). Figure 11 illustrates the predictions of the
renormalization group k-ε model (RNG k-ε). Figure 11 illustrates the predictions of the three differentthree different
turbulence models
turbulence modelson onthe
theairflow
airflowvelocity
velocityinin I and
I and O points
O points of inlet
of inlet andand outlet
outlet channels
channels of model.
of model. The
The experimental data is ideally in accordance with the standard k-ε model; therefore,
experimental data is ideally in accordance with the standard k-ε model; therefore, it is preferred over it is preferred
overother
the the other two models.
two models. The experimental
The experimental data data
and and mentioned
mentioned modelmodel
had had a difference
a difference average
average of 7%of
7% (below
(below the the other
other two).
two). Thus,
Thus, as as standard
standard k-εk-εmodel
modelwaswasconsistent
consistentwith
withpreceding
preceding studies
studies about
about
windcatchers
windcatchers in in reference
reference ofof [8,50].
[8,50].
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 12 of 23
9
9 k-epsilon standard K-epsilon RNG K epsilon Relizable Experiment
k-epsilon standard K-epsilon RNG K epsilon Relizable Experiment
8
8
7
7
Average velocity (m/s)
Average velocity (m/s)
6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
I1 I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6
Validation points
Validation points
different turbulence
Figure 11. The impact of different turbulence models
models on
on the
the air
air velocity
velocity in
in inlet
inlet and
and outlet
outlet points.
points.
Figure 11. The impact of different turbulence models on the air velocity in inlet and outlet points.
4.2.
4.2. The
The Effect
Effect of
of Wing
Wing Wall
Wall Length
Length onon Ventilation
Ventilation Performance.
Performance.
4.2. The Effect of Wing Wall Length on Ventilation Performance.
The
The length
lengthwas wasthe theparameter
parameter forfor
wing wall
wing design
wall in this
design study
in this as illustrated
study in Figure
as illustrated 2. In order
in Figure 2. In
to The length
create diverse was the parameter
windcatcher for wing wall
configurations, design
ten in this
distinct study
lengths foraswing
illustrated
wall in Figure
were 2. In
employed.
order to create diverse windcatcher configurations, ten distinct lengths for wing wall were employed.
order
Figureto create diverse windcatcher configurations, ten distinct lengths for wing wall were employed.
Figure 12 12 depicts
depicts thethe different
different planes
planes in in which
which the
the parameters
parameters of of indoor
indoor air
air quality
quality were
were appraised
appraised
Figure
with 12 depicts the different planes in which the parameters of indoor air quality were appraised
with the purpose of evaluating the windcatcher’s ventilation performance. The inlet and
the purpose of evaluating the windcatcher’s ventilation performance. The inlet and 1.1
1.1 m m
with the purpose
horizontal planes of evaluating
were used to the windcatcher’s
calculate and display ventilation
the contours performance.
of different IAQThe inlet The
factors. andopening
1.1 m
horizontal planes were used to calculate and display the contours of different IAQ factors. The
horizontal
plane planes
(theplane
purple werewas
one) used to calculate and time
displayairthetraveling
contoursinside
of different IAQ factors. Theof
opening (the purple defined
one) was as defined
the start as theofstart time of air the model
traveling inside forthe
mean
modelage for
opening
air (MAA) plane (the purple
calculation. one) was defined as the start time of air traveling inside the model for
mean age of air (MAA) calculation.
mean age of air (MAA) calculation.
Figure 12.
12. The
The positions
positions of planes
planes used
used for
for calculations.
calculations.
Figure
Figure 12. The positions ofofplanes used for calculations.
4.2.1.
4.2.1. Air
Air Flow
Flow in
in Inlet
Inlet
4.2.1. Air Flow in Inlet
Evaluation
Evaluationand comparison
and of theofventilation
comparison performance
