Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory Ange Bet W. W. NORTON & COMPANY NEW YORK * LONDON WWW.WWNORTON.COM|W. W, Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton fist published lectures delivered at che People’s Institut, the adult education division of New York Citys Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury, the two major pillars of Norton's publishing program—trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950, the [Norton family transferred control ofthe company ¢o its employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton 8 ‘Company stands a the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees. Copyright © 2016, 2005, 2000, 1990 by Joseph N. Straus “This book was previously published by: Pearson Education, Inc Pi All rights reserved, Printed in the United States of America Editor: Justin Hoffman Project Editors: Debra Nichols, Rachel Mayer alitoral Assistant: Grant Phelps ‘Manuscript Editor: Jodi Beder ‘Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson ‘Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Associate Director of Production, College: Benjamin Reynolds ‘Media Editor: Steve Hoge Media Editorial Assistant: Stephanie Eads Marketing Manager, Music: Trevor Penland Design Director: jillian Bure Designer: Wendy Lai Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson ‘Compesition: codeMantra ‘Manuficturing: [SC Communications—Kendallvile IN Permission to use copyrighted material begins on p. 385. ‘Names: Straus, Joseph Nathan, author. ‘Title: Introduction to post-tonal cheory / Joseph N. Straus Description: Fourth edition | New York : W.W. Norton & Company, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2015047742 | ISBN 978-0-393-93883-8 (hardcover) Subjects: LCSH: Music theory | Atonality. | Twelve-tone system. | Musical analysis. (Classification: LOC MT40,$96 2016 | DDC 781.2/67~de23 LC record available at hetp:Mlcn toc. ‘povl2015047742 W. W, Norton & Company, Inc., 00 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017, W.W. Norton & Company Lrd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 38S 234567890iContentecs IDICRACO hss arrestin reer one = 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Interval ... Pitch-Class Sets ....... Some Additional Properties and Relationships Centricity and Referential Pitch Collections ou wn Basic Concepts of Twelve-Tone Music ...... List of Set Classes ........ Answers to Selected Exercises Credits ............. Index of Concepts ..... Index of Composers and Works......:c.ccseee Motive, Voice Leading, and Harmony ...................... 5 159 228 . 294 378 382 a 385 . 389 395, CONTENTS IN BRIEFFE) Basic concepts of Pitch and Interval... D 1.1 Octave Equivalence 1 1.2 Enharmonic Equivalence 3 1.3. Pitch and Pitch Class 4 1.4 Integer Notation 5. 1.5 Arithmetic modulo 12 (mod 12) 6 1.6 Intervals (Calculated in Semitones) 7 1.7 Pitch Intervals (Ordered and Unordered) 9 1.8 Ordered Pitch-Class Intervals 9 1.9 Unordered Pitch-Class Intervals 11 1.10 Interval Class 12 1.11 Interval-Class Content 13 1.12 Interval-Class Vector 16 1.13. Spacing and Register 17 EXERCISES 18 MODEL ANALYSES 22 1 qa ‘Anton Webern, “Wie bin ich froh!” from Three Songs, op. 25 22 Amold Schoenberg, “Nacht” (Night), from Pierrot Lunaire, op. 21 28 GUIDED ANALYSES 31 1 12 fe 14 15 1.6 1:7 1.8 1.9 1.10 ‘Anton Webern, Symphony, op. 21, second movement, Theme 32 ‘Arnold Schoenberg, Piano Concerto, op. 42, first movement 33 Igor Stravinsky, “Musick to heare,” from Three Shakespeare Songs 33 Ruth Crawford Seeger, Diaphonic Suite No. 1 (for oboe or flute), first movement 35 Edgard Varese, Octandte, first movement 35, Mitton Babbitt, “The Widow's Lament in Springtime” 36 Luciano Berio, Sequenza /(for solo flute) 37 Kaija Saariaho, NoaNoa (for flute and live electronics) 38 Elliott Carter, Riconascenza per Goffredo Petrassi (for solo violin) 39 Ursula Mamiok, Variations for Solo Flute, Theme 41 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 42Pitch-Class Sets ....... i 43 21 Pitch-Class Sets 43 2.2 Normal Form 45 2.2.1 Putting a set into normal form 45 222 Using the pitch-class clockface 46 2.3. Transposition (T,) 46 2.3.1 Line (or series) of pitches 46 23.2 Line (or series) of pitch classes 47 23.3 Seto pitch classes 48 234 Levels of transposition 49 235° Transposing a pitch-class set 49 2.3.8 Recognizing sets related by transposition 50 2.3.1 Nodes, arrows, and networks 51 238 Inverse 52 24 Inversion (1,) 53 24.1 Index number (sum) 53 2A2 Line (or series) of pitches 55 24.3 Line (or series) of pitch classes 55 244 Set of pitch classes 56 2.5 Inversion (I;) 58 26 SetClass 62 2.7 Prime Form 66 2.8 Listof Set Classes 68 2.9 Segmentation and Analysis 69 EXERCISES 71 MODEL ANALYSES 75 2.1. Arnold Schoenberg, Book of the Hanging Gardens, op. 15, no. 11 75 2.2 Béla Bartok, String Quartet No. 4, first movement 81 GUIDED ANALYSES 86 2.1 Ruth Crawford Seeger, Piano Prelude No. 9 86 2.2 Anton Weber, Concerto for Nine Instruments, op. 24, second movement 87 2.3. Igor Stravinsky, Agon, “Pas de deux" 88 2.4 Anton Weber, Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, no. 2. 90 2.5 Milton Babbitt, Semi-Simple Variations, Theme 90 2.6 Igor Stravinsky, Three Pieces for String Quartet, no. 2 91 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 93 CONTENTS34 3.2 3.3 34 35 3.6 37 3.8 39 3.10 Some Addi nal Properties and Relationships 95 Common Tones Under Transposition (T,) 96 3.1.1 Interval-class content 96 3.1.2 Some special set classes (major scale and whole-tone scale) 98 Transpositional Symmetry 100 3.2.1 Interval-class vector 101 3.2.2 Some special set classes 101 3.2.3 The pitch-class clocktace 102 3.2.4 Degrees of transpositional symmetry 103 Common Tones Under Inversion (I,) 103 3.3.1. Calculating common tones under inversion 104 3.3.2 Common tones as a source of musical continuity 105 Inversional Symmetry 107 3.4.1. Intervallic palindrome (mirror image) 107 3.4.2 Pitch symmetry and pitch-class symmetry 108 3.4.3 Degrees of inversional symmetry 110 Symmetry and Set Class 112 Zxelation 112 3.6.1 Z-correspondents 113 3.6.2 The two “all-interval” tetrachords 113 Complement Relation 115 3.7.1 Interval content 115 3.7.2 Literal and abstract complements 117 3.7.3 List of Set Classes 119 3.7.4 Hexachords 119 Inclusion Relation (Subsets and Supersets) 121 3.8.1 Subsets of the same type 121 3.8.2 Inclusion lattice 122 3.8.3 Projecting subsets in pitch space 122 3.8.4 Literal and abstract subsets and supersets 123, Transpositional Combination (TC) 124 Contour Relations 126 3.10.1 Contour segment (CSEG) 127 3.10.2 CSEG-class 127 3.10.3 Contours of dynamics and durations 129EXERCISES 132 MODEL ANALYSES 137 3.1 Anton Webern, Movements for Siring Quartet, op. 5, no. 4 137 3.2 Alban Berg, “Schlafend tragt man mich,” from Four Songs, op. 2, no.2 143 GUIDED ANALYSES 148 3.1 Igor Stravinsky, Agon, “Bransle Gay” 148 3.2 Arnold Schoenberg, Six Little Piano Pieces, op. 19, no. 2 150 3.3 George Crumb, Vox Balaenae (Voice of the Whale), “Vocalise (.... for the Beginning of Time)” 152 34 Gyorgy Ligeti, Etude 11: En Suspens 154 3.5 Anton Webern, Five Pieces for Orchestra, op. 10, no. 4 156 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 157 Motive, Voice Leading, and Harmony . 159 4.1 Composing-Out 159 42 Interval Cycles 163 4.2.1 Cyclic linear motion 165 4.2.2 Cyclic harmonies 166 42.3. Maximal evenness 169 4.24 Combination cycles 171 43° Woice Leading 174 4.3.1 Transposition and inversion 175 4.3.2 Fuzzy transposition and inversion (with offset) 177 44° Set-Class Space 179 4A, Voice-leading space for trichords 179 44.2 Voiceleading space for tetrachords 181 443° Harmonic quality 182 45 Contextual Inversion 183 4.5.1 Chain and space for (014) 183 45.2. Chain and space for B-G-A-B> 185 48 — Triadic Post-Tonality 188 4.8.1 Triadic transformation 188 48.2 Other progressions of triads 196 EXERCISES 199 MODEL ANALYSES 202 4.1 Stravinsky, The Rite of Spring, Part 1, Introduction 202 4.2 Anton Webern, Little Pieces for Cello and Piano, op. 11, no. 1 207 CONTENTSGUIDED ANALYSES 214 4.1 Thomas Adés, The Tempest, Act lll, Scene 5 214 4.2 Karlheinz Stockhausen, Klavierstck III 217 4.3 Béla Bartok, String Quartet No. 3, Prima parte 218 44 Elliott Carter, Scrivo in Vento 220 4.5 Witold Lutostawski, Funeral Music, first movement 221 4.6 Arnold Schoenberg, Five Piano Pieces, op. 23, no. 3 223 4.7 Alfred Schnittke, Hymmus II (for cello and double bass) 224 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 225 Cent ity and Referential Pitch Collections ..... 