energies

Review
The Role of Domestic Integrated Battery Energy
Storage Systems for Electricity Network
Performance Enhancement
Corentin Jankowiak 1, * , Aggelos Zacharopoulos 1 , Caterina Brandoni 1 , Patrick Keatley 1 ,
Paul MacArtain 2 and Neil Hewitt 1
1 Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST), University of Ulster, Shore Rd, Newtownabbey BT37 0ZQ, UK;
a.zacharopoulos@ulster.ac.uk (A.Z.); c.brandoni@ulster.ac.uk (C.B.); p.keatley@ulster.ac.uk (P.K.);
nj.hewitt@ulster.ac.uk (N.H.)
2 School of Engineering, Dundalk Institute of Technology, Dublin Road, A91 KS84 Dundalk, Ireland;
Paul.MacArtain@dkit.ie
* Correspondence: Jankowiak-c@ulster.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-7510-132673




Received: 26 September 2019; Accepted: 15 October 2019; Published: 17 October 2019


Abstract: Low carbon technologies are necessary to address global warming issues through electricity
decabonisation, but their large-scale integration challenges the stability and security of electricity
supply. Energy storage can support this transition by bringing flexibility to the grid but since it
represents high capital investments, the right choices must be made in terms of the technology and the
location point in the network. Most of the potential for storage is achieved when connected further
from the load, and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) are a strong candidate for behind-the-meter
integration. This work reviews and evaluates the state-of-the-art development of BESS, analysing the
benefits and barriers to a wider range of applications in the domestic sector. Existing modelling tools
that are key for a better assessment of the impacts of BESS to the grid are also reviewed. It is shown
that the technology exists and has potential for including Electric Vehicle battery reuse, however it is
still mostly applied to optimise domestic photovoltaic electricity utilisation. The barriers to a wider
integration are financial, economic, technical, as well as market and regulation. Increased field trials
and robust numerical modelling should be the next step to gain investment confidence and allow
BESS to reach their potential.

Keywords: batteries energy storage systems; integrated; behind-the-meter; grid services;

electricity network

1. Introduction
Three main challenges are emerging and threatening the present structure of the electricity
network. (1) Mitigation measures against climate change including greener electricity production
means, (2) significant changes in the electricity demand enhanced by the need to electrify the heat and
transport sectors, and (3) the ageing of the network, leading to substantial replacement investments.
The production of electricity by renewable energy systems is appealing when addressing climate
change, as they do not emit Greenhouse Gases (GHG) during operation. However, renewable sources
are usually weather-dependent: Wind and solar are intermittent and non-dispatchable (in contrast with
conventional fossil-fuel based systems) therefore an integration large enough to have an impact on GHG
emissions is a real challenge [1]. The capital investment of a renewable plant represents a large part of
the total expenditures as no fuel costs are involved [2], therefore enough electricity must be produced
during its lifetime to create enough revenue and become profitable [1]. Small installed capacities are
likely not to provide enough at the right moment, whereas bigger plant ratings could result in the

Energies 2019, 12, 3954; doi:10.3390/en12203954 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 3954 2 of 27

impossibility to become profitable because of too much curtailment. In addition, renewable sources
are site specific and diffuse. Their contribution to electricity generation tends to be in a larger number
of lower-rating plants, connected to lower voltage layers in the network (i.e., distribution network), as
opposed to the large-scale, centralised generation for which the network was originally developed.
Today’s electricity
Energiesnetworks
2019, 12, x FOR are theREVIEW
PEER result of continuous improvements and 2 of 32developments [3],
originating in the 19th century
capacities are likely not following the discoveries
to provide enough and developments
at the right moment, whereas bigger plant ofratings
electricity
could [4], and in the
resultelectricity
20th century, when in the impossibility
becametoaccessible
become profitableto thebecause
majority of tooofmuch
houses curtailment.
in citiesIninaddition,
developed countries.
renewable sources are site specific and diffuse. Their contribution to electricity generation tends to
The structure
be inof the networks
a larger was shaped
number of lower-rating plants,by the following:
connected When
to lower voltage the
layers number
in the networkof (i.e.aggregated load
distributioncapacity
increases, the required network), asper-customer
opposed to the large-scale,
and thecentralised
variabilitygeneration for which the
of demand network [5], leading to
decrease
was originally developed.
easier predictability. Thiselectricity
Today’s stems from networkssimilarities
are the resultin most people’s
of continuous life habits:
improvements Cooking[3],is more likely to
and developments
happen at certain timesinofthethe
originating 19thday, lights
century are the
following mostly switched
discoveries on at night
and developments times,[4],and
of electricity so on.
and in
the 20th century, when electricity became accessible to the majority of houses in cities in developed
To illustrate this,
countries.
the two extremes are represented on Figure 1. The normalised electricity
consumption of dwelling in Northern Ireland [6] is represented in red,
The structure of the networks was shaped by the following: when the number of aggregatedand that of the entire country [7]
load increases, the required capacity per-customer and the variability
in blue over the same three-day period (24 to 26 October 2018) (The data for the individual house of demand decrease [5], leading
to easier predictability. This stems from similarities in most people’s life habits: cooking is more likely
comes from onetoof the “Test
happen at certainHouses”,
times of thelocated
day, lightsatarethe University
mostly switched onof at Ulster,
night times,representing
and so on. about 28% of the
To illustrate this, the two extremes are represented on Figure
UK’s housing stock, introduced by Shah et al. [6]. The national demand data was downloaded from 1. The normalised electricity
consumption of dwelling in Northern Ireland [6] is represented in red, and that of the entire country
the Eirgrid group[7] inwebsite
blue over [7]. Forthree-day
the same each case, periodthe 15-min
(24 to 26 Octoberresolution
2018) (The data data was divided by the average
for the individual house
over the 3-day comes
period, and
from one plotted
of the Figure
“Test Houses”, 1.).at the
located The normalised
University consumption
of Ulster, representing about 28%wasof the chosen
UK’s in order to
housing stock, introduced by Shah et al. [6]. The national demand data was downloaded from the Eirgrid group
illustrate in both cases how the consumption varies, compared to its average over the considered
website [7]. For each case, the 15-min resolution data was divided by the average over the 3-day period, and
period (a valueplotted
of 1 on Figurethe vertical
1.). The axis).
normalised The national
consumption was chosendemand
in order toremains
illustrate inbetween
both cases how50% theand 150% of its
consumption varies, compared to its average over the considered period (a value of 1 on the vertical
average value, axis).
when for a single dwelling, the variation goes from 0% to nearly 800%. Additionally,
The national demand remains between 50% and 150% of its average value, when for a single
the three days of national
dwelling, demand
the variation goespresent
from 0% toanearly
repeating pattern over
800%. Additionally, the threeeach
days24-hour
of national period,
demand whereas such
present ato
a trend is impossible repeating
identify pattern
forover
theeach 24-hour
single period, whereas such a trend is impossible to identify
house.
for the single house.