the ventilation among various
performance wing
among wall configuration
various wing wall
Evaluation and comparison of the ventilation performance among various wing wall
were
configuration were made by calculating the airflow velocity average inside the inletcan
made by calculating the airflow velocity average inside the inlet channel as it manifest
channel as it the
can
configuration were made by calculating the airflow velocity average inside the inlet channel as it can
windcatcher’s capability to provide
manifest the windcatcher’s buildings
capability with
to provide fresh air.with fresh air.
buildings
manifest the windcatcher’s capability to provide buildings with fresh air.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 13 of 23
The simulation outcomes for TWIW’s inlet air velocity in various wing wall lengths from 10 cm to
The simulation outcomes for TWIW’s inlet air velocity in various wing wall lengths from 10 cm
100 cm with 10 cm increments in outdoor wind speed of 2.5 m/s is portrayed in Figure 13.
to 100 cm with 10 cm increments in outdoor wind speed of 2.5 m/s is portrayed in Figure 13.
0.8
0.78
0.79 0.76
0.75 0.74
Air velocity (m/s)
0.75 0.72
0.71
0.7 0.72 0.70
0.70
0.65
0.6
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length (cm)
Figure 13. The air velocity in inlet of TWIW in different wing wall length (at 2.5 m/s wind speed).
Figure 13. The air velocity in inlet of TWIW in different wing wall length (at 2.5 m/s wind speed).
From
From the the above
above graph,
graph, itit is
is revealed
revealed that
that the
the air
air velocity
velocity pattern
pattern demonstrates
demonstrates aa steady
steady decrease
decrease
from
from model with 10 cm wing wall length to 100 cm; thus, the maximum (0.79 m/s) was observed in
model with 10 cm wing wall length to 100 cm; thus, the maximum (0.79 m/s) was observed in
10 cm. However,
10 cm. However, the the difference
difference between
between maximum
maximum and and minimum
minimum was was less
less than
than 12%.
12%.
Figure
Figure 14 14 displays
displays the
the air
air flow
flow rate
rate and
and air
air flow
flow rate
rate per square meter
per square meter of TWIW with
of TWIW with different
different
wing
wing wall lengths. The air flow rate and inlet air velocity had similar pattern since the air flow rate
wall lengths. The air flow rate and inlet air velocity had similar pattern since the air flow rate is
is
considered
considered as as aa function
function ofof inlet
inlet airair velocity.
velocity. In
In such
such aa way, as the
way, as the length
length increased,
increased, the
the air
air flow
flow rate
rate
decreased
decreased and reached its minimum
minimum value value at
at 100
100 cm
cm (698
(698 L/s
L/s and
and 29.1
29.1 L/s/m
L/s/m).2 ).
2
Energies 2018,and
11, xreached
FOR PEERits
REVIEW 14 of 23
The following is an equation that calculation of the minimum ventilation rate (VR) in ASHARE
standard 62.1 was based on:
800 790 VR = (A × Od × Rp) + (A × Ra) 34 (7)
775
32.9
where A reprents the ventilated area; Od, the density of occupants as persons per m2; Rp, the needed
33
ventilation rate for a single32.3individual
758.3 as L/s per person; and Ra, the needed ventilation rate for one
Air flow rate per m2 (L/s/m2 )
square meter as L/s/m2. Rp and Ra could746 be adopted for each ocupancy category type such as office in
750 31.6 32
Air flow rate (L/s)
the ASHRAE standard 62.1 [51]. In case the model 735 represents a small classroom (A = 24 m2, Od = 0.65
persons/m2, RP = 3.8 L/s per person, Ra =31.1 0.3 L/s per m2), the minimum VR is:
30.6 718 31
715
(24 × 3.8 × 0.65) + (24 × 0.3) = 68 L/s710 (8)
702
29.9 698
29.8
Comparison
700 between the TWIW’s air flow rate and minimum 29.6 requirement of ASHRAE
30 62.1
shows the TWIW’s potential to supply ten times more than standard requirement.
29.3
29.1 It implies that a
single TWIW is capable of fresh air provision for larger area and meet the standard as well.
29
650 28
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length (cm)
Figure 14. The