228 5.1 Tonality and Centricity 228 5.2 Inversional Axis 232 5.2.1. Inversional symmetry in pitch space 232 5.2.2 Inversional wedges 234 5.2.3 Inversional symmetry in pitch-class space (axis of symmetry) 236 5.2.4 Motion from axis to axis 241 5.3 Diatonic Collection 244 5.4 Octatonic Collection 249 5.5 Whole-Tone Collection 252 5.6 Hexatonic Collection 257 5.7 Collectional and Centric Interaction 260 EXERCISES 263 MODEL ANALYSES 265 5.1 Igor Stravinsky, Petrushka, Scene 1 265 5.2 Béla Bartok, Piano Sonata, first movement, first theme and second theme 273 GUIDED ANALYSES 277 5.1 Igor Stravinsky, Oedipus Rex 277 5.2 Igor Stravinsky, Orpheus 278 5.3 Igor Stravinsky, “In a foolish dream,” from The Rake's Progress 279 5.4 Béla Bartok, Mikrokosmos, no. 109, “From the Island of Bali” 281 5.5 Béla Bartok, Mikrokosmos, no. 101, “Diminished Fifth” 283 5.6 Ellen Taaffe Zwilich, String Quartet No. 2, second movement 284 5.7 Peter Maxwell Davies, Eight Songs for a Mad King, no. 3, “The Lady-in-Waiting: Miss Musgrave's Fancy” 285 5.8 Claude Debussy, “Voiles” 286 5.9 Anton Webern, Six Bagatelles, op. 9, no. 5-2875.10 5.1 Olivier Messiaen, “Amen du Désir,” from Visions de I’Amen (for two pianos) 289 Joan Tower, “Vast Antique Cubes,” from No Longer Very Clear (for piano solo) 290 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 292 Basic Concepts of Twelve-Tone Music ................... 294 62 63 64 65 Twelve-Tone Series 294 6.1.1 Set and series 294 6.1.2 Role ofthe series 295 Basic Operations 295 6.2.1 Content and order 295, 6.2.2 Prime ordering 296 6.2.3 Transposition 297 Retrograde 297 Inversion 298 Retrograde-inversion 299 Series class (row class) 299 28 12X12 matrix 301 6.28 “Twelve-count” 303 6.2.10 Composing with a series 306 Segmental Subsets 307 6.3.1 Direct presentation 308 6.3.2 Indirect presentation 309 Invariants 311 64.1 Invariant dyads 312 6.4.2 Invariant trichords 314 6.4.3 Invariant dyads between series forms 315 Varieties of Twelve-Tone Music 318 6.5.1 Webern and derivation 318 6.5.2 Schoenberg and hexachordal combinatoriality 322 6.5.3 Stravinsky and rotational arrays 328 6.5.4 Crawford Seeger and multilevel rotation 332 6.5.5 Babbitt and trichordal arrays 334 EXERCISES 338 MODEL ANALYSES 342 61 62 ‘Anton Weber, String Quartet, op. 28, first movement, Variation 4 342 Arnold Schoenberg, Piano Piece, op. 33a, first theme 347 GUIDED ANALYSES 354 Amold Schoenberg, Suite for Piano, op. 25, Gavotte 354 CONTENTS6.2 | 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 Igor Stravinsky, In Memoriam Dylan Thomas, Prelude (“Dirge-Canons”) 356 Anton Webern, Quartet, op. 22, first movement 357 Luigi Dallapiccola, Goethe Lieder, no. 2, “Die Sonne kommt!” 358 Luigi Dallapiccola, Quaderno Musicale di Annalibera, “Contrapunctus Secundus (canon contrario motu)” 360 Igor Stravinsky, Epitaphium 362 Ursula Mamlok, Panta Rhei, third movement 363 Charles Wuorinen, Twelve Pieces, no. 3 365 ‘Anton Webern, Concerto for Nine Instruments, op. 24, third movement 366 ‘Arnold Schoenberg, String Quartet No. 4, first movement 367 lgor Stravinsky, Requiem Canticles, “Exaudi" 369 Ruth Crawford Seeger, Three Songs, “Prayers of Steel” 372 Milton Babbitt, Du, Song No. 1 (“Wiedersehen”) 374 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING 376A broad consensus has emerged among music theorists regarding the basic musical elements of post-tonal music—pitch, interval, motive, harmony—and this book reports that consensus to a general audience of musicians and students of music. Like books on scales, triads, and simple harmonic progressions in tonal music, this book introduces basic theoretical concepts for the post-tonal music of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, Beyond basic concepts, this fourth edition also contains information on many of the most recent developments in post-tonal theory, including expanded or new cover- age of the following topics: transformational neeworks and graphs composing-out transformational voice leading voice-leading space harmonic quality triadic post-tonality inversional symmetry and inversional axes interval cycles contextual inversion and inversional chains Asa result, this book is not only a primer of basic concepts but also an introduction to the current state of post-tonal theory, with its rich array of theoretical concepts and analytical tools. Like previous editions of Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory, each chapter of the text features a clear and concise exposition of theoretical topics. New pedagogical aids enhance the fourth edition: each chapter begins with an outline of its content, and In Brief boxes summarize each section. Each chapter concludes with exercises; selected answers are provided atthe back of the book so that students can check to see if they're on the right track. This fourth edition features new analysis pedagogy. After the theoretical exercises in each chapter, you'll find two Model Analyses that apply the theoretical principles elucidated in the chapter. These are followed by Guided Analyses, where students are presented with musical passages of modest length and prompted a series of analytical questions. These Guided Analyses are suitable both for written assignments (of a variety of lengths) and classroom discussion. They offer students a chance to apply the theoretical concepts they've seen in the chapter and Model Analyses. They also offer a forum for the discussion of questions of form, rhythm, and expression. PREFACEIn the Guided Analyses, questions are designed to stimulate analytical thought, not to suggest definitive, correct answers. The music discussed in this book is inher- ently challenging and precludes simple answers. There are many possible responses to these questions and many possible interpretations of the relationships in this music. In addition to these substantial pedagogical changes, I have also made some modest changes in the presentation of theoretical material. In discussing inversion, I have retired the traditional compound operation T,I, in favor of the simpler I, and (13) models, Following the suggestion of Aleck Brinkman, who prepared the List of Set Classes, | have changed and simplified the procedure for putting sets in normal form. Finally, following the emerging practice in the professional literature, I make relatively infrequent use of Forte-names for set classes. Although the “classical” prewar repertoire of music by Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Bartok, Webern, and Berg still comprises the musical core, illustrations of theoreti- cal concepts and Guided Analyses now include music by a wide variety of compos- ers, including Adams, Adés, Babbitt, Berio, Boulez, Britten, Cage, Carter, Cowell, Crawford, Crumb, Dallapiccola, Davies, Debussy, Feldman, Glass, Gubaidulina, Ives, Ligeti, Lutostawski, Mamlok, Messiaen, Musgrave, Reich, Ruggles, Saariaho, Schnittke, Sessions, Shostakovich, Stockhausen, Tower, Varése, Wolpe, Wuorinen, and Zwilich, In preparing the fourth edition, I received invaluable advice from Gretchen Foley, Dave Headlam, Julian Hook, Steven Rings, and Matthew Santa. Lam deeply grateful to these experienced scholars and sorry I could not take even more of their superb suggestions. The manuscript was class tested by three more veterans—Cyn- thia Folio, Jonathan Pieslak, and David Schober—and I am grateful to them and to their students at Temple University and the CUNY Graduate Center. I received editorial and notational help from six brilliant doctoral students at the CUNY Graduate Center: Megan Lavengood, Christina Lee, Tim Mastic, Simon Prosser, Noel Torres-Rivera, and Abby Zhang. Lori Wacker prepared an earlier version of the Answer Key. At Norton, Maribeth Payne welcomed me to a wonderful new publishing home, and Justin Hoffman guided the project to completion with his customary grace and incisiveness, Rachel Mayer project edited, Jodi Beder copy- edited, Debra Nichols project edited and proofread, Benjamin Reynolds was the production manager, and Grant Phelps was the editorial assistant. For me, they have been an editorial dream team. Closer to home, in matters both tangible and intangible, Sally Goldfarb has offered continuing guidance and support beyond my ability to describe or repay. JOSEPH N. STRAUS Graduate Center City University of New YorkBasic Concepts of Pitch Tate Malki AV] 1.1 Octave Equivalence 1.8 Ordered Pitch-Class Intervals 1.2 Enharmonic Equivalence 1.9 Unordered Pitch-Class Intervals 1.3 Pitch and Pitch Class 1.10 Interval Class 1.4 Integer Notation 1.11 Interval-Class Content 1.5 Arithmetic modulo 12 (mod 12) 1.12 Interval-Class Vector 16 Intervals (Calculated in Semitones) 1.13 Spacing and Register 1,7 Pitch Intervals (Ordered and Unordered) HR Sooctave equivatence Pitches separated by one or more perfect octaves are usually understood as equivalent. Our musical notation reflects chat equivalence by giving the same name to octave related pitches. ‘The name A, for example, is given not only to some particular pitch (for example, the A that lies a minor third below middle C), but also to all the other pitches one or more octaves above or below it. Octave-related pitches are called by the same name because they sound so much alike and because Western music usually treats them as functionally equivalent. Things that are equivalent are not necessarily identical, however. Example 1-1 shows two versions of a melody that are different in many ways, particularly