Figure 1. Normalised electricity consumption of an individual house (red) in Northern Ireland [6],
Figure 1. Normalised electricity
and the entire consumption
country (dashed of anperiod
blue) for a three-day individual house
(24–26 October 2018)(red)
[7]. in Northern Ireland [6],
and the entire country (dashed blue) for a three-day period (24–26 October 2018) [7].
For this reason and due to economies of scale, the structure of the network was designed to have
large centralised generators on one end of the network, enough aggregated loads on the other end,
For this reason and due to economies of scale, the structure of the network was designed to
and a system of transmission and distribution of electricity in between, with higher voltages for long
have large centralised generators
distances, and on one
lower voltages closer end
to theof thefor
loads network, enough
shorter sections of theaggregated
grid. Therefore,loads
the on the other
electricity generation fleet could be designed optimally and perform efficiently, as short term
end, and a system of transmission and distribution of electricity in between, with higher voltages
variations are small and predictable, relative to the overall production [8].
for long distances, and lower voltages closer to the loads for shorter sections of the grid. Therefore,
the electricity generation fleet could be designed optimally and perform efficiently, as short term
variations are small and predictable, relative to the overall production [8].
In case of non-optimised and unsupervised penetration of renewable sources, problems such as
mismatch between production and demand, voltage rise, or reverse power flows at transformers [8]
are more likely to arise. Installing electricity storage—particularly on the low-voltage layers of
the network [9]—could help reduce this problem by bridging the mismatch between demand
and production.
Storage may also play a role in addressing the evolution of the demand on the electricity network.
The electrification of heat and transport sectors at different scales presents a potential for reducing
 Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 3 of 32 3 of 27
In case of non-optimised and unsupervised penetration of renewable sources, problems such as
mismatch between production and demand, voltage rise, or reverse power flows at transformers [8]
GHG emissions
are more aslikely
theytoare currently
arise. Installingresponsible for a substantial
electricity storage—particularly onamount of pollutant
the low-voltage layers ofemission
the [10],
and draw network
the vast[9]—could
majorityhelp reduce
of their this problem
energy from the by bridging
combustion the mismatch
of gas, oilbetween demand
and other and fuels [11].
fossil
production.
However, shifting a significant part of the heat and transport demand to the electricity network is
Storage may also play a role in addressing the evolution of the demand on the electricity
extremelynetwork.
challenging. The amount
The electrification ofand
of heat energy it represents
transport would
sectors at different generate
scales presentsaasubstantial
potential for stress on
a network,reducing
whichGHG was emissions
not originally
as they designed
are currentlyfor it. Figure
responsible for 2 gives an order
a substantial amountof of magnitude
pollutant of the
emission [10], and draw the vast majority of their energy from the combustion
consumption of heat energy compared to electrical energy (in Great Britain, for the year 2016) illustrates of gas, oil and other
fossil fuels [11]. However, shifting a significant part of the heat and transport demand to the
the fact that the electricity consumption patterns would be significantly affected by a total transition
electricity network is extremely challenging. The amount of energy it represents would generate a
of heat generation
substantial from
stress onfossil fuels which
a network, to electricity [12,13]. designed
was not originally As for renewable
for it. Figure 2sources, the distribution
gives an order of
network ismagnitude
the moreoflikelythe consumption of heat energy
to be affected, compared
as systems suchto electrical
as electric energy (in Great
heaters, Britain,
heat for theor Electric
pumps,
year 2016) illustrates the fact that the electricity consumption patterns would be significantly affected
Vehicles (EVs) should connect to such layers. Once again, having storage assets on these parts of the
by a total transition of heat generation from fossil fuels to electricity [12,13]. As for renewable sources,
network would significantly
the distribution networkhelpis thethe
more electricity
likely to benetwork
affected, asby shaving
systems suchthe peaksheaters,
as electric coming heatfrom these
systems [14]. Theorlast
pumps, challenge
Electric Vehiclesconcerns
(EVs) shouldtheconnect
ageingtoofsuch infrastructures and having
layers. Once again, components. In the present
storage assets
on these parts
design strategies, of the network
components would significantly
are upgraded help the
when their electricity network
performance by shaving
decreases due to theageing
peaks or to the
coming from these systems [14]. The last challenge concerns the ageing of infrastructures and
increase of demand. Additionally, they are sized to be able to carry at least the peak demand, which
components. In the present design strategies, components are upgraded when their performance
occurs onlydecreases
a few minutes per or
due to ageing year. This
to the kindofofdemand.
increase approach represents
Additionally, theyaare
huge
sizedinvestment
to be able to [15].
carry Installing
and operating storage
at least the peakinstead
demand,could ensure
which occurs lower
only a few variations between
minutes per year. peaks
This kind and average
of approach representsvalues, thus
leading to ainfrastructures
huge investmentwith [15]. lower
Installing and operating storage
ratings—hence, cheaperinstead could ensure lower
to upgrade—and morevariations
optimally used,
between peaks and average values, thus leading to infrastructures with lower ratings—hence,
therefore ageing more slowly [16,17].
cheaper to upgrade—and more optimally used, therefore ageing more slowly [16,17].

Figure 2.Figure 2. Seasonal variation of the heat demand compared to the electrical demand [13].
Seasonal variation of the heat demand compared to the electrical demand [13].
The different types of energy storage technology have been extensively reviewed and compared
The different types [18].
in the literature of energy storage
The focus technology
usually varies from have been extensively
one publication to another:reviewed and compared in
electricity network
the literature [18]. applications
oriented The focus usually varies
[19,20], smart from
power one publication
systems [21] flexibilityto another:
[22], Electricity
the integration network oriented
of renewables
applications[23,24]. In addition,
[19,20], smart under
power their economics
systems [21]aspect [25,26], [22],
flexibility or based
theonintegration
sizing [27], placement and
of renewables [23,24].
operation strategies [28,29].
In addition, under their economics aspect [25,26], or based on sizing [27], placement and operation
Although the literature does not give a definitive answer to where exactly is the best location to
strategies [28,29].
connect energy storage, the trend seems to be that the further downstream the better for connecting
Although the
storage literature
devices doesEnergy
[9]. Battery not give a definitive
Storage System (BESS) answer
is the to where exactly
technology that best is thethis
suits best
partlocation to
of the storage,
connect energy network thanks to its seems
the trend scalability [24,30].
to be thatHowever,
the further this downstream
solution is still the
not better
developedfororconnecting
thoroughly reviewed in particular regarding the benefits that it could provide. Moreover, the
storage devices [9]. Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) is the technology that best suits this part of
the network thanks to its scalability [24,30]. However, this solution is still not developed or thoroughly
reviewed in particular regarding the benefits that it could provide. Moreover, the literature regarding
domestic integrated BESS mostly focuses on making photovoltaic (PV) self-consumption viable for the
battery owner [31,32].
The present paper focuses on integrating Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) in the domestic
sector, offering a review on the specific solution of integrating BESS straight at the loads—behind
the meter of customers—as a way to provide the flexibility necessary to respond to the challenges
faced by the electricity network presented above. The technology considered is electro-chemical
Energy Storage (ES)—more commonly referred to as batteries—and more specifically secondary (i.e.,
rechargeable) batteries.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 4 of 27

The paper is organised as follows: First the technology is introduced in detail, then its potential
for improving grid performance is assessed, and finally the obstacles faced are reviewed. The state-
of-the-art of domestic batteries are reviewed in Section 2, including basic principles, available products
and numerical modelling, and field trials done so far. Based on that, the potential role domestic
integrated batteries can play to help enhance the electricity network’s performance through service
provision and compared with other energy storage technologies is presented in Section 3. To finish,
Section 4 reviews the barriers to domestic battery development, explaining why this solution is still
not quite present despite its potential.

2. State-of-The-Art Development of Domestic Integrated Batteries

2.1. Generalities about Batteries

2.1.1. Main Components and Working Principles

A battery is a device capable of converting electrical energy to chemical energy and vice-versa via
oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions. The base element of a battery is the cell, which is composed
of two electrodes (one positive, one negative), the electrolyte, and a separator. During the charging
process, a voltage difference is applied between the two electrodes, imposing the current to flow in a
certain direction. The consequent excess or deficit of electrons at the electrodes generates reactions
between the molecules at their surface, in the electrolyte. The latter consists in the liquid or solid
substance in which the electrodes are immerged. Its role is also to enable and facilitate the circulation
of charge carriers between electrodes. During the discharge phase, the reverse chemical reactions take
place when the circuit is connected to a load, leading to a flow of electron on the other direction until
the chemical components are all consumed [33].
The performance of a battery cell depends on the chemistry of its components, and the reactions
created: Typically, the elements enabling the highest voltage difference between the electrodes, at the
lowest weight are sought for [33]. The maximum amount of current and voltage a cell can deliver is
limited so in order to reach higher values, a number of cells may be connected together in series or
parallel. The term “Battery” or Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) are often used to refer to the
complete system composed of this group of cells, some control electronics, and the protecting packaging
around them. The electronic part is often called Battery Management System (BMS). In simpler systems,
its role may only consist in ensuring that the cells’ voltage, current and other physical quantities remain
in the range of acceptable values and shutting down the system if not. In more complex systems,
individual cell management based on State-of-Charge (SoC) calculation, voltage, temperature, and
other parameter measurements may be provided by more sophisticated BMS [34].