Figure 14. The air
airflow
flowrate
rateand
andairair
flow rate
flow perper
rate square meter
square in different
meter wingwing
in different wallwall
length (at 2.5
length (atm/s
2.5
wind speed).
m/s wind speed).
The
The following
TWIW’s airis an equation
change ratethat
for calculation
several wing of wall
the minimum
lengths isventilation
displayed rate (VR ) in15.
in Figure ASHARE
The air
standard 62.1 was based on:
change as well as the air flow rate was directly associated with inlet air velocity. Hence the maximum
VR = (A
air change rate (39.5 1/h) and minimum ×O
(34.9 d ×occurred
1/h) Rp ) + (Ain×10
Racm
) and 100 cm length respectively. (7)
40 39.5
38.8
37.9
38 37.3
(1/h)
37
33
32.3 758.3
Air flow rate per m2 (L/s/m2 )

746
750 31.6 32
Air flow rate (L/s)

735
31.1
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 30.6 718 31 14 of 23
715
710
702
29.9 698
29.8
700 the ventilated area; O , the density of occupants 29.6
where A reprents as persons per m2 ; R30
p , the needed
d
29.3
ventilation rate for a single individual as L/s per person; and Ra , the needed29.1
ventilation rate for
one square meter as L/s/m2 . Rp and Ra could be adopted for each ocupancy category29 type such as
office in the ASHRAE standard 62.1 [51]. In case the model represents a small classroom (A = 24 m2 ,
Od = 0.65 persons/m 2 , R = 3.8 L/s per person, R = 0.3 L/s per m2 ), the minimum V is:
650 P a R 28
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
(24 × 3.8 × 0.65)Length × 0.3) = 68 L/s
+ (24 (cm) (8)
Comparison between the TWIW’s air flow rate and minimum requirement of ASHRAE 62.1
Figure 14. The air flow rate and air flow rate per square meter in different wing wall length (at 2.5
shows the TWIW’s potential to supply ten times more than standard requirement. It implies that a
m/s wind speed).
single TWIW is capable of fresh air provision for larger area and meet the standard as well.
The TWIW’s air change rate for several wing wall lengths is displayed in Figure 15. The air
The TWIW’s air change rate for several wing wall lengths is displayed in Figure 15. The air
change as well
change as well as
as the
the air
air flow
flow rate
rate was
was directly
directly associated
associated with
with inlet
inlet air
air velocity.
velocity. Hence
Hence the
the maximum
maximum
air change
air change rate
rate (39.5
(39.5 1/h) andminimum
1/h) and minimum(34.9
(34.91/h)
1/h)occurred
occurredinin1010cm
cmand
and100
100cm
cmlength
lengthrespectively.
respectively.
40 39.5
38.8
37.9
38 37.3
Air change rate (1/h)
37
36 35.8
36 35.5
35.1 34.9
34
32
30
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Length (cm)
Figure
Figure 15.
15. The
The air
air change
change rate
rate of
of windcatchers
windcatchers with
with different
different wing
wing wall length.
wall length.
4.2.2. The IAQ Parameters on Horizontal Plane

including velocity, mean age of air (MAA) and air change
In this section, the IAQ parameters including
effectiveness (ACE)
effectiveness (ACE) are assessed
assessed in the in 1.1 m horizontal plane as the breathing height at sitting
position (the blue plane in Figure 12) with respect to the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) standard. The air velocity contours inside the occupied
zone were plotted in the 1.1 m horizontal plane in Figure
Figure 16.
16.
The air velocity scale is illustrated on the left of the Figure 16. The colors of the domain contour
were based on the range of air velocity, 0 to 0.3 m/s. The highest air velocity zone is depicted by the
red color while the lowest air velocity is represented by the dark blue.
Energies 2018,
Energies 11, x2536
2018, 11, FOR PEER REVIEW 15
15 of
of 23
23
Figure
Figure 16.
16. Air
Air velocity
velocity contours
contours of
of 1.1
1.1 m
m horizontal planes (at
horizontal planes (at 2.5
2.5 m/s
m/s wind
windspeed).
speed).
The
The air
linevelocity
graph in scale is illustrated
Figure on the
17 illustrates leftaverage
the of the Figure 16. The colors
of air velocity in 1.1 of
m the domain plane
horizontal contour
in
were based
different on the
length range
from 10ofcmairtovelocity,
100 cm.0 to 0.3 m/s. The
Compared highest
to inlet, air velocity
Same behaviorzone is depicted
of the air flow by
in the
the
red color while
horizontal thecan
plane lowest air velocity
be seen is represented
so that there is negativeby (but
the dark
weak)blue.
relationship between the length
The wall
of wing line graph
and airinvelocity
Figure 17 illustrates
in the the average
horizontal of air
plane. The velocity 0.04
negligible in 1.1
m/sm horizontal plane in
difference between
different length from 10 cm to 100 cm. Compared to inlet, Same behavior
maximum and minimum values of the graph, proves that increase in length has no notable impactof the air flow in the
on
horizontal planeincan
the air velocity be seen plane.
horizontal so that there is negative (but weak) relationship between the length of
wing wall and air velocity in the horizontal plane. The negligible 0.04 m/s difference between
maximum and minimum values of the graph, proves that increase in length has no notable impact
on the air velocity in horizontal plane.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 16 of 23