in their rhythm and range. The range of the second version is so wide that the first violin can- not reach all of the notes; the cello has to step in to help. At the same time, however, itis easy to recognize that they are basically the same melody, because they are octave equivalent. Octave Equivalence NIEECOG Wo octave-equivatent metodies (Schoenberg, String Quartet No. 4, frst movement). Violin 1 Violin 1 Cello Ee In Example 1-2, compare the first three notes of the melody with the sustained notes in measures 4-5. There are many differences between the two collections of notes (register, articulation, rhythm, etc.), but there is also a basic equivalence: they both contain a B, a Gt, anda G. Two octave-equivalent musical ideas (Schoenberg, Tiree Piano Pieces, op. 11, no. 1) Mipige ¢ Piano We find the same situation in Example 1-3: the first three notes of the viola melody—G, B, and C-—retur as the cadential chord at the end of the phrase. The melody and the chord are octave equivalent. (MEM charter 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalTwo ectave-equvalent musical ie (Webern, Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, no. 2). Sehr langsam (4) Von 2. $6) IN cag In common-practice tonal music, Bo is not the same as At. Even on an equal-tempered instrument like the piano, the tonal system gives By and A¥ different functions and meanings. In G major, for example, B> is +3 whereas A# is #2, and these different scale degrees have very different musical roles. These distinctions are largely abandoned in post-tonal music, however, where notes that are enharmonically equivalent (like Bs and A#) are also functionally equivalent. For example, the passage in Example 1-4 involves three repetitions: the A returns an octave higher, the B returns two octaves lower, and the Ab returns three ‘octaves higher as a Ge. All three pairs of notes are octave equivalent; in addition, A> and Gt are enharmonically equivalent. ZJ_ Enharmonic equivalence (Stockhausen, Klavierstuck I). Piano: Enharmonic Equivalence“There may be isolated moments where a composer notates a pitch in what seems like a functional way (sharps for ascending motion and flats for descending, for exam- ple). For the most part, however, the notation of post-tonal music is functionally arbitrary, determined by convenience and legibility. IN CiTg PITCH AND PITCH CLASS By invoking octave and enharmonic equivalence, we can distinguish between a pitch (a note with a certain frequency) and a pitch class (a group of pitches with the same or enharmonic name). Pitch-class A, for example, contains all the pitches named A, and any pitch named A is a member or representative of pitch-class A. When we say that the lowest note on the cello is aC, we are referring to a specific pitch, We can rotate that pitch on the second ledger line beneath the bass staff. And we can refer to ic using the numerical designation of middle C as C4—the lowest note on the cello is thus C2. When we say that the tonic of Beethoven’ Fifth Symphony is C, however, wwe are referring not to some particular pitch C, but to pitch-class C. Pitch-class C is an abstraction and cannot be adequately notated on musical staves. Sometimes, for con- venience, we will represent a pitch class using musical notation. In reality, however, a pitch class is not a single thing; it is a class of things: namely, pitches one or more octaves apart. In Example 1-5, each of the three instruments plays a series of notes. We hear many different pitches as the instrumental lines leap about. The tuba, for example, plays five different pitches, most of which are repeated. But taking the passage as a whole, we hear only three pitch classes: Ft, G, and Ab ‘Many pitches, but only three pitch classes: Ft, G, and A: (Feldman, Durations Il, No. 3). Note: The violin is playing harmonics that produce pitches two octaves higher than the filed-in noteheads. Slow hs pbs tbs Violin Tubs Piano (MEIN carte 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalIN BRIEF INTEGER NOTATION ‘There are only twelve pitch classes, All the Bés, Gs, and Dis are members of a single pitch class, as are all the Cés and Dis, all the C's, Dis, and Bhs, and so on. We will often use integers from 0 through 11 to refer to the twelve pitch classes. Example 1-6 shows the twelve pitch classes and some of the contents of each, following a “fixed do” notation: the pitch class containing the Cs is arbitrarily assigned the integer 0, and the rest follow from there. Integer notation of pitch class. When referring to pitch classes, we will use either traditional letter names or pitch-class integers, whichever seems clearest and easiest in a particular context. In Example 1-7, pitch-class integers are assigned to the notated pitches (with octave and enharmonic equivalence assumed throughout). Integer NotationInteger notation of pitch class (Babbitt, Composition for Four Instruments), Integers are traditional in music theory (as figured-bass numbers, for example) and useful for representing certain musical relationships. We will never do things to the integers that don't have musical significance; rather, we will use numbers and arithmetic to help us think about aspects of the music we study, The music itself is not “mathematical” any more than our lives are “mathematical” because we count our ages in integers. EEA osritameric moputo 12 (mop 12) Every pitch belongs to one of the twelve pitch classes. Going up an octave (adding twelve semitones) or going down an octave (subtracting twelve semitones) will pro- duce another member of the same pitch class. For example, if we start on the Bs above middle C (a member of pitch-class 3) and go up twelve semitones, we end up back ‘on pitch-class 3. In other words, in the world of twelve pitch classes, 3 + 12 = 15 = 3. Any number larger than 11 or smaller than 0 is equivalent to some integer from 0 to 11. To figure out which one, just add or subtract 12 (or any multiple of 12). ‘Twelve is called the modulus, and we will frequently use arithmetic modulo 12, for which mod 12is an abbreviation. In a mad 12 system, -12 = 0 = 12 = 24, and so on. Similarly, -13, -1, 23, and 35 are all equivalent to 11 (and to each other) because they ate related to 11 (and to each other) by adding or subtracting 12. It is easiest to understand these (and other) mod 12 relationships by envisioning a circular elockfice, like the one in Example 1-8. CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Fitch and intervalThe pitch-class clockface. c By, 0 {Om BWA 10 20 Ag 3 DVB GUA 4e eee eo” 6 ries F ‘We locate pitches in an extended péteh space, ranging in equal-tempered se tones from the lowest to the highest audible tone. The traditional grand staff is a good illustration of pitch space: it provides distinct positions for all ofthe pitches, including the 88 pitches represented by the keys of the piano keyboard. In contrast, we locate pitch classes in a modular piteh-class space, as in Example 1-8, which circles back on itself and contains only the twelve pitch classes. You can imagine that the linear pitch space of the staff has been wrapped around onto the circular pitch-class space of the clockface. It like the hours of the day or the days of the week. As our lives unfold in time, each hour and each day are uniquely located in linear time, never to be repeated. But we can be sure that, if it’s eleven o'clock now, it will be eleven o'clock in twelve hours (that’s a mod 12 system), and that if its Friday today, it will be Friday again in seven days (that's a mod 7 system). Just as our lives unfold simultaneously in linear and modular time, music unfolds simultaneously in pitch and pitch-class space. INTERVALS (CALCULATED IN SEMITONES) In tonal music, the interval between ewo pitches is named with reference to steps in a diatonic scale (e., major third, diminished fifi). Post-tonal music, however, doesn't nec- essatily refer to diatonic scales, so the traditional interval names can be cumbersome ot even misleading, Rather, intervals in post-tonal music are named by the number of semi- tones they contain. Just as A# and Bb are part of the same pitch class, the major third and diminished fourth are treated as the same interval, because both contain four semitones. Example 1-9 shows a series of seven harmonic intervals played in rhythmic unison. ‘The frst sx intervals are spelled as major thirds while the seventh is spelled as a diminished fourth, but in this musical context it is clear that all seven intervals are to be understood as enharmonically equivalent: all are 4s, or compound (ie. octave-equivalent) 4s. Intervals (Calculated in Semitones) IEnharmonic and octave-equivalent intervals (Carter, String Quartet No. 3). oS oo = Violin 0 4-4) 16(=4)52(= 4) 28-4) as Hoe ee Viola Example 1-10 gives some traditional interval names and the number of semi- tones they contain. TREES intervais counted in semitones. NNN carter 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalPITCH INTERVALS (ORDERED