2.1.2. Chemistries
There are a wide variety of chemistry compounds out of which a battery cell can be made.
However, the different chemistries bring about different properties, such as the energy density (total
energy that can be stored by mass or volume unit) or the cycle-life (number of charge-discharge cycle
executed before the overall performance drops significantly). Table 1 introduces the properties of the
main cell types with a potential role in the domestic sector. The numbers provided are to be taken as
guide values considering that each chemistry type is composed of a spectrum of variations [35], since
the performance vary depending on the precise chemical composition [36].
Lead-Acid (PbA) batteries are the oldest type of rechargeable batteries and have evolved in two
main categories: Flooded and sealed batteries. They are now a very mature and established chemistry,
widely used regarding many possible applications thanks to low costs, low maintenance requirements,
and low self-discharge [37]. Despite this, other chemistries are overtaking PbA batteries, as their
applications are limited because of potential toxicity, weight, and low energy density [38], in particular
Lithium-based chemistries since the early 2000s.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 5 of 27

Table 1. Features of the main battery chemistries.

Chemistry Voltage Power Density Energy Density Cycle life Performance Self-Discharge Cost Safety Issues
High output current can be Limited, especially if
Lead-Acid (PbA) 2V 10 s of Wh/kg low Inexpensive Toxicity of lead
achieved for their size deep-cycled
Long, if properly
High output achievable and Robust, resistant to abuse.
Nickel-Cadmium 1.2 V 10 s of Wh/kg maintained, but memory High Inexpensive
not too harmful Toxicity of Cadmium
effect
Medium, but does not
Nickel Metal Limited, especially if Relatively
1.2 V absorb high discharge rates 120 Wh/kg High Average
Hydride deep-cycled. Memory effect environmental-friendly
well.
Overcharging and
Limited, especially if Around 4 times as full-charge idling causes
Nickel Iron 1.2 V Medium 10 s of Wh/kg High
deep-cycled expensive as PbA increased temperature, gas
builds up and dry-out
No toxic component, good
Limited, due to high
Nickel Zinc 1.65 V Relatively high 100 Wh/kg High Low temperature operating
dendrite growth
range
Long, thanks to low Need for high pressure
Nickel Hydrogen 1.25 V Medium 10 s of Wh/kg minimal Expensive
corrosion hydrogen vessels
Medium to low. Higher
Li-ion NMC 3.7 V 220 Wh/kg Around 1000–2000 cycles Low Expensive
rates reduce battery life
Relatively high
Medium. High output
Lithium-Iron LFP 3.3 V 120 Wh/kg Around 1000–2000 cycles for a Li-based Expensive Very safe chemistry
pulse can be achieved
cell
More expensive than
Lithium Cobalt Medium. Higher rates
3.6 V 240 kW/kg Around 500–1000 cycles Low other Li-batteries Safety issues due to cobalt
Oxide reduce battery life
(because of Cobalt)
Lithium Manganese Medium. High output
3.7 V 150 Wh/kg Around 300–700 cycles Low Expensive Safer than Li-cobalt
Oxide pulse can be achieved
Lithium Nickel More expensive than
Medium. Higher rates
Cobalt Aluminium 3.6 V 260 Wh/kg Around 500 cycles Low other Li-batteries Safety issues due to cobalt
reduce battery life
Oxide (because of Cobalt)
Very safe. Better thermal
More expensive than
Lithium Titanate 2.4 V High rates achievable 80 Wh/kg Up to 7000 cycles Low stability than other Li-based
other Li-batteries
batteries
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 6 of 27

The five most present Nickel-based (Ni-Based) batteries, are Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel
Metal Hydride (NiMH), Nickel Iron (Ni-Fe), Nickel Zinc (Ni-Zn), and Nickel Hydrogen (NiH2 ). NiCd
batteries rapidly developed in the 1980s as the first competitor to PbA batteries which it remained for
a few decades thanks to their robustness and long cycle-lives and good load performance for costs
comparable to those of PbA cells NiMH cells appeared in the 1990s as an alternative to the cadmium
(toxic element) present in NiCd batteries, with less memory effect, and higher capacities, at similar
costs and durability. However their self-discharge rates turned out to be even higher than the already
high ones of NiCd, and their operation more delicate [37]. The other Ni-based cells present variations
in performance—which never enable them to overtake neither PbA nor Lithium-based batteries—but
still can claim a fair share of the overall battery market, at least for some specific applications [39].
Most of the domestic batteries available and developed nowadays are equipped with
Lithium-Based (Li-based) batteries. This chemistry emerged in the late 1990s, first as expensive
products, but with rapidly decreasing costs promoted by the need for light and portable Energy Storage
(ES) solutions. The two main types of li-based cells are Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
(LiNiMnCoO2 or more commonly NMC), and Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4 , referred to as LFP).
NMC batteries have higher energy and power densities but their stability is compromised by the
presence of Nickel at the cathode. LFP batteries’ market share increased in recent years, led by an
interest in their much higher stability at high currents or temperatures, with a similar cycle life, its
main disadvantage being lower energy density [40]. LFP cells are more and more used for domestic
batteries, where a moderate increase in mass or volume is acceptable if it brings about enough extra
safety. Lithium Titanate (Li4 Ti5 O12 ) is another type of Li-based cell, which provides more safety and
increased cycle-life, coming at the cost of lower energy density, and a doubled price compared to
NMC cells. Other chemistries should be mentioned: Lithium Cobalt Oxide cells present a high specific
energy (therefore very present in portable electronics) but low stability and load capabilities, as well as
a short life span. Lithium Manganese Oxide cells trade off a higher stability for lower capacity and
a still limited life time, and Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide cells present a great potential in many
aspects, but remain a very expensive chemistry [40].
Flow batteries have a slightly different functioning principle to the other batteries—which makes
them difficult to be compared with the criteria used in Table 1. They present the technical advantage of
independence between energy capacity and power output and can achieve very long cycle life at full
Depth of Discharge (DoD). Still, they struggle to move away from laboratories for a few reasons, mainly
because the energy density is limited by the ion concentration in the electrolyte. Additionally, the need
for extra components such as tanks, pumps and pipes increases the costs and reduces the overall
performance [41]. Therefore, they are not likely to be part of the early models to be implemented as
domestic batteries in the short term.
For a more detailed review of the history of the chemistries, the readers are referred to Scrosati [42],
and to Linden and Reddy [33] for thoroughly detailed nuances of chemistries and operating principles
of batteries.

2.1.3. Battery Ageing and Degradation

One determining parameter when deciding the chemistry and the operation strategy of a battery
is ageing, described as the decrease of its performance over its calendar life (in years) or cycle life (in
number of cycles). Aging corresponds to the total amount of energy that a battery can store, and the
power output decreases with time and utilisation [43]. The State of Health (SOH) defines the decrease
in the maximum amount of energy that a cell can store, compared to its original capacity, and the End
of Life (EOL) defined as the time, or number of cycles after which the SOH reaches a certain value
(typically 80%, but it can vary depending on the constructor) [37].
There exist many different ageing processes depending on the chemistry considered. They stem
from either side-reactions occurring in parallel to the normal energy storage process, or from side
effects of normal operation reactions. The rate and impact of these reactions can be alleviated or worsen
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 7 of 27

depending on the voltage, current, temperature and SOC operating values. High temperatures tend to
increase the kinetics of chemical phenomenon, thus increased side-reactions, for instance the Solid
Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) in Li-based cells [43] or grid corrosion in PbA cells [44]. Low temperatures
on the other hand reduce these kinetics according to Arrhenius law, increasing the internal impedance
which limits the performance, but also favouring lithium plating for instance [45]. High and low SOC
usually correspond to less stable states. At high SOC, Ni-based cell experience crystalline formation,
reducing the performance, which can be reversed if handled early enough. Low SOCs favour the
sulphating of the negative electrode of PbA cells [44]. High rates of charge or discharge lead to higher
reaction rates in general that can enhance SEI formation in Li-based cells [43] or more generally elevate
the temperature, with risk of bringing about issues mentioned above.
For these reasons, the state of each cells in a battery pack is managed—in higher-quality models
at least—to keep voltage, current, temperature and SOC values in ranges that are as unfavourable
as possible to these unwanted phenomena. Numerical thermal models are developed by Rao and
Wang [46] and temperature-management technologies are reviewed by Al-Zareer, Dincer and Rosen
in [47]. The degradation of cells was shown to have a considerable impact on achievable revenues by
Al-Zareer, Dincer and Rosen [48], and a significant increase in potential profitability can be achievable
by optimising cell operations to decrease ageing [49].