0.2
0.2
0.16
(m/s)
0.16
(m/s)
velocity
0.12
velocity
0.12
AirAir
0.08
0.08
0.04
0.04
0
0 10 20 50 30 60 40 70 80 90 100
10 20 50 30 60 40 70 80 90 100
Length (cm)
Length (cm)
Figure 17. The average of air velocity in 1.1 m horizontal planes in different wing wall lengths.
Figure 17.
Figure The average
17. The average of
of air
air velocity
velocity in 1.1 m horizontal planes in different wing wall lengths.
Mean Age of Air

Mean Age of Air
The ventilation
ventilation quality
qualityand
andidentification
identificationofofpoor
poorventilated
ventilated spaces
spaces areare assessed
assessed by by mean
mean ageage of
of air
The ventilation quality and identification of poor ventilated spaces are assessed by mean age of
air (MAA),
(MAA), whichwhich is described
is described as theaselapsed
the elapsed time the
time since since
airthe air enters
enters an indoor
an indoor environment.
environment. The
The present
air (MAA), which is described as the elapsed time since the air enters an indoor environment. The
present study employed
study employed the approach
the approach explainedexplained
by [47,52] byto[47,52] to calculate
calculate the MAA the MAA through
through a numerical
a numerical method
present study employed the approach explained by [47,52] to calculate the MAA through a numerical
method thatthe
that utilizes utilizes
CFDthe CFD
code code Fluent.
Fluent.
method that utilizes the CFD code Fluent.
Figure 18 indicate the MAA calculated values in 1.1 m horizontal plane at different wing wall
Figure 18 indicate the MAA calculated values in 1.1 m horizontal plane at different wing wall
length in which lower values appear to be more desirable. The maximum MAA was 33% higher than
length in which lower values appear to be more desirable. The maximum MAA was 33% higher than
the minimum MAA in 10 cm length. It seems that the MAA become greater by increase in length of
the minimum MAA in 10 cm length. It seems that the MAA become greater by increase in length of
the wing wall which implied that smaller area of stagnant air existed existed at
at lower
lower length.
length.
the wing wall which implied that smaller area of stagnant air existed at lower length.
160
160
140 139 139 140 143
140 139 139 140 143
128 129
120 119 121 128 129
(s)(s)
120 119 111 121

107 111
AirAir
100 107
100
ofof
80
Age
80
MeanAge
60
Mean
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
1010
2020
3030
4040
5050
6060
7070
8080
9090
100
100
Wing wall length (cm)