AND UNORDERED) A pitch interval (pi) is the distance between two'pitches, measured by the number of semitones berween them. A pitch interval is created when we move from pitch to pitch in pitch space. t can be as large as the range of our hearing or as small as a semitone. Sometimes we will be concerned with the direction of the interval, whether ascending or descending. In that case, the number will be preceded by either a plus sign (to indi- cate an ascending interval) or a minus sign (to indicate a descending interval). Intervals with a plus or minus sign are called directed or ordered pitch intervals (opi). Ac other times, we will be concerned only with the absolute space between two pitches. For such unordered pitch intervals (upi), we will just provide the number of semitones between the pitches. For example, when we say that C4 ascends four semitones to E4, we are talking about an ordered pitch interval (opi = +4); when we say that there are four semi- tones between C4 and E4, we are talking about an unordered pitch interval (upi = 4), ‘Whether we consider an interval ordered or unordered depends on our partic- ular analytical interests. Example 1-11 identifies both ordered and unordered pitch intervals. The ordered pitch intervals focus attention on the contour of the line, its balance of rising and falling motion. The unordered pitch intervals ignore contour and concentrate on the spaces between the pitches. Ordered and unordered pitch intervals (Schoenberg, String Quartet No. 3, first movement). ordered piteh imewals 1 ‘unordered pitch intervals: mM cag A piteb-elass interval (pci) isthe distance berween two pitch classes. A pitch-class interval is created when we move from pitch clas to pitch class in modular pitch-class space. Ie can never be larger than eleven semitones, because no two pitch classes can be more than eleven semitones apart. As with pitch intervals, we will sometimes be concerned with ordered pitch-class intervals (opei) and sometimes with unordered piteh-class intervals (upei). Ordered Piteh-Class intervals L oes ee ieee 3S Gees ORDERED PITCH-CLASS INTERVALSTo calculate pitch-class intervals, it is best to refer to the pitch-class clockfice (see Example 1-8). We will consider clockwise movement to be equivalent to move- ment upward, and counterclockwise movement equivalent to movement downward. With that in mind, the ordered pitch-class interval from Ci to A, for example, is—4 or +8. In other words, from pitch-class Ce, one can go either up eight semitones or down four semitones to get to pitch-class A (+8 and ~4 are equivalent [mod 12]). It would be equally accurate to call that interval 8 or—4. By convention, we will usually denote ‘ordered pitch-class intervals by a positive integer from 0 to 11. But, from time to time, ‘we may prefer to identify ordered pitch-class intervals larger than 6 by their negative equivalents: 7 = -5; 8 = -4; 9 = -3; 10 = -2; 11 =. To state this as a formula, we can say that the ordered interval from pitch-class x to pitch-class y is: y-x (mod 12) Example 1-12 calculates ordered pitch-class intervals using the formula. Instead of using the formula, however, you will probably find it faster just to envision a musical staff, a keyboard, or a clockface. From the first pitch class, just count upward (clock- wise) in semitones to the second pitch class. Calculating ordered piteh-lass intervals. Notice that the ordered pitch-class interval from Ct to B (= 2) differs from the ordered pitch-class interval from Bs to Ct (= 10), since, when discussing ordered pitch- class intervals, the order of the two pitch classes matters. When you reverse the order of the two pitch classes, the resulting intervals are each other's complement mod 12, because they add up to 12 (or to 0, which is equivalent to 12). Example 1-13 lists the pairs of complements mod 12, Ordered pitch-cassiervals that are complements mod 12. Oand 12, 2 and 10 (or -2) and 8 (or -4) ate 6 and 6 MET carter 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalUNORDERED PITCH-CLASS INTERVALS For unordered pitch-class intervals, ic no longer matters whether you count upward ot downward. All we care about now is the space between two pitch classes. Just count from one pitch class to the other by the shortest available route, either up or down. For example, the unordered pitch-class interval between Ci and A is the same as the unordered pitch-class interval between A and Ci. It is 4 in both cases, because the order of the pitch classes no longer matters, and from A to the nearest Ct is the same as from Cé to the nearest A. “The formula for an unordered pitch-class interval is: x=y (mod 12) or y—x (mod 12), whichever is smaller Example 1-14 calculates some unordered pitch-class intervals using the formula, Calculating unordered pitch-class intervals (the correct answer is boxed). Instead of using the formula, however, you will probably find it faster just to envision a musical staff, keyboard, or clockface. From the first pitch class, just count semitones up or down to the nearest instance of the second pitch class. Including the unison (0), there are only seven different unordered pitch-class intervals, because to get from one pitch class to any other, one never has to travel farther than six semi tones. Thus 6 is the largest unordered pitch-class interval. In Example 1-15a (again the opening melody from Schoenberg's String Quar- tet No. 3), the first interval is ordered pitch-class interval 11 (opcil 1), That's because to move from B to Bb one moves -I or its mod 12 equivalent, 11. Among ordered pitch-class intervals, 11 is the name for descending semitones, ascending 11s, and their compounds. If the B> had come before the B, the interval would have been Unordered Pitch-Class Intervalsopei, which is the name for ascending semitones, descending major sevenths, and their compounds. And opcil is exactly what we hear in the ewo subsequent melodic gestures: GHD and FFA, As ordered pitch-class intervals, the first interval is different from the second and third, As unordered pitch-class intervals, all three are equivalent. In Example 1-15b, two statements of opci4 are balanced by a concluding opci8; all three represent unor- dered pitch-class interval 4. Ordered and unordered pitch-class intervals (Schoenberg, String Quartet No. 3, first movement). a ordered pitch-lass intemal 11 -A,mod 12) cy 1 be ‘ordered piteh-class 4 4 8 (4, mod 12) ore pithlass eco, intervals 7 4 4 nt chi INTERVAL CLASS ‘An unordered pitch-class interval is also called an interval class (ic) Just as each pitch class contains many individual pitches, so each interval class contains many individual pirch intervals. Because of octave equivalence, compound intervals—intervals larger than an octave—are considered equivalent to their counterparts within the octave. Fur- thermore, pitch-class intervals larger than six are considered equivalent to their comple- ments mod 12 (0 = 12, 1 = 11,2 = 10,3 = 9, 4 = 8, 5 = 7,6 = 6)—these are the pairs of intervals that traditional onal theory calls inversions, like minor thirds and major WEEE carrer 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Intervalsixths, or major seconds and minor sevenths. Thus, for example, intervals 23, 13, 11, and 1 are all members of interval-class 1. All ofthe different intervals within an interval class have a similar sound that identifies them and distinguishes them from intervals belonging to other interval classes. For example, we might say that there is something distinctively 1-ish aboutall of the intervals belonging to interval-class 1. Example 1-16 shows the seven different interval classes and some of the contents of each, Seven interval classes. inert clas [0 r mesons paraet ste |e itch intervals [0.12.98 ]1, 11,13) 2,10, 14]3.9. 