2.2. Products Available

The present section provides an overview of different commercialised BESS suitable to be integrated
in the domestic sector.

2.2.1. Solar PV Batteries

As will be seen and developed in Section 4 of this paper, there are still barriers to a large integration
of ES—which does not only regards the domestic level. The main one to date being probably the
economic viability. The latter is highly dependent on individual context elements, but according to
Rappaport and Miles [50], and Staffell and Rustomji [51], the cost of domestic batteries is still too
high to enable the breakeven point to happen before the end of life of the systems. Still, a higher
remuneration of service provision would lead to earlier breakeven points [9,52]. Under five years is
achievable, especially if the technology costs were to decrease as stated by Neubauer and Simpson [53],
and Muenzel et al. [54] states that systems could become economically attractive “in the near future”.
Two specific cases studied and reported by Günter and Marinopoulos [55] even conclude that storage
can already be profitable, under particular conditions.
From this literature, it seems that profitability for a full system—rooftop PV panels, Electric
Vehicles (EVs), Heat Pumps (HPs), or a combination of them—associated with a battery can be
reached in the more or less near future depending on the context. A few companies started the
commercialisation of domestic batteries mostly as “Solar Batteries”: Either as retrofitting or for a
new PV installation. Elon Musk’s Tesla Powerwall and Powerwall II played a significant role in the
acknowledgement of domestic BESS as a potential future mainstream product. Tesla’s batteries are
equipped with lithium-based chemistry which also composes the majority of the other battery cells:
The German Sonnen, the South Korean LG Chem RESU, the Chinese PylonTech US200B, and the
American Simpliphi PHI. LFP and NMC are the most present chemistries in such batteries, as they
present an advantageous trade-off between cost, cyclability, safety, and energy density, as developed
previously in Section 2.1).
Still, a few others among the main models are not lithium-based, for instance the Chinese Nerada,
the German BAE which are Lead-Carbon and Gel Lead-Acid respectively [56]. This difference in
technology illustrates a preference for lithium ion batteries as previously mentioned, due to the
performance and lower volumes achievable by this technology. Table 2 summarises the characteristics
of the different products.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 8 of 27

Table 2. Existing products and their characteristics.

Power Round-Trip
Name Chemistry Energy (Usable) Inverter Cycle Life EoL Warranty Price US$/kWh Source
(Continuous/Peak) Efficiency
DC-AC
Tesla Powerwall 2 Lithium NMC 13.2 kWh 5.8/7.2 kW 3200 70% 10 years 89% 440 [57,58]
inverter-charger
LG Chem RESU Lithium NMC 12.4 kWh 5/7 kW none - 60% 10 years 92% 510 [56,59]
PylonTech Lithium LFP 19.2 kWh 2.4/4.8 kW none 6000 80% 5 years 94% 475 [60]
Simpliphi PHI Lithium LFP 3.5 kWh 1.6/3 kW - 10,000 80% 10 years 98% 480 [60,61]
Narada Lead-Carbon 4 kWh 5/10 kW - 3000 80% 10 years 83% 440 [60]
BAE Gel Lead-Acid 14.6 kWh 5/9 kW - 3000 80% 5 years 82% 430 [60]
SonnenBatterie ECO Lithium LFP 13.5 kWh 3.3 kW DC-AC included 10,000 80% 10 years 94% 400 [62,63]
(EOL: End of Life).
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 9 of 27

2.2.2. Electric Vehicles’ Batteries Reuse

With the increased acknowledgement of the potential of domestic batteries, the reuse of batteries
from EVs or Hybrid EVs (HEVs) starts to be considered. EV and HEV manufacturers such as Nissan
and BMW [64] or independent companies such as Relectrify [65], claim they found a way to reuse
vehicle batteries that reached their End of Life (EoL), and could thus buy them from the vehicles’
owners, refurbish them, and sell them back to the domestic battery market. Reuse of such batteries has
potential, as the performance of EV or HEV batteries are usually higher than that required for domestic
applications. Thus, once a battery reaches its EoL, due to degradation processes, the performance
achievable may still be good enough for domestic applications [66].
Still, as explained by Robinson [67], EV or hybrid EV battery requires physical removal of the
battery pack from the car, followed by an electric testing of the individual cell, and finally, reconditioning
into a “new” battery pack ready for a second life. This whole process would take time, energy and
cost money so it is not guaranteed yet that car companies would not just prefer to send batteries for
recycling [67].

2.2.3. Performance and Characteristics of Available Systems

Different products available are presented by Muoio [64] and Svarc [56]. A range of performances
are available using different chemistries and technologies as already mentioned, and the selection is
made depending on the size of the habitation, energy and power requirements, available resource
(usually PV) and the budget of the owner.
Energy capacity ranges between a couple of kWh or more (usually corresponding to a single
storage unit), and up to slightly lower than 20 kWh (a stack of a number of units in some cases). Higher
capacities are expected with reused EV batteries but are not available yet. The power ratings usually
depend on the invertor, and range between slightly higher than 1 kW to up to 10 kW. The tolerance of
a power output also varies depending in how long this output is maintained. Some systems such as
the Tesla Powerwall or the Sonnen ECO are equipped with an integrated inverter/charger, and some
other models require the purchase and installation of a compatible inverter. Table 2 gives examples of
available models and their characteristics.

2.3. Numerical Modelling of BESS

Numerical models used to describe batteries as well as electricity network models have existed
for a long time but are mostly separate from one another. The present section offers to critically analyse
these models and introduces existing simulations and results of integrated BESS.

2.3.1. Main Battery Models

Batteries are complex systems, storing electricity through chemical reactions and exchanging
heat as losses with the environment. This complexity makes it a real challenge to create a numerical
model accounting for all the different phenomena and compute results in a reasonable time. Therefore,
depending on the application, simplified models can be chosen, as well as models that depict more
accurately certain types of phenomena leaving some others aside [68].
The general aim of the different models is to predict the behaviour of a battery of given
characteristics (capacity, chemistry, etc.) operating in a given environment. Depending on the very
model, the computed parameters are: The ageing of the cell, its dynamic response, the State of Charge
(SOC), the thermal behaviour, and so on. The most popular model used in the literature are presented
in the following. Figure 3 gives a schematic representation of the three types of models introduced in
the following: The Bucket model, the equivalent electrical circuit model, and a Single Particle Model
(SPM) which is a certain type of electrochemical model.
The Bucket model is presented by Reniers et al. [49] and used by Simpkins and Donnell [69].
It considers the storage unit as a “tank” (or “bucket”), in which energy is accumulated and be pumped
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 10 of 27

in and out by virtual “pipes”. The total volume of this bucket is the Energy Capacity, the size of the
pipes is the power ratings, and one could imagine self-discharge and charging/discharging efficiencies
as energy “leaking” out of the bucket or the pipes.
This model only accounts for exchanges in bulk energy and takes the system: [Cells + Inverter +
BMS] as a “black box” that can just receive energy, accumulate it to a certain extent, and discharge it.
This model itself does not provide information concerning transient response at the chemical level,
the ageing of the cells, or any thermal aspect. Such characteristics can be added to the model, for instance
a decrease in available capacity over time to simulate the ageing mechanisms, by estimation, thanks to
empirical results, or results from other models.
The main advantage of such a model is its computational efficiency thanks to basic mathematical
foundations, enabling very short calculation times. Nevertheless, some complexity must be added in
order to account for particular aspects that cannot be neglected in some contexts.
An illustration of a possible equivalent circuit model is found Figure 3B. They are broadly used
when integration to some larger electrical systems in simulation software is required. Different circuit
layout exists with different combinations of fundamental electronics components. All these components
model one or part of an electrochemical phenomenon taking place in the real battery. The Thevenin
models for instance detailed by Gao, Liu and Dougal [70] are used for their capability to provide cell
transient response, taking account of effects such as charge depletion and recovery [68]. They are
composed of:

• A voltage source (Or Equilibrium Potential) which value is a function of the SOC of the battery,
the discharge rate (current) and the temperature.
• Resistors, used to model the “potential losses”: The conductivity of the electrodes and the separator
is not infinite, in addition to the effect of concentration gradients of ions near the electrodes and
the limits in the kinetics of the chemical reactions. The value of these resistors depends on the
chemistry, the geometry, the temperature and the discharge rate of the cell.
• A capacitor in parallel to one of the abovementioned resistors, to model the capacitive effects due
to the structure of the cell, leading to electrical polarisation, and pseudo-capacitance (diffusion
limited space charges). In other words, this capacitor accounts for transient effects in the cell.
• In some models, other parallel RC circuits maybe added in series, increasing the accuracy of the
modelled transient response, adding at the same time complexity and computation time [68].

The value of all these electrical components and their evolution with other parameters of the circuit
can be determined by comparing the response to pulses of charge and discharge at different temperature
and SOC, and their value adjusted accordingly. The second category of electrical circuit equivalent
models are the Impedance models. They are based on an experimental method, the Electrochemical
Impedance Spectrum (EIS), which consists of analysing the battery response to a spectrum of low
frequency AC excitation. This method provides information on the SOC and the State of Health (SOH)
of the battery. In such models, half cells are represented as Randles circuits composed of a resistor, an
inductor, a capacitor and a non-linear impedance. Once again, the adjusting of the different parameters
is done with comparison to empirical results [68].
Electrochemical models are based on a more explicit description of the chemical processes
taking place inside of the cell, which makes them much more accurate than the previous types, and
therefore requiring substantially more computational resources or time. The lump parameter model
described by Seaman, Dao and McPhee [68] has been used since the early development of numerical
models. It assumes a uniform spatial distribution and solves differential equations that represent
time-dependent electrochemical phenomena between the electrodes. If well optimised, it can provide
accurate results in short simulation times, but only for NiMH or PbA batteries: The model is not valid
anymore to represent modern chemistries such as Lithium Ion, which is a major drawback regarding
their broad and fast expansion.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 11 of 27

Lithium Ion models and other modern chemistries can be described by Porous Electrode Theory.
This model is developed by Newman and Tiedemann [71], and is based on solving partial differential
Energies
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which 12,be
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Figure 3. Representation of the numerical models. (A) Bucket Model, (B) Equivalent Circuit Model
Figure 3. Representation of the numerical models. (A) Bucket Model, (B) Equivalent Circuit Model
and (C) Electrochemical Model [49].
and (C) Electrochemical Model [49].

2.3.2.Electricity
2.3.2. ElectricityNetwork
NetworkModelling
Modelling
Electricitynetworks
Electricity networksare areextremely
extremelycomplex
complexsystems,
systems,composed
composedofofa anumber
numberofofalready
alreadycomplex
complex
components. Additionally, considering how developed countries are dependent
components. Additionally, considering how developed countries are dependent on electricity, real-scale on electricity, real-
scale experiments that could potentially compromise the infrastructures
experiments that could potentially compromise the infrastructures and the users’ loads are not and the users’ loads are not
conceivable.Therefore,
conceivable. Therefore,robust
robustnumerical
numericalmodelsmodelsmust mustbe bedeveloped
developedand andvalidated
validatedtotopredict
predictthethe
impact of any modification on the grid prior to any large-scale implementation
impact of any modification on the grid prior to any large-scale implementation [72]. This complexity [72]. This complexity
inevitablyforces
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numericalmodels
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modelsconsist
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network,solving
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non-linearand
non-linear and time-independent
time-independent equations
equations (usually
(usually solved solved
using using
iterativeiterative
methods).methods).
DynamicDynamic
effects
are therefore neglected, but this approximation is enough to represent a large proportion of grids’of
effects are therefore neglected, but this approximation is enough to represent a large proportion
grids’ operation
operation time.
time. Still, Still,
some somesuch
events events such as
as faults orfaults
other or other transient
transient events may events may
have have a significant
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onimpact on theand
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threatenand the threaten the safety
stability and stability and safetyThus,
of equipment. of equipment.
dynamic and Thus, dynamic
transient modelsand
are also developed, which describe such conditions, and enable the design of protection techniques andof
transient models are also developed, which describe such conditions, and enable the design
protection techniques
technologies. They mostlyandconsist
technologies. They
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time and accuracy. More details on these models, and solving methods can be found by referring and solving methods cantobe
found by referring
Andersson [73]. to Andersson [73].
Such analyses
Such analyses are arenow
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based,asasititwould
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trytotoanalytically
analytically
solve this type of problems. Software packages such as MATLAB/Simulink,
solve this type of problems. Software packages such as MATLAB/Simulink, NEPLAN, DIgSILENT NEPLAN, DIgSILENT
PowerWorld,
Power World,DYMOLA,
DYMOLA,Plexos, Plexos,andandmany
manyothers
othersoffer
offertotoimplement
implementand andrunrunsimulated
simulatednetworks
networks
with various performance in various contexts. A number of packages
with various performance in various contexts. A number of packages used by network companies, used by network companies,
researchersand
researchers and others,
others, andand their
their capabilities
capabilities for afor a wide
wide numbernumber of applications
of applications were were
reviewed reviewed
by Hay by
Hay
and and Ferguson
Ferguson [74]. [74].

2.3.3.Results
2.3.3. Resultsfrom
fromNumerical
NumericalSimulations
Simulations
Theliterature
The literature involving
involving some
some sortsort of modelling
of modelling and and simulation
simulation of BESS
of BESS used
used to to operate
operate one or one
moreor
ofmore of the applications
the applications previouslypreviously
described indescribed
this paperin this paper However,
is substantial. is substantial. However, many
many publications are
publications
still are still regarding
regarding different contexts ofdifferent contexts
utilisation, such asof utilisation, to
a connection such as a connection
renewable generationtoassets
renewable
[75],
generation assets [75], or for LV applications but not necessarily Behind the Meter (BtM) [76,77]. Even
for papers regarding BtM applications, the focus is rather on sizing and scheduling systems: The
economically optimal battery size regarding PV generation was assessed in [54,78–82]; a degradation
aspect considered by Angenendt [83], and Yoon and Kim [84] also deals with integration in
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 12 of 27

or for LV applications but not necessarily Behind the Meter (BtM) [76,77]. Even for papers regarding
BtM applications, the focus is rather on sizing and scheduling systems: The economically optimal
battery size regarding PV generation was assessed in [54,78–82]; a degradation aspect considered by
Angenendt [83], and Yoon and Kim [84] also deals with integration in households without PV resource.
Finally, Babacan et al. [85] presents a similar approach, but grid relief objectives start to appear, through
a reverse power flow diminution objective.
Most of the publications reviewed here, which address some sort of grid relief objective deal with
voltage regulation, for instance Yang et al. [86] and Aichhorn et al. [27]. With similar objectives, it is
reported by Zillmann, Yan and Saha [87] that in the context of their simulation, installing coupled
PV panels with batteries proved to be cheaper than grid reinforcement. The impact of location of
the BESS system on the voltage profiles is studied by Nazaripouya et al. [88] and by Lindstens [89]
which suggests that better results are achieved further from generation assets and closer to bigger
loads. Additionally, Marra et al. [90] and Zeh and Witzmann [91] propose a more sensible way to
operate batteries by charging when the net PV export to the grid becomes higher than a threshold
value (and study the impact of this very value on other parameters) rather than just charging as soon
as energy is available—which could potentially resulting in an peak exports in the early/middle of the
afternoon when the sun shines but the battery is already full. Finally, the compatibility of grid release
and PV self-consumption is addressed by Moshövel et al. [92], concluding forecast is a key parameter
in reaching satisfying compromise.
These publications mostly focus on one single domestic system and how to economically optimise
it for the benefit of the owner. The grid-relief aspect is introduced as a solution to the stress induced by
PV systems exporting to the grid when the energy is not needed, which reduces the exploitation of
the real domestic BESS potential developed earlier. Only a few authors look in this direction, such as
Müller et al. [30], concluding that low voltage storage is potentially beneficial for both high voltage and
medium voltage layers of the network, and that a number of smaller spread units may operate better
than a single centralised storage asset. Furthermore, “Cloud Energy Storage” [93] regard the operation
of storage assets by an aggregator, generating revenue by providing services to the electricity network.
This promising strategy is however not backed up by simulation results, and the technical benefits
provided by storage is stated as an assumption, and not a conclusion of the work.
Eventually, although these papers provide consistent conclusions, their results remain true for
the very context of modelling and simulation. Any grid section presents very specific characteristics
which cannot be easily generalised, and a strategy of sizing, locating and operating a fleet in one of
them may or may not be efficient in another.