Figure 18. The Mean age of air of horizontal plane in different length.
Figure
Figure 18.
18. The
The Mean
Mean age
age of
of air
air of
of horizontal
horizontal plane
plane in
in different length.
different length.
Figure 19 depicts the MAA in the vertical plane (in the centre of room) of 10 cm model. The
Figure 19 depicts
19 MAA
depicts the MAAMAAininwiththe
thevertical plane (in(in
thethe
centre of room) of 10ofcm model. The
distribution of wasthein concert vertical
airflow plane
pattern inside thecentre
room ofwithroom)
gradual 10 cm model.
increase from
distribution
The of MAA
distribution of was in
MAA was concert
in with with
concert airflow pattern
airflow insideinside
pattern the room
the with gradual
room with increase
gradual from
increase
the inlet along the supply jet, then getting to the maximum value in the zone of recirculation (116 s).
the
frominlet
thealong
inlet the supply
along the was jet, then
supply jet,getting
then to the maximum value in the zone ofzone
recirculation (116 s).
The lowest MAA value observed ingetting to the
the center of maximum value
the area (blue in the
space below of recirculation
the inlet) which
The lowest
(116 s). TheaMAA
lowestvalue was observed in the centertheof the areathe
(blue space below the inlet) which
represents fresher MAA value
air there. Bywas observed
contrast, high in
MAA center
values of
exist inarea (blue
areas space
with below
stagnant airthe
or inlet)
poor
represents
which a fresher
represents a air there.
fresher airBy contrast,
there. By high MAA
contrast, highvalues
MAA exist
valuesin areas
exist with
in stagnant
areas with air or
stagnant poor
air
ventilation. At the height of 1.1 m (a sitting person’s breathing height), MAA values in windcatcher-
ventilation. At the height of 1.1 m (a sitting person’s breathing height), MAA values in windcatcher-
ventilated space ranges between 30 s (centre) and 116 s.
ventilated space ranges between 30 s (centre) and 116 s.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 17 of 23
or poor ventilation. At the height of 1.1 m (a sitting person’s breathing height), MAA values in
windcatcher-ventilated
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEERspace ranges
between 30 s (centre) and 116 s.
REVIEW 17 of 23
Figure 19.The
The distribution
distribution of
of MAA in vertical plane of 10 cm model.
Figure 19. The distribution of MAA in vertical plane of 10 cm model.
Comparing the
Comparing the MAA
MAA results
results ofof windcatcher
windcatcher with with previous
previousstudies
studiescancanbetter
betterreveal
revealits its
Comparing the MAA results of windcatcher with previous studies can better reveal its
performance
performance and and improvement.
and improvement.
improvement. For For instance,
For instance, the
instance, the research
the research conducted
research conducted
conducted byby Calautit
by Calautit and
Calautit and Hughes
and Hughes [18]
Hughes [18]
[18]
performance
evaluated
evaluated a foursided
aa four
four sided windcatcher(with
(with 100 × × 100
100cm
cm22cross
2
crosssection, same asas
current research) placed
evaluated sided windcatcher
windcatcher (with 100 100 × 100 cm cross section,
section, same
same current
as current research)
research) placed
placed
on the top of a 5 m × 5 m × 3 m room at 3 m/s outdoor wind speed. Although the wind speed in their
on the
on the top
top ofof aa55mm××5 5mm × 3×m3 room
m room at 3atm/s
3 m/s outdoor
outdoor wind wind speed.
speed. Although
Although the wind
the wind speedspeed
in theirin
study was 25% higher, as Figure 20 demonstrates, the MAA generally shows relatively higher values
their
study study
was was 25%
25% higher, higher, as Figure 20 demonstrates, the MAA generally shows relatively higher
in the vertical plane. as Figure
For, 20 demonstrates,
instance, the MAA passed the MAA
the 200generally shows relatively
s in recirculation higher
zone, which values
is 90%
values
in the in the vertical
vertical plane. plane.
For, For, instance,
instance, the the MAA
MAA passed
passed the the
200 200
s s in
in recirculationzone,
recirculation zone,which
whichisis 90%
90%
higher than TWIW performance. Moreover, further areas were affected by recirculation and stagnant
higher than
higher than TWIW
TWIW performance.
performance. Moreover, further areas were affected by recirculation and stagnant
zone on both sides of the room. Moreover, further areas were affected by recirculation and stagnant
zone on
zone on both
both sides
sides of
of the room.
the room.
Figure 20. The MAA distribution of four sided windcatcher in the vertical plane in Calautit study [18].
Figure 20.
20. The
Likewise,
Figure MAA
MAA distribution
Montazeri
The of
of four
four sided
[47] investigated
distribution onewindcatcher
sided in
in the
sided and two
windcatcher vertical
sided
the plane
plane in
in Calautit
windcatcher
vertical study
with 1.5
Calautit [18].
m height
study [18].
and cross-section of 1 m × 1 m in a 6 m × 8 m × 3 m room at 3 m/s wind speed. He found that in the
Likewise,
Likewise,
optimum Montazeri
Montazeri the
configuration, [47] investigated
[47]maximum
investigated one
one sided
of MAA in the and
sided and twoplane
vertical sided(same
windcatcher
as Figurewith
windcatcher with 1.5 m height
19) reached to
and
140cross-section
cross-section of 20%
of
s which is still 11 m
m×× 1 mthan
more m×
× 8results.
in a TWIW
6m 8 m ××33m mroom
room at
at 33 m/s
m/swind
windspeed.
speed.HeHefound
found that
that in
in the
optimum
optimum configuration,
configuration, the
the maximum
maximum of
of MAA
MAA in in the
the vertical
vertical plane
plane (same
(same as
as Figure 19) reached to
Air
140 ChangeisEffectiveness
s which still 20% more than TWIW results.
results.
Air change effectiveness (ACE) is defined as the ratio of a nominal time constant to a mean age
Air Change Effectiveness
of air [52]. This parameter yields a measure of the air distribution at the breathing height and values
close
Airtochange
unity are indicators of
effectiveness perfect
(ACE) is mixing
definedofasair distribution.
the A ratio oftime
ratio of a nominal the constant
room volume (6 × 4 ×age
to a mean
of 3air
m [52].
3) to the flow
This rate of supply
parameter yieldsairavolume
measure(mof/s)the
3 to the
air room is the nominal
distribution time constant.
at the breathing Theand
height relative
values
air change
close to unityeffectiveness
are indicatorscanofalso be described
perfect mixing ofasair thedistribution.
criterion of efficiency
A ratio ofof supply
the room air utilization
volume (6 × 4 ×
3 m3) to the flow rate of supply air volume (m3/s) to the room is the nominal time constant. The relative
air change effectiveness can also be described as the criterion of efficiency of supply air utilization
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 18 of 23
Air Change Effectiveness