15] 48, 16] 57.17 1 We thus have four different ways of talking about intervals: (1) ordered pitch interval; (2) unordered pitch interval; (3) ordered pitch-class intervak, and (4) unordered pitch-class interval (also called interval clas). If we call the interval in Example 1-17 opi+19, we have described it very specifically, conveying both its size and direction. If we call ic upil9, we express only its size. If we cal it opei7 (or -5), we have reduced a compound interval to its within-octave equivalent. If we cal it upci5 (or ic5), we have expressed the interval in the simplest, most abstract way. None of these labels is better or more right than the others—it’s just that some are more concrete and specific while others are more general and abstract. Which one we use will depend on what musical relationship we are trying to describe Four ways of describing an interval ‘ordered pitch interval: iam =6INTERVAL-CLASS CONTENT The sound quality of a collection of pitch classes can be roughly suggested by listing the interval classes it contains: thar is the interval-class content of the collection. The number of interval classes a collection contains depends on the number of distinct Interval-Class Contentpitch classes in the collection. ‘The greater the number of pitch classes, the greater the number of interval classes formed among them (Example 1-18). The number of interval classes in a collection of pitch classes. “The interval-class content of a collection of pitch classes can be summarized in scoreboard fashion by indicating, in the appropriate column, the number of occurrences ofeach of the six non-zero interval classes. (We leave out the unisons formed between cach pitch class and itself) Notice that we are counting all ofthe intervals in a collec- tion, not just those formed by notes that are right next to each other. That is because all of the intervals contribute to the overall sound. Example 1-19 refers to the same passage and the same three-note musical idea discussed in Example 1-2. Interval-class content of a three-note collection (Schoenberg, Three Piano Pieces, op. 11, no. 1). Mapige 4 Piano 4 interval clas TP [s[s]516 no. of occurrences [10] 1] [00] seal RMIT carer 1 asic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalLike any three-note collection, it contains three intervals, in this case one occurrence cach of interval lasses 1, 3, and 4 (no 2s, 5s, ors). How different this is from the sonori- ties preferred by Stravinsky (Example 1-20) or by Varése (Example 1-21)! Seravinsly/s chords contain only 2s and 5s, while Varése's melodic cells contain only 1s, 5s, and 6s. “The difference in their sound is a reflection of the difference in thei interval-class content. interval clase ARIE no. of occurrences [0] [00/210] teva class TBE TSs] ino. of occurrences | 1[0]0[ 0/1] 1 Interval-Class Contentny Cita [Ara = INTERVAL-CLASS VECTOR Interval-class content is usually represented as a string of six numbers with no spaces intervening. This is called an interval-class vector. The first number in an inter- val-class vector gives the number of occurrences of interval-class 1; the second gives the number of occurrences of interval-class 2; and so on. The interval-class vector for the sonority in Example 1-19 is [101100]: one 1, one 3, one 4, and no other inter- vals, The interval-class vector for the sonority in Example 1-20 is [010020]: one 2 and two 5s. ‘The interval-class vector for the sonority in Example 1-21 is [100011]: one 1, one 5, and one 6. ‘We can construct a vector like this for sonorities of any size or shape. Example 1-22 calculates the interval-class vector for the major scale: [254361]. Interval-class vector for the major scale. interval class PS ees total number ‘oFoccurrences: 2|5|4)3]6|1 ETS carte 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntenalNotice the methodical process of extracting each interval class. First, che inter- vals formed with the first note are extracted, then those formed with the second note, and so on. As with any seven-note collection, there are 21 intervals in all. Certain intervallic properties of the major scale are immediately apparent from the interval-class vector. It has only one tritone (fewer than any other interval) and six occurrences of interval-class 5, which contains the perfect fourth and fifth (more than any other interval). This probably only confirms what we already knew about this scale, but the interval-class vector makes the same kind of information available about less familiar collections. The interval-class vector of the major scale has another interesting property—it contains a different number of occurrences of each of the interval classes. This is an ‘extremely important and rare property (only three other collections have it) and ic is ‘one to which we will return, For now, the important thing is the idea of describing a sonority in terms of its interval-class content. mM cig SPACING AND REGISTER Collections of notes with the same otal interval content can be arranged in different ‘ways in pitch space, and these differences can have a powerful effect on the sound. In Example 1-19, Schoenberg arranges the collection [G, Gt, B] in two different registral orders: G-G}-B and Gt-B-G, reading from the lowest note up. For the first state- ment, we can identify the spacing as (1) [3], that is, reading from the lowest note up, pil and then pi3. The widely spaced chord at the end of the passage describes [15] [8]. If we use ordered pitch-class intervals instead of pitch intervals, that spacing would be [3] [8]. In this sense, Schoenberg's three-note collection could be arranged in six different spacings, each with distinctive spacing intervals (Example 1-23). 6G, G, B] in six different spacings (represented with spacing intervals). 3) Spacing and RegisterIn Example 1-24, Webern uses the same type of chord (same interval-class con- tent), and arranges it using four out of the six possible spacings. In some cases, he presents a spacing in two different ways ({9] [11] and {11) (9); [8] [3] and (3) (8}). His presentations of this harmony are generally widely spaced—he avoids expressing icl as pil. Four out of six possible spacings of a si content) (Webern, Concerto for Nine Instruments, op. 24, third movement). all chords have the same interval-class “Trombone i op} o) i a (s) Do) a (3) @ 6) ot B) IN Eitag EXERCISES (For items marked **, you can find the answer at the end of the book.) |. Integer Notation: Any pitch class can be represented by an integer. In the commonly used “fixed do” notation, C = 0, G = 1, D = 2, and so on. 1. Represent the pitches of the following melodies as strings of integers: MMENBEE§cHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Interval2. Show at least wo ways each of che following strings of integers can be notated on a musical staf **a. 0, 1,3,9,2, 11, 4,10, 7, 8,5, 6 b. 2,4,1,2,4, 6, 7,6, 4,2, 4,2, 1,2 ©. 0,11, 7,8, 3, 1, 2,10,6,5,4,9 4. 11,8,7,9,5,4 Il. Pitch Class and Mod 12: Pitches that are exactly one or more octaves apart (like middle C and the cello’s low C) are equivalent members of a single pitch class. Because an octave contains twelve semitones, pitch classes can be discussed using arithmetic modulo 12 (mod 12), in which any integer larger than 11 or smaller than 0 can be reduced to an integer from 0 to 11 inclusive. 1. Using mod 12 arithmetic, reduce each of the following integers to an integer from 0 to 11 inclusive: “a5 e-3 b27 f. -10 c. 49 g -15 a. 13 2. List at least three integers that are equivalent (mod 12) to each of the following integers: 8S. eu b7 3. Perform the following additions (mod 12): "a 6+6 449 b. 9410 a 7+8 4, Perform the following subtractions (mod 12): a 9-10 ce. 2-10 b 7-11 d. 3-8 lll, Intervals: Intervals are identified by the number of semitones they contain. 1, For each of the following traditional interval names, give the number of semitones in the interval: “a, major third ished seventh b. perfect fifth @. minor ninth ©. augmented sixth {major tenth Exercises2. For each of the following numbers of semitones, give at least one traditional interval a4 au b. 6 e 15 29 f. 24 IV. Ordered Pitch Intervals: A pitch interval is the interval between two pitches, counted in semitones. An ordered pitch interval also indicates direction of motion: + indicates an ascending interval; — indicates a descending interval. 1. Construct the following ordered pitch intervals on a musical staff, using middle C as your starting point. “a +15 c. -4 7 4. 423 2. For the following melodies, identify the ordered pitch interval formed by each pair of adjacent notes. V. Unordered Pitch Intervals: An unordered pitch interval is simply the space between two pitches, without regard to the order (ascending or descending) of the pitches. 1. Construct the following unordered pitch intervals on a musical staff, using middle C asthe lower note. pan au bd e. 23 7 2, For the melodies in Exercise IV/2, identify the unordered pitch interval formed by each pair of adjacent notes. CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalVi. Ordered Pitch-Class Intervals: A pitch-class interval is the interval between two pitch classes. On the pitch-class clockface, always count clockwise from the first pitch class to the second. 1. For each of the melodies in Exercise IV/2, identify the ordered pitch-class interval formed by each pair of adjacent notes. 2. Which ordered pitch-class intervals are formed by the following ordered pitch inter- vals? (Your answers should be positive integers from 0 to 11.) a47 4.413 “bh 7 e-1 e411 6 Vil. Unordered Pitch-Class Intervals: An unordered pitch-class interval is the shortest distance between two pitch classes, regardless of the order in which they occur. To calculate an unordered pitch-class interval, take the shortest route from the first pitch class to the second, going either clockwise or counterclockwise on the pitch-class clockface. 1. For each of the melodies in Exercise 1V/2, identify the unordered pitch-class interval formed by each pair of adjacent notes. 