2.4. Trials and Real-Scale Implementation

The paragraph shows an overview of trials and reals-scale implementation where BESSs have
been implemented at domestic level.
Sonnen Community—Probably the most advanced real scale demonstration of the benefits and
profitability of deployment of domestic ES is the company Sonnen and its growing community of
battery owners. Sonnen was founded as a start-up in the late 2000s in Bavaria, and now consists
of over 10,000 battery owners claimed in Germany, and 180,000 in the world [94]. Its particularity
is that it does not only sell batteries, but also acts as an aggregator and manages all its storage unit
fleet. The business started in 2015 when its status of nationwide cloud-base Virtual Power Plant was
established, enabling the members to exchange electricity with one another at different (and supposedly
cheaper) tariffs than the average German ones. In mid-2017, tariffs changed and decreased even more
as Sonnen’s Batteries started to take part in the frequency regulation market in Germany, by allowing
TenneT—the network operator—to use a small fraction of the capacity of each battery to regulate
the frequency fluctuations on the network, in exchange of revenues. If similar activities are started
in Austria, Italy and Australia [95], the American market has been harder to reach for the German
company so far.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 13 of 27

An interesting project to follow is the Jasper project, in Arizona, in which Sonnen is partnering
the efficient builder Mandalay Hones in a 2900-house microgrid connected to a Virtual Power Plant
(VPP) of 23 MWh storage and 11.6 MW of power. The business model is based on differential tariffs
this time, and the aim is to demonstrate the integration of much renewables, as well as the decreased
dependence on fossil fuels. The first residents are residents expected during the year 2018 [94].
Network Operator Projects—A few Network Operator-lead projects took place and are currently
taking place in the UK and other countries, but due to the newness of the systems and concepts,
the necessity to record enough data from a sensibly long period of time, and consequently the time it
takes to properly analyse them, there is only so much information and conclusions available to date.
A few examples are introduced in the following:
The Sola Bristol project took place between 2011 and 2016 and was undertaken by the British
Distribution Network Operator (DNO) Western Power Distribution, in partnership with Siemens,
the University of Bath, and Knowle West Media Centre. It consisted of installing coupled PV and
battery systems in a total of 26 homes, 5 schools and an office, and implement a “smart tariff” for the
participants. The project concludes that such a set up provided benefits mostly to the suppliers and the
communities. Despite the small number of systems installed, a good argument—but not strong enough
to base economic decisions on it—was made in favour of the potential to achieve grid deferral. Services
such as self-consumption, peak shaving and voltage regulation were successfully achieved thanks to
an efficient self-managing network, although according to the final report [96], the cost-effectiveness of
the solution is questionable.
The Distributed Storage and Solar Study started in 2016 and should finish by 2019, led by another
UK DNO, Northern Powergrid, partnering Moixa and Energise Barnsley. Similarly, 40 batteries are
installed behind the meter and controlled by an aggregator to provide peak shaving and voltage
regulation, and thus investigate how they—associated with PV here as well—could avoid upgrade,
and reduce winter peak demand [97].
To finish, a few more projects should be mentioned, such as the “Econamic Grid” by SENEC in
Germany, which uses batteries for providing “negative balancing”. In other words, absorbing extra
energy from the network during over-production times as a means of balancing, and leaving the
energy in the batteries to be used by the customers. Another UK trial by North Star Solar, consisting of
22,000 social houses equipped with solar batteries, once again to study their possible economical and
technical impact for the different stakeholders [98].

3. Potential Roles of Domestic Integrated Batteries

The section focuses on the role of integrated BESS in the electricity network and compares it to
other possible ES solutions.

3.1. Behind-the-Meter Storage

First of all, a clarification on why BtM is of particular interest. Remembering that in electricity
networks, physical quantities have different span definition: The frequency of the network is, in theory,
the same everywhere, therefore any variation is measured as equal throughout the network. However,
the voltage is a local quantity, meaning that an event modifying the voltage locally may have little
impact far away on another section of the network. A consequence of this is that some services can be
achieved regardless of where the storage unit is connected to the network, but some others cannot.
Table 3 lists all the services that the grid would require in order to perform efficiently (described in
more detail in the following paragraph) and indicates how easily they could be achieved depending
on the location considered. As shown in Table 3, the large majority of the electricity network services
can be provided or contributed to by BtM units. The exceptions are services for which the storage unit
must be closer to the generation sites. Therefore, units located behind the meter would be of particular
interest for the distribution networks, by helping address the challenges of increasing the share of
 Energies 2019, 12, 3954 14 of 27

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cannot :beService
the optimal
although
performed
location;
not :
cannot
the
from
optimal
Service
be there.
performed be:perf
location;
cannotfrom Se
th
tion   
Reserves
(T&D: Transmission
(T&D:
and
Transmission
Distribution;
(T&D:and 
Transmission
RE:Distribution;
Renewable
(T&D:
and 
Energy).
RE:
Distribution;
Transmission
RenewableRE: [9,30,55]
Energy).
and
Renewable 
Distribution;
Energy).
RE: Renewable Ener
3.2. Grid Services and Domestic BESS
g   Frequency 
regulation   
[55,100]
on for that service; ~:3.2.1. Services
Service andalthough
achievable Applications
not the optimal location;
Load : Service cannot be performed 
Following from there. 
(T&D: Transmission and Distribution; RE: Renewable Energy).
Before going further, the terms “Service”: and “Application”
Best location for that should
service; be properly
~: Service defined.
achievable Strictlynot the optimal loca
although
(T&D: Transmission
speaking, any operation undertaken by an ES unit comes down to generating an active or reactive power and Distribution; RE: Renew
flow [55]. Nevertheless, depending on the amount of power it represents and the timing regarding
other events occurring in the electricity network the effect can have drastic different consequences.
In the present paper, the terms application and service are interchangeably used, and defined as “any
electrical operation (local absorption or injection of active or reactive power) which objective is a local
or global improvement in the operating conditions”, derived from the definition of service given by
Günter and Marinopoulos [55].

3.2.2. Integrated Batteries for Grid Services Provision

The definition and description of the services as presented in Table 4 were broadly derived from
descriptions and definitions found in [9,21,22,25,28,69,101–104]. The table contains a brief description
of each service, how exactly domestic batteries could achieve them, and if an aggregator is necessary,
useful or not needed.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 15 of 27
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 32

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 32

Figure 4. Illustration of voltage support on a fictive feeder.

Figure 4. Illustration of voltage support on a fictive feeder.