Air change effectiveness (ACE) is defined as the ratio of a nominal time constant to a mean age of
air [52]. This parameter yields a measure of the air distribution at the breathing height and values close
to unity are indicators of perfect mixing of air distribution. A ratio of the room volume (6 × 4 × 3 m3 )
to the flow rate of supply air volume (m3 /s) to the room is the nominal time constant. The relative
air change effectiveness can also be described as the criterion of efficiency of supply air utilization
ventilating
ventilating thethe environment.
environment. In In case
case of
of perfect
perfect mixing of the
mixing of the air
air in
in aa space,
space, the
the ACE
ACE value
value for
for the
the
environment and the local ACE value for every spot of the environment will be
environment and the local ACE value for every spot of the environment will be 1.0. ACE values below1.0. ACE values
below 1.0 represent
1.0 represent the airthe air distribution
distribution beingbeing less than
less than perfect
perfect mixingmixing
and and values
values greater
greater thanthan
1.0 1.0
are
are indicators
indicators of better
of better ventilation.
ventilation. The ACE
The ACE calculated
calculated valuesvalues
at 1.1 at
m 1.1 m horizontal
horizontal plane shown
plane shown in Figurein
Figure 21 ranges between 0.67 (for 80, 90 and 100 cm)
21 ranges between 0.67 (for 80, 90 and 100 cm) and 0.92 (10 cm).and 0.92 (10 cm).
0.92
0.87
0.81
0.78
0.73 0.73
0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67
ACE
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Figure 21.
Figure 21. The
The air
air change
change effectiveness
effectiveness of
of horizontal
horizontal plane
plane in
in different
different length.
length.
Comparison
Comparison between
between 10
10 cm
cm and
and 100
100 cm
cm length
length
In
In this
this section
section aa more
more detailed
detailed comparison
comparison between
between 10 10 cmcm model
model as as the
the optimum
optimum configuration
configuration
with
with highest
highestIAQIAQperformance
performancewith with100100cmcmmodel
model as as
thethelowest
lowestis performed.
is performed. Figure 22 compares
Figure 22 compares the
air velocity in horizontal plane between 10 cm model with 100 cm one. It is clear
the air velocity in horizontal plane between 10 cm model with 100 cm one. It is clear that bigger area that bigger area was
affected with with
was affected higher air velocity
higher in 10 in
air velocity cm10model.
cm model.
Figure
Figure 2323 compares
compares the the dead
dead zones
zones between
between 10 10 cm
cm andand 100100 cm
cm wing
wing wall
wall in
in the
the horizontal
horizontal plane
plane
which defined by Dehghan [38],
which [38], as
as the
the spots
spotsof ofoccupied
occupiedarea areawith
withzero
zeroorornearnearzero
zeroairair
velocity,
velocity,a
acommon
commonchallenge
challengeininthe theventilation
ventilationsystems.
systems.The Theisoclip
isoclip contour
contour with
with condition of velocity below below
0.1 m/s
0.1 m/s was
was plotted
plotted inin Figure 23 to represent the dead zone area and it is obvious that aa bigger bigger dead
dead
zone
zone area
area exists
exists inin 100
100 cm model.
model. The FLUENT function calculation calculation used to determine the percentage percentage
of the
of the dead
dead zone
zone area
area to
to the
the full
full area
area of
of the
the 1.1
1.1 mm horizontal
horizontal plane.
plane. The results
results showed
showed the the dead
dead zone
zone
formed
formed 24%24% and
and 38%
38% ofof horizontal
horizontal plane
plane inin 10
10 cm
cmandand100100cm cmrespectively.
respectively.
Figure24
Figure 24compares
comparesthe the calculated
calculated values
values of ACE
of ACE at breathing
at breathing heightheight
(1.1 m) (1.1 m) between
between 10 cm
10 cm model
model
and 100and 100 cmiswhich
cm which rangingis ranging
from 0.5 from
(in 1000.5cm)
(into
100
2.9cm) to 2.9
(under (under
supply jet supply
of 10 cm jetmodel).
of 10 cm model).
Generally,
Generally,
values of thevalues
ACE of in the
10 cmACE in 10incm
model themodel in the
occupied occupied
space spacethan
are higher are higher than
the other, the other,
which proves which
that
proves thatair
ventilation ventilation
has betterair has better
mixing in themixing in the
ventilated ventilated location.
location.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 19 of 23
Figure 22. Comparison of airvelocity

Comparison velocity in horizontal
horizontal plane between 10 cm wing wall (A) and 100 cmcm
Figure 22.22.
Figure Comparisonofofair
air velocity in planebetween
in horizontal plane between1010cm
cmwing
wingwall
wall (A)
(A) and
and 100100
cm
wing
wing wall
wall (B).
(B).
wing wall (B).
Figure 23. The ISO plane contours which show the area with air velocity below 0.1 m/s as the dead
Figure 23. The ISOplane
planecontours
contourswhich
which show
show the
the area
area with
with air
air velocity
velocitybelow
below0.1
0.1m/s as as
thethe
dead
Figure areaThe
zone 23. ((A)ISO
10 cm wing wall and (B) 100 cm wing wall). m/s dead
zone area ((A) 10 cm wing wall and (B) 100 cm wing wall).
zone area ((A) 10 cm wing wall and (B) 100 cm wing wall).
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 20 of 23
Figure
Figure 24.
24. Comparison
Comparison of
of ACE
ACE in
in horizontal
horizontal plane
plane between
between 10 cm (A)
10 cm (A) and
and 100
100 cm
cm wing
wing wall
wall (B).
(B).
5. Conclusions
Many parts of buildings consume energy, but more than two-thirds of this energy is consumed
for heating, air air conditioning
conditioning (HVAC)
(HVAC) and and ventilation.
ventilation.Apart Apartfromfromthe thehigh
highenergy
energyexpenditure,
expenditure, a
significant
a significantshare
shareofofindoor
indoorairairquality
qualityproblems
problemsmight mightbe berelated
relatedto to air
air conditioning
conditioning (AC)
(AC) systems.
systems.
One solution is to replace conventional AC with natural ventilation ones among which windcatchers
are one the most famous natural ventilation systems. In this study a two two sided
sided windcatcher
windcatcher integrated
integrated
with a wing wall (TWIW) was was evaluated
evaluated atat low
low wind
wind speed
speed (2.5
(2.5 m/s
m/s wind speed) by variation of the
wing wall length.
The research consisted of a CFD simulation which was validated against the experimental data
of previous studies and good good correlation
correlation was was observed.
observed. The The results
results indicated
indicated that the average
difference between CFD results and experiments was less than 7%, which is in an acceptable range
and consequently,
consequently,the thesimulation
simulation could
could be be trusted.
trusted. In second
In the the secondstep,step, this study
this study focused
focused on the on the
length
length as thedeign
as the other other deign
factor factor
of TWIW of TWIW
to seetoitssee its influence
influence on the onindoor
the indoor air quality
air quality factors
factors suchsuch as
as air
air velocity,
velocity, air flow
air flow rate rate
and and air change
air change rate,rate,
meanmean age of age
airofand
airair
and air change
change effectiveness.
effectiveness. Different
Different wing
winglengths
wall wall lengths
from from
10 cm10tocm 100to cm
100were
cm were assessed
assessed andand it was
it was found
found thatthat
thethe length
length did
did notnot havea
have
aconsiderable
considerableeffect
effectononindoor
indoorairairquality
qualityfactors;
factors;however,
however,the thefindings
findingshighlighted
highlighted that
that in the 10 to
20 cm range relatively higher values could be observed. The results of this study can be implemented
in any low wind speed climate type such as tropical tropical climate
climate oror dense
dense urban
urban areas.
areas.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization,

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.N.;
P.N.; Methodology,
Methodology,P.N.;
P.N.;Software,
Software,P.N.;
P.N.;Validation,
Validation,P.N. and
P.N. J.K.C.;
and J.C.;
Investigation F.J.;
Investigation F.J.;Data
DataCuration,
Curation,P.N.; Writing-Original
P.N.; DraftDraft
Writing-Original Preparation, P.N. and
Preparation, P.N.F.J.;
and Writing-Review & Editing,
F.J.; Writing-Review &
J.K.C., F.J. and H.M.H.; Supervision, H.M.H., M.Z.A.M.
Editing, J.C., F.J. and H.M.H.; Supervision, H.M.H., M.Z.A.M.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Advanced Building and Environment Research (ABER)
center.
Energies 2018, 11, 2536 21 of 23
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the Advanced Building and Environment Research
(ABER) center.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclature
A cross-sectional area (m2 )
ε turbulence dissipation rate
ρ density
µ molecular dynamic viscosity
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2 )
K turbulence kinetic energy
H height (m)
l kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
L length (m)
P pressure (Pa)
Po total pressure (Pa)
Ps static pressure (Pa)
q air density (kg/m3 )
Q volume flow rate (m3 /s)
Re Reynolds number
t time (s)
TWIW two-sided windcatcher intertied with wing wall
u x-direction velocity
v y-direction velocity
w z-direction velocity
W width (m)
X, Y, Z Cartesian co-ordinates (m)
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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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energies

Abstract: Generally, two-third of a building’s energy is consumed by heating, ventilation and

Energies 2018, 11, 2536; doi:10.3390/en11102536 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Figure 1. The different types of windcatcher found in the Middle East.

3. Materials and Methods

3.2. CFD Study of Windcatcher Performance

Figure 4. The CFD domain of the model.

3.2.1. Mesh Generation

3.2.2. Boundary Conditions

3.2.3. Solution Convergence and Flux Balance

Figure 14. The

Air flow rate per m2 (L/s/m2 )

Air flow rate (L/s)

4.2.2. The IAQ Parameters on Horizontal Plane

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

Mean Age of Air

120 119 111 121

Wing wall length (cm)

Air Change Effectiveness

Figure 22. Comparison of airvelocity

Author Contributions: Conceptualization,

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