2, An unordered pitch-class interval is also called an interval class. Give at least three pitch intervals belonging to each of the six interval clases. Vill. Interval-Class Vector: Any sonority can be classified by the intervals it contains. The interval content is usually shown as a string of six numbers called an interval-class vector. The first number in the inter- val-class vector gives the number of occurrences of interval-class 1; the second number gives the number of occurrences of interval-class 25 and so on. 1. For cach of the following collections of notes, give the interval-class content, expressed as an interval-class vector. **a. 0,1,3,4,6,7,9, 10 b. 0,2,4,6,8, 10 ©. 23,7 4. the augmented triad @. the pentatonic scale £.1,5,8,9 2. For each of the following interval-class vectors, try to construct the collection that it represents. Write the notes in ascending order, starting with C. (Note: There is no systematic way to do this—you will have to play around using trial and error) a. 111000 b. 004002 eM 4. 303630IX. Spacing Intervals: The spacing of a chord can be identified by the ordered pitch-class intervals between registrally adjacent notes in the chord, reading from the bass up. 1. For cach of the following chords, written in ascending registral order, provide the spacing intervals. “a GAD-G b. FLA-GED ©. DLA-DEGEA 2. For these collections of notes, write the six possible registral orders and provide the spacing intervals for each. a. [A,C, O] b. (Di, E, A] c. (D.E Al M MODEL ANALYSES 1.1 Anton Webern, “Wie bin ich froh!” from Three Songs, op. 25, mm. 1-5 (text by Hildegarde Jone). Langsam J =ca.60 1 Voice Piano | och cin - mal Wind mie aes to od MMMMNMNETIN | carrer 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalWie bin ich frobt How happy Lam! noch einmal wird mir alles grin Once more all grows green around me sund leuchtet so! And shines so! ‘The music may sound at first like disconnected blips of pitch and timbre. A texture that sounds fragmented, that shimmers with hard, bright colors, is typical of Webern. Such a texture is sometimes called “pointilistic,” after the technique of painting with sharply defined dots or points of paint. Gradually, with familiarity and with some knowledge of pitch and pitch-class intervals, the sense of each musical fragment and the interrelations among the frag- ‘ments will come into focus. The lack of a steady meter may initially contribute to the listeners disorientation. The notated meters, } and 4, are hard to discern by ear, since there is no regular pattern of strong, and weak beats. The shifting tempo—there are three ritards in this short passage—confuses matters further. The music ebbs and flows rhythmically rather than following some strict pattern. Instead of searching for a regular meter, let's focus instead on the smaller rhythmic figures in the piano part, and the ways they group to form larger rhythmic shapes. “The piano part begins with a rhythmic gesture consisting of three brief figures: a six teenth-note triplet, a pair of eighth notes, and a four-note chord. Except for two isolated single notes, the entire piano part uses only these three rhythmic figures. But, except for measure 2, the thre figures never again occur in the same order or with the same amount of space between them. “The subsequent music pulls apart, plays with, and reassembles the opening figures. Consider the placement of the sixteenth-nore triple, which becomes progresively more isolated as the passage progresses. In the pickup to measure 1 and in measure 2, itis followed immediately by the pair of eighth notes. In measure 3, itis followed immediately, not by a pair of eighth notes, but by a single note. At the beginning of measure 4, itis again followed by a single note, but only after an cighth-tripletrest. At the end of measure 4 itis even more isolated—its followed by along silence. “The shifting placement of the ehythmic figures gives a gently syncopated feling tothe piano part. Now ler’ turn to the melodic lin. Ie is worth taking the time to learn to sing it smoothly and accurately, something made more difficult by che wide skips and disjunct contour so typi- cal of Webern's melodic ines. Singing the line will become easier once its organization is better understood. Using the concepts of pitch and pitch class, and of pitch and pitch-class intervals, wwe can begin to understand how the melody is put together. There is no way of knowing, in advance, which intervals or groups of intervals will urn ‘out to be important in organizing this, or any, post-tonal work. Each of the post-tonal pieces Model Analyses | =Idiscussed in this book tends co create and inhabit its own musical world, with musical content and modes of progression that may be, to a significant extent, independent of other pieces. ‘Asa result, each time we approach a new piece, we will have to pull ourselves up by our ana- lytical bootstraps. The process is going to be one of trial and error. We will look, initially, for recurrences (of notes and intervals) and patterns of recurrence. It often works wel to stat right at the beginning, to sce the ways in which the initial musical ideas echo throughout the line. In “Wie bin ich froht” it turns out thar the first three notes of the vocal line, G-E-Dt, and the intervals they describe play a particularly central role in shaping the melody. Let's begin by considering their ordered pitch incervals (Example A1-1).. EXNGN Basic three-note motive and its ordered pitch intervals. | ‘The same ordered pitch intervals occur in the vocal melody in two other places, in mea- sure 3 (D-B-B®) and again in measure 4 (CA~Gt; see Example Al-2). “The second fragment starts five semitones lower than the first, while the third fragment starts five semitones higher. That gives a sense of symmetry and balance to the melody, with the initial fragment lying halfway between its two direct repetitions. Furthermore, the second fragment brings in the lowest note of the melody, B, while the third fragment brings in the highest note, Gt. ‘These notes, together with the initial G, create a distinctive frame for the melody as a whole, one which replicates the ordered pitch-class intervals of the initial fragment (Example A1-3). Composers of post-tonal music often find ways of projecting a musical idea simukaneously on the musical surface and over larger musical spans. This kind of composing- ‘owt isan important unifying device and it is one to which we will often return. The three melody notes at the beginning of measure 3, C-F-D, also relate to the open- ing three-note figure, but in a more subtle way. They use the same pitch intervals asthe first three notes of the melody (3, 8, and 11), but the intervals occur in a different order. In addi- tion, two of the three intervals have changed direction (Example A1-4). WMT CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalA melodic frame (first note, lowest note, highest note) that replicates the ordered pitch-class intervals of the initial fragment. wo TA eee cae ae 7 SUTRA Same unordered pitch intervals. eS aa. a ed In other words, the fragment CHF-D has the same unordered pitch intervals as the ‘opening figure, G-E-Df. If you think of them as chords arranged in register from lowest 0 highest, they have the same spacing intervals: (3] [8]. The relationship is not as obvious as the one shown in Example A1-2, but its sil not hard to hear (Example A1-5). ‘wo fragments withthe same unordered pitch intervals and spacing intervals. Bf Gel ‘The fist four pitch classes of the melody are the same, and in the same order, as the last four: G-E-Di-F+ (Example A1-6), ‘The first four notes and the last four have the same ordered pitch-class intervals. ordered pitch intervals 32413 gli bin ich okt ordered piteh-class inervals Seed a CAT ARE ‘The contours of the two phrases (their successive ordered pitch intervals) are differ- cent, but the ordered pitch-class intervals are the same: 911-3. This similarity between the Model Analysesbeginning and end of the melody is a nice way of rounding off the melodic phrase and of reinforcing the thyme in the text: “Wie bin ich froh! .. und leuchtet so!” By changing the contour the second time around, Webern makes something interesting happen. He puts the E up in a high register, while keeping the G, D&, and F together in a low register. Consider the unordered pitch-class intervals in that registrally defined three-note collection (G-D#F). It contains interval-classes 1 (G-Fi), 3 (D-R), and 4 (G-D#), These are exactly the same as those formed by the frst three notes (G-E-Di) of the figure: E-DE is 1, G-Eis 3, and G-Dt is 4 (Example A1-7). A registral grouping and a melodic figure contain the same unordered pitch-class intervals. ‘The melodic line is thus supercharged with a single basic motive. The entire melody develops musical ideas presented in the opening figure, sometimes by imitating its ordered pitch intervals, sometimes by imitating only its unordered pitch intervals, and sometimes, stil more subtly, by imitating its ordered or unordered pitch-clas intervals (Example A1-8). Development of the initial melodic figure. ordered pitch-class intervals ‘unordered piteh-class intervals ‘The piano accompaniment develops and reinforces che same musical ideas. Rather than trying to deal with every note, let’ just concentrate on the sixteenth-note triplet figure that appears five times in the passage. When it occurs in measure 2 (G-E-D#), it contains the same pitches and thus the same ordered pitch intervals as the beginning of the melody: <3, +11>, In measure 3, different pitches are used (C-A-G#), but the ordered pitch intervals are the same: <-3, +11, When ic occurs in the pickup to measure 1 (PHFD) and at the end ‘of measure 4 (B-B+G), it has the same ordered pitch interval, but reversed: <+11, ~3> The remaining occurrence of the figure, at the beginning of measure 4 (C-A-C8), is somewhat different from these. Its ordered pitch intervals are <-3, +16>. It is not com- parable to the others in terms ofits pitch intervals or even its ordered pitch-class intervals. MET cuter 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Interval“To understand its relationship to the other figures we will have to consider its interval classes. Tecontains a 3 (C-A), a 1 (C-G), and a4 (AG). Its interval-class content (the interval-lass vector is [101100]) is thus the same as the first three notes of the vocal melody (Example AL-9). And virtually all of these three-note figures are spaced the same way, either [3] [8] or [8] [3]. C-A-Ctis the only exception, spaced as (3) [1]. SESE 4:0m ental figures derived from the initial melodic idea. = Wie bin eh ol 8) ts) 0 b) (al Bl b) 6) (s So far, we have talked about the voice part and the piano part separately. But, as in more-traditional songs, the piano part both makes sense on its own and supports the voice. For a brief example, consider the two isolated notes in the piano part, the Ft in measure 3 and the Gt in measure 4 (these are the only notes that stand alone, unslurred, unbeamed, and unaccompanied by a chord). In both cases, the piano note, together with nearby noces in the voice, creates a three-note collection with that familiar interval-class content: [101100] (Example Al-10). ECOERIBIED Piano and voice together create collections with interval-classes 1, 3, and 4 (interval-class vector [101100)). 15 es : a + ey eran eee [ed ‘The passage is remarkably unified intervallically. It focuses intensively on the pitch- intervals 3, 8, and 11 and, more abstractly, om interval-casses 1, 3, and 4. The passage is saturated with these intervals and with motivic shapes created from them. Some of the rela- tionships are simple and direct—we can discuss them in terms of shared pitch intervals. Others are subtly concealed and depend on the more abstract concepts of pitch-class interval and interval-class content. With our knowledge of pitch and pitch-class intervals, we can accurately describe a whole range of motivic and intervallic relationships. Model Analyses1.2 Amold Schoenberg, “Nacht” (Night), from Pierrot Lunaire, op. 21, mm. 1-10 (text by Albert Giraud). (Note: Bass clarinet sounds fourteen semitones lower than written.) Genende J 2.80) Bass Clarinet in Bb Cello Gehende J (ca. 80) Recitation Gehende J (ca. 80) ile ee ee Piano RINNETN ciiarren 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalFinstre, schwarze Riesenfalter Dark, black giant busterflies Toeten der Sonne Glanz. Have obliterated the rays of the sun Ein gechlosmnes Zauberbuch, Like an unopened magic-book, Rub der Horizont —verschwiegen. The horizon res-—concealed, ‘The same sort of intensive intervallic concentration is at work in “Nacht,” one of the twenty-one short movements that make up Amold Schoenberg's Pierrot Lunaire, probably the composer’ best-known work. Many factors contribute to its stunning effec. The instru- mentation is wonderfully varied. The work is scored for a singer and a small instrumental ensemble (piano, flute/piccolo, clarinet/bass clarinet, violin/viola, and cello) in such a way that no two of the twenty-one movements have the same instrumentation. The singer uses a vocal technique known as Sprechstimme (specch-song), a kind of declamation that is halfway between speech and song, ‘The notated pitch should not be sustained but should be sl from, in the manner of speech. As to whether the notated pitches need be sung accurately in the first place, there is considerable controversy. Some singers lean toward the speech part of speech-song, following only the approximate contours of the notated line; others try to give a clear indication of the actual pitches specified. As we will see, the pitches in the vocal part so consistently reproduce intervals and motives from the instrumental parts that singers should probably touch the notated pitches accurately before sliding away. ‘Schoenberg calls this movement a “passacaglia.” A passacaglia consists of variations over ‘an ostinato (a short, repeated figure) in the bass. In “Nacht,” the ostinato consists of the three- note figure E~G-B. After the introduction (measures 1-3), this figure occurs once in each measure of this passage. In measures 8 and 9, cach note of the figure is elaborated, in shorter thythmic values, by a rapid statement of the same figure transposed (Example Al-11), In measure 10, the passage comes to 2 striking conclusion when the same figure appears in the voice part. This is the only time in the movement that the singer actually sings away Model Analyses EyHer doing so in such a low, dark register and on such musically significant notes adds to the emotional impact of the word verichwiegen (concealed), a word that seems to crystallize the ‘ominous, foreboding nature of the entire text. E-G-£ elaborated by transposed versions of itself (clarinet part sounding at pitch), Ler’s examine the intervallic makeup of that repeated figure, E~G-B. Its ordered pitch intervals are <43, ~4>, and (from the first note to the last) -1. These intervals permeate the entire musical fabric. Consider, for example, the tune stated first in the bass clarinet beginning in measure 4, and then imitated in the cello (measure 5), the left hand of the piano (measure 6), and, in part, the right hand of the piano (measure 7) (Example Al-12). £-6-6 expanded and developed into a recurring melody. ‘The tune begins, of course, with E~G-B> as its head-morive, Ie then takes the interval =1, spanned by E-Bb, and extends it into a lengthy chromatic descent. The tune ends with a three-note figure that introduces two new pitch intervals, +9 and +8. This new figure, B-A-G», does not have any obvious relationship to the head-motive, E-G-B. It has a different contour and different pitch intervals. To understand the relation- ship, we will have to consider the unordered pitch-class intervals of the two figures. Both have a1, a3,anda 4, (Their shared interval-class vector is thus (101100}—coincidentally the same as that of the main motive in Webern's song, discussed earliez) From the perspective of interval class, we can heat the second figure as a development of the first. In light of these observations, it becomes clear how carefully Schoenberg has notated the Pitches of the voice part. Consider its first melodie gesture, shown in Example A1-13. Motivic penetration of the Sprechstimme part. 8 sa 4 PERS RR Fin - sue, schwar - ze Rie - sen - ur oe aoe EGE CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalIn ts initial chromatic descent from D> to A and the leap upward from A ro G>, it exactly traces the last part of the melody shown in Example A1-12. Then, by moving down to F, it tacks on an additional, overlapping version of the three-note figure involving pitch-intervals 8 and 9. Surely these pitches should be clearly indicated by the performer! “The introduction (measures 1-3) not only sets an appropriately gloomy mood with its use of the lowest, darkest possible register, but also introduces the main intervallic material in a subtle way. To make it easier to see and hear what is going on, the music is written an octave higher in Example A1-14. Motive saturation of the introduction. Bass Clarinet Cello Piano Of the six distinct musical lines here, all but one descends by semitone from the initial pitch. The melodic interval of -1, of course, anticipates the many chromatic descents that are ‘coming up later in the music, Even more striking, however, ae the relationships between the lines. In the lowest register, the frst three notes are E~G-Bs, our familiar head-motive. The sec- cond note of the motive, the G, is also the first note ofa transposed statement of the motive: G-B-G., The second note of that statement, the Bs, becomes the first note of a new state- ‘ment: B-Db-A. This process continues upward until the cello and bass clarinet come in with a restatement, an octave higher, ofthe original E~G-Bs. One additional statement of the motive, ‘A-C-Ab, begins in the middle of the texture on the second beat of measure 2. In all, there are six statements of the motive packed into these three measures. The density is extraordinary: the ‘music of the introduction is motivicaly saturated. The music that follows can be heard as an ‘unpacking of macerial so intensely presented in the introduction. GUIDED ANALYSES [NOTE: In all Guided Analyses, the questions are designed to stimulate analytical thought, not to suggest definitive, correct answers. The music discussed in this book is inherently chal- lenging and precludes simple answers. There are many possible responses to these questions and many possible interpretations of the relationships in this music.) Guided Analyses1.1 Anton Webern, Symphony, op. 21, second movement, Theme, mm. 1-11. Sehr ruhig (J =ca.54) inet PS Hors 1 snd Hap ee This is the theme for a theme-and-variations movement: a lyrical melody in sim- ple rhythms in the clarinet accompanied (sparsely) by horns and harp (all notes sound as written). ‘+ Begin by analyzing the clarinet melody. Identify all of its melodic intervals in four ways (as ordered and unordered pitch and pitch-class intervals). What patterns of recurrence do you find? * Think more broadly about the overall shape of the melody. What is its form? Along this line, consider the intervals formed between the first and last notes, the second and second-to-last, and so on, And consider the rhythm also: compare the rhythms reading from beginning to end and end to beginning, + Try to relate the accompaniment to the melody. Can you find the pitch classes of the melody in the accompaniment? And, as with the melody, consider the rhythms of the accompaniment read from beginning to end and end to beginning. + What interval is most commonly formed becween the parts (look especially in measures 5-7). Why? * Think about the overall expressive effect of the music, which arises in part from the incervallic relationships you have discovered. What is its mood? What is its impact? MEME carrer 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Interval1.2 Arnold Schoenberg, Piano Concerto, op. 42, first movement, mm. 1-8 (piano solo). Schoenberg's Piano Concerto begins with this gentle passage for the solo piano alone—a Iyrical melody in che right hand and a slightly more active accompaniment in the left. + Begin with the melody, identifying ies pitch and pitch-class intervals, and noting any recurrences, For example, the unordered pitch-clas intervals formed by the firs three notes (B-B+D) occur in two other places in the melody. + Think about the overall shape and form of the melody, is balance of upward and down- ‘ward motion, it motion to and away from high and low points. Think about the highest note (B), the lowest nove (As), and the last nore (G), and the intervals formed among, those notes. They create a sort of intervallic frame for the melody. How does this frame relate intervallically to the frst three notes of the melody? + Try o relate the accompaniment othe melody. Are there groups of pitch classes that are shared between them? Intervals or groups of intervals that are shared? 1.3 Igor Stravinsky, “Musick to heare,” from Three Shakespeare Songs, mm. 1-8 (instrumental introduction). lute Clarinet Viola Guided AnalysesThis is the instrumental introduction to a song scored for mezzo-soprano, ute, clarinet, and viola (all notes sound as written). The melody in the fue is sung by the voice when it centers, with changes in rhythm and register. In the instrumental introduction, a second mel- ‘ody, shared between clarinet and viola, provides a contrasting counterpoint. *+ Analyze the ute melody, identifying all ts pitch and pitch-class intervals, and noting any recurrences. Although the phrasing slurs don't suggest this, you may want to con- sider the frst four notes, B-G-A-Bs, as comprising a basic motive. Think about its an ordered series of pitch classes, defined by its ordered pitch-class intervals. Focus on the relations among the four-note groups in the melody, beginning with that first group. + Thinking about the larger shape of the melody, can you find any relationship berween the frst half ofthe melody (the fist three four-note groups) and the second half (the last three fout-note groups)? + The phrasing, chychm, and registral design of the flute melody seems to contradict rather than reinforce the underlying four-nore groups. What is the expressive effect of that contradiction? In the pitch groupings that are created by phrasing, shythm, or register (like the high G-A~B> in measures 1-3, for example), can you find any relationship to the intervals in the underlying four-note groups? *+ Describe the organization of the other melody, shared between the clarinet and viola ‘What familiar structure does i traverse? Despite its obvious contrast with the flute mel- ‘ody, what sorts of intervallic ideas do the two melodies share? + This song is a musical setting of a sonnet by Shakespeare, Init, the narrator encourages his friend to get married, arguing that a man and a woman are like two sounding strings on an instrument—they are different, but if properly tuned to each other, beautiful sounds can result: [Ifthe true concord of well-tuned sounds, By unions married, do offend thine ear, ‘They do but sweetly chide thee, who confounds In singlenes the parts that thou shouldst bear ‘What is there in the relationship between the two melodies in measures 1-8 that might bbe expressive of such a text? In answering, you might think about the ways that the con- ‘tasting melodies have a mutual interest in the interval C-G, CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and Interval1.4 Ruth Crawford Seeger, Diaphonic Suite No. 1 (for oboe or flute), first movement, mm. 1-18. Scherzando 1=96 “The composer thought ofthis melody asa kind of musical poem, and indicated the lines of the poem with double bars (at the end of measures 5, 9, 14, and 18). * Describe the musical “thymes” in this musical poem: how do the ends of the lines relate to each other intervallcaly? + More generally, what intervals and combinations of intervals lend consistency to the ‘melodic line? You might begin your answer by taking the first three notes, which involve pi2 and pil moving in opposite directions, as a basic motive. Those intervals might ‘occur in a different order or direction, or be expanded by an octave. The four possible combinations would be <+1, -2>, <-1, +25, <+2,—I>, and <2, +1>. ‘+ What isthe role of rhythmic acceleration and deceleration in lending an overall shape to the melody? 1.5 Edgard Varése, Octandre, first movement, mm. 1-6. Guided AnalysesThis is the quiet opening of an increasingly wild octet for flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, French horn, trumpet, trombone, and contrabass. It starts as though frozen in place, and then gradually melts and starts to move downward, becoming increasingly animated melodically and rhythmically. Along the way, virtually all of the pitches between the initial Gp in the oboe and the final Bs in the clarinet are at least touched on. + You can think of the first measure as a simple three-note motive—intervalically <2, -1>—punetuated with a big leap to a lower register. Or you can think of it as a four-note idea that fills the chromatic space G~-F-E—Di. Bither way, can you find recur- rences of the motive, either in its original order, or possibly reordered? + How do the phrasing and registers of the melody reveal or conceal the motive statements? + The three-note motive is heard transposed to different levels. Can you think of rea- sons why it might have been transposed to these particular levels in this particular order? 1.6 Milton Babbitt, “The Widow's Lament in Springtime,” mm. 1-6. (d= 42) MMT carte 1 Basic Concepts of Pitch and IntervalThis song is contrapuntally dense—the piano projects three distinct lines—but with a very touching, delicate effect. + Inthe vocal line, identify all ofthe ordered pitch-elas intervals, Are there any repetitions? ‘+ Divide the vocal line into four three-note groups: F-E-D, G-B-C, FLA-C#, and GEAEB. What intervallic repetitions can you find now? * Thinking about the vocal melody as a whole, look at the interval from the first note to the last, from the second note to the second-to-last note, and so on. What larger pattern do you. see? How does the melody hang together as a single, unified whole? + The poem, by William Carlos Williams, isa lament. Are there any features of the melody that would make it appropriately expressive of grief and sorrow? + The piano accompaniment projects three separate lines. How are these lines constructed intervallically? How do they compare to and interact with the vocal melody? To help organize your thinking, you may wish to complete the following chart: 1.7 Luciano Berio, Sequenza | (for solo flute), mm. 265-82. rg TR Flute = — P ppp sempre | a fi pe ppp ‘This picce for solo lute was originally published in an apparently free, proportional noration, but the composer was dissatisfied with the rhythmic impt and renotated it in this more conventional way (although the meter remains unnotated, and changes from measure to measure). ion of performances Guided Analyses