Services related to energy managementOriginal in the building such as peak limiting, PV self-consumption,
Demand
Power

or back up reserve are straightforward to After Peak-Limiting

provide, through managing the flows of active power and
ensuring a headroom and legroom energy capacity are available when needed. No aggregator is
needed, although one can imagine a more advanced management of all the parameters by making
batteries communicate and respond to each other. Similarly, services such as voltage or frequency
support, or power quality can also be operated independently from an aggregator, by measuring
values on the electricity network and appropriately responding. Time of the day
An aggregator could once again
improve the overall operation of services but is not strictly required. On the other hand, congestion
relief, load-following or reserve services require
Figure access
5. Illustration to information from elsewhere in the electricity
of Peak-Limiting.

network, and therefore cannot be achieved from behind the meter without the batteries receiving
signals from an aggregator. The aggregator should coordinate the response of the BESS fleet adequately
to achieve positive effects. Load levelling is in-between, as it could be argued that by increasing
self-consumption and reducing peaks on houses, the result at an aggregated level would tend to a
more levelled profile, but this is still to be demonstrated, and the coordination from an aggregator is
more likely to bring about the desired effect.
Finally, as mentioned previously, a few services are not possible to provide from behind the
meter, namely those directly linked to the generation part of the network: Output smoothing, capacity
firming, and black start capability.
Figures 4–7 illustrate some4.ofIllustration
Figure the services mentioned
of voltage supportin on
Table 4. feeder.
a fictive

Original Demand
Power

After Peak-Limiting

Time of the day

Figure 5. Illustration of Peak-Limiting.

Figure 5. Illustration of Peak-Limiting.
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 16 of 27
Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 32

Rest of the grid Rest of the grid

Energies 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 32

Rest of the grid Rest of the grid

Demand
100% reduced
demand to 80%

Demand
100% reduced
demand to 80%
Providing
20% of
demand
Providing
20% of
demand

Figure 6. Illustration
Figure of Transmission
6. Illustration & Distribution
of Transmission congestion
& Distribution relief
congestion (from
relief Katsanevakis,
(from Stewart
Katsanevakis, andand
Stewart Lu [103]).
Lu [103]).
Figure 6. Illustration of Transmission & Distribution congestion relief (from Katsanevakis, Stewart and Lu [103]).

7. Illustration
FigureFigure ofofreserve
7. Illustration response
reserve response to unexpected
to an an unexpected eventTorrealba
event (From (From Torrealba
[105]). [105]).

Figure 7. Illustration of reserve response to an unexpected event (From Torrealba [105]).

Energies 2019, 12, 3954
Table 4. Role of Behind-the-Meter Battery Energy Storage Systems in providing grid services.
Service Name Service Description
Provide correction to the voltage variations (potentially out of
the regulatory values) caused by the resistive and impedance
Voltagesupport
nature of the cables (non-ideal conductors) by injections of
active or reactive power.
Supporting any electrical parameters which need to remain in a
Power quality certain range of value during operation, e.g. harmonic level,
flickering, power factor, or voltage.
Making up for the demand when it reaches a certain value, so
Peak Limiting that the power drawn as seen by the grid never overreaches a
certain value. Figure 5 illustrates an example of peak shaving
For buildings equipped with rooftop PV panels: Maximising
PV Self-consumption
the on-site used energy.
Guaranteeing operation of at least some critical appliances in
Backup provision
the building for a given time during grid outage.
Injecting or absorbing power in response to frequency variation
Frequency regulation
in order to maintain it in a between the regulatory limits.
Downstream a potentially congested line: Charging when the
T&D congestion relief demand downstream is low and discharging to when it
increases to diminish the congestion.
Privileging charging during low demand and discharging
Arbitrage and load-levelling during peak times to flatten the overall profile seen by the grid.
Resulting in a larger-scale version of what is seen Figure 5.
Covering the loss of some generation capacity shortly enough
after the event occurs to maintain grid stability. There are
Reserves
different timescales in the response, a generic example is
illustrated Figure 6.
Following the variations of the load profile at a given base-load
Load Following
level.
Making up for short term fluctuations in renewable generation
Renewable Generation Output
due to weather instabilities (clouds on PV panels or gusts of
Smoothing
wind on turbines).
Firm up renewable’s capacity by guaranteeing a minimum
Renewable Generation capacity
output regardless weather fluctuations and un-forecasted
firming
events.
In case of grid black out, re-energising the generators to enable
Black-start
their re-connection to the network.
Role of Domestic BESS
Using the power converter (STATCOM) to manage reactive power
flows and the storage unit to manage the active power flows in order
to stabilise voltage close to regulatory values.
Figure 4 provides an illustration of this service.
Using the power converter (STATCOM) to manage reactive power
flows and compensate harmonics, and voltage or power factor
deviations, for instance.
The aggregation of demand profiles which peak has been limited
thanks to BtM batteries should result in overall demand with limited
peaks. Regardless of the location of storage on the grid, peak limiting
only affects upstream components, thus BtM peak limiting should
relieve a larger amount of hardware.
Sensible charging and discharging schedule to maximise the on-site
utilisation of the energy produced.
Keeping a certain amount of energy in the battery and storing energy
from PV in case of a grid breakdown.
Response to frequency variations by instantaneous injection or
absorption of power.
Discharging the fleet to cover part of the local demand during peak
periods, to decrease the overall energy flowing through the lines. An
illustration of this principle for a simple line is found Figure 5.
Charge during low-demand periods and discharge at peak demands.
Exploiting the potential very short-term response time to quickly
respond to unexpected events occurring in the network such as
faults or tripping of a generator.
Adjust an individual unit’s output to reduce the need from load
following by fossil fuel-based generators.
Not achievable by BtM BESS.
Not achievable by BtM BESS.
Not achievable by BtM BESS.
17 of 27
Role of Aggregator/Signal Sender
Not necessary. Enable access to more data and thus broaden their
positive impact.
Not needed.
Not necessary. Provide coordination between units of a same area
leading to overall optimised service.
Not necessary. Could help relief stress on grid by coordinating
nearby units.
Not needed.
Not necessary, but helpful to make sure this service and others do
not interfere with each other.
Necessary to make sure enough energy is stored downstream the
congested lines and manage the flows during charging and
discharging to keep the line un-congested.
Necessary to access large-scale demand forecasts.
Necessary to relay the information of unexpected events leading to
need for reserve dispatch.
Necessary, to adjust a unit’s outputs and ease the effects of overall
variations on conventional generator.
-
-
-
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 18 of 27

3.3. Comparison of BESS with Other Energy Storage Technologies

Now that the potential value of providing services from behind the meter rather than elsewhere
in the network is established, it should be explained why BESS is a particularly adapted technology,
by comparing it to other available options. Table 5 lists the different energy storage technologies that
could compete with BESS in achieving the previously introduced services and compares them against
their ability to provide each of these services.
Energy Storage (ES) qualifies any process that enables transfer energy from a device to another, or
an energy type to another where it can be accessed on demand for later usage. Using ES to provide grid
services enables to artificially loosen the constraint of having generation and demand synchronised
at any time. Different ES technologies all provide various performance characteristics—reviewed
in [18–21,24,36,100,101,106]—which makes them more or less capable to achieve the different services
introduced previously. Table 5 compares the capability for each technology to provide a given service.
Mechanical energy storage consists of storing energy as potential energy, by pumping water in
a higher reservoir, compressing air in a tank, or setting a flywheel in rotation. As found in Table 5,
these systems are usually suitable for services requiring large capacities such as arbitrage or reserve
provisions [100]. However, such systems are not easily down-scaled, making their integration behind
the meter unpractical [18]. Having a fleet of aggregated BtM BESS on the other hand, can allow the
provision of services that mechanical energy storage can and more, due to being connected behind
the meter.
Thermal ES technologies store energy as either sensible heat (temperature change), latent heat
(phase change) or thermochemical reactions. Therefore, they require lower volumes than mechanical
ES and are more likely to fit BtM requirements. In particular, if progress is made in latent and
thermochemical storage, a significant increase in energy density could be achieved, making this
technology a strong potential to domestic applications [107,108] if coupled with HPs for instance. Still,
many services require the ES system to inject electricity back to the grid, which is impossible from
thermal ES at this scale, and with a decent efficiency. On the other hand, services related to peak
shaving and head comfort can also be provided by domestic BESS, making them a stronger candidate.
Chemical ES regards all technologies based on using electricity to force a chemical reaction
(electrolysis of water for instance) and creating electricity back by making the chemical products react
in the reverse process. These technologies are under development, and the efficiency achieved are
still fairly low [101,106,109], which leaves both potential and uncertainty for providing most services,
especially facing other more developed technologies.
Electrical ES, consists of Electric Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) and Superconducting Magnetic
ES (SMES) [36,101] which store electricity as electric and magnetic fields respectively. They are mostly
fit for high power and low energy application, similar to flywheels. Their limitations stem from high
self-discharge rates, in addition to not enough maturity. Consequently, they may be very specialised in
certain services related to power quality but are outperformed by other technologies regarding the rest.
From these comparisons, it appears that (a fleet of aggregated) domestic batteries would be more
capable to reach a wider range of services than each of the other ES technologies candidate for grid
performance enhancement.
 Energies 2019, 12, 3954 19 of 27
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relief

relief
Voltage

Power
Limiting 


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
quality
&Arbitrage
load

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Power
Demand-Peak



levelling

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Generation
Source
3.
[9,30,55]


Likelihood

support
Voltage

quality

 
Frequency
Power
Demand-Peak
Reserves
~Limiting




[9,30,55]
of
[30,55,99]
quality
[9,30,55]
[9,30]

support
[9,30,55] 

Transmission

connection
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regulation
Frequency

Demand-Peak
Limiting
~ on

Reserves



at




[9,30,55]
T&D
[9,30,55]
regulation
[30,55,99]
Demand-Peak
[9,30,55]

different

Frequency
Voltage


Limiting
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Reserves
congestion Distribution
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electricity
T&D



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support
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
[9,30,55]
relief
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 load
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[9,30,55]
support
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[30,55,99]
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



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
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

~
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Meter
[9,30,55]

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[9,30,55]
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
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Generation
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[9,55]

[9,30,55]
[9,55]

~ 
[9,30,55]
[9,30,55]

[30,55,99]




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Transmission
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[9,30,55]
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
[9,30,55]

[30,55,99]
[9,30,55]

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

Black-Start capability
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3.Reserves
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y
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[55,99,100]
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T&D congestion relief
Frequency
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
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at
of
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atelectricity
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Table
of
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at Table
the 
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at
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[9,30,55]
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of3.
[9,30,55]
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of
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[9,30,55]
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3.

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 network
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[30,55,99]
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
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 
at
of
[9,30,55]
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at
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[9,55]  
at [9,30]
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different

[30,55,99]    
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[30,55,99]
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[9,30,55]
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
[9,30,55]

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[30,55,99]
h
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
~[55,99,100]
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 
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v 
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3. Likelihood
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regulation
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the different
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 Voltage
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Capacity
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Frequency   [55 100]    [9 3
on or ha serv ce ~ Serv ce ach evab e a hough no he op ma oca
Load  Serv ce canno be per ormed rom
on Following here    [55
T&D Transm ss on and D s r bu on RE Renewab e Energy
 Bes oca on or ha serv ce ~ Serv ce ach evab e a hough no he op ma oca on  Serv ce canno be per ormed rom here
T&D Transm ss on and D s r bu on RE Renewab e Energy
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 20 of 27

4. Barriers to Domestic Battery Deployment

In spite of the different advantages presented so far, it is a fact that the penetration of domestic
integrated BESS remains low. This section focuses on the main barriers and challenges that integrated
BESSs are facing: Markets and regulations, financial and economic issues, and technical barriers.
A recurring barrier to integration of domestic BESS and any sort of storage in general is the
unclear or often non-existent definition for electricity storage in most electricity network system
regulations [25,101]. Thus, storage units may be categorised as generation assets although not capable
of generating a net flow of energy [110] making competition with conventional generation challenging.
Additionally, as storage units are both loads and generators, owners are intended to pay twice for the
connection charges [111].
More generally, the integration of domestic BESS achieving a number of services would add
more contractual complexity. Either in the US [9] or in Europe [111], markets may vary a lot, enabling
little harmonization. Each contract is too specific to its context, environment and stakeholder to be
generalised to other situations without substantial enough adaptation, which may reduce motivation
of potential investors [98,111].
The ownership and operation of storage assets is also a concern. For a full utilisation of the potential
of domestic batteries, real-time information of the state of the network is required. The transmission
or distribution network operators are the most likely to possess these information, still they are not
allowed to own and operate storage systems by most regulations [110,111]. Reports such as [9,101]
agree on the benefit that could be drawn by giving—careful, limited and regulated—freedom to
network operators on the control of such assets. Often referred to as the transition from Distribution
Network Operators to Distribution System Operators (or DNOs to DSOs) [98].
According to Ugarte et al. [111], the main challenge to the integration of batteries in the current
context is economic. Capital costs are still high and discourage investors, making it difficult for the
technology to compete with other better-established centralised generation solutions and conventional
grid reinforcements [110]. It is interesting to note that the strictly speaking storage part “only”
represents 30% to 40% of the total cost. The rest consists in all the other components necessary for the
system to operate, which leaves space for cost reductions [112].
Moreover, the capital cost challenge would have a lower impact if more and more effective
remuneration mechanisms [25] or pricing signals [111] were in place. Batteries have been traditionally
used for arbitrage and more and more for renewable self-consumption increase [113], but according to
Castagneto Gissey, Dodds and Radcliffe J [110], and Fitzgerald et al. [9] and others, they could valuably
participate in balancing and ancillary services markets thanks to their potential to provide (ultra)
fast response. Regarding the Capacity Market, BESSs still struggle to be competitive, first due to the
current requirement of 2 MW, therefore requiring the aggregation of enough assets. More importantly,
the mechanism setting no limit to the duration for which the output must be maintained, largely plays
in favour fuel-based generation and against BESS [110].
It should also be noted that even if an effective remuneration mechanism was implemented,
the deployment of domestic BESS that it would bring about may affect it retroactively, for instance
by reducing the value of a given service and then not provide as much value as expected to battery
owners [9]. This also leads to lack of confidence in investments.
A significant challenge when it comes to technical aspects, is the inherent complexity. Transforming
consumers to “prosumers”, adding intermittent, non-dispatchable renewables to the mix means a
highly increased number of sub-systems to manage, and the necessity of an optimal management.
A poor management could indeed lead to increase the stress on the network and be severely harmful
for the nearby infrastructures. For instance, a high number of customers charging and discharging
their battery units during similar periods in response to the same price tariffs, leading to peaks and
troughs at the sub-station. Or, as presented by Moshövel et al. [92] and Marra et al. [90], batteries
used to increase the self-consumption of domestic rooftop PV are used to charge as soon as the PV
panels produce electricity: After a few hours of sunlight the batteries are fully charged but the sun
Energies 2019, 12, 3954 21 of 27

still shines. The electricity produced is not used in the household and suddenly exported to the grid,
typically in the early—or mid-afternoon, leading to sudden peaks at the substation. This is avoided by
increasing the size of the batteries, but it means higher capital investments, which also represents a
barrier to integration as presented above. It is suggested by Marra et al. [90] and Moshövel et al. [92]
that for the same battery size, and while preserving good self-consumption, substantial grid relief can
be achieved by operating the batteries differently. Still, the complexity of implementation, and the fact
that the operation of the batteries (and thus the revenue generated) depends on the quality of forecast
of the production and consumption—as introduced above [92]—increase the uncertainty regarding the
achievability of profitability by the system.
Other sources of technological uncertainty stem from the evolution of the performance of the
systems. Confidence on the progress of the technology could motivate investors but it is never certain
what exact level of efficiency the technology will eventually achieve. Additionally, even if an efficient
development was certain, BESS are not established technologies yet, and implementation phases may
be challenging because of a lack of general know-how [25]: Demonstration projects could alleviate
such risks [111]. As developed earlier, the ageing mechanisms are very complex in batteries and
still not fully understood. Such projects would help understand the evolution of the performance of
installed systems and secure investments [112], reducing the risk of being the first to invest in a yet
unproven technology.

5. Conclusions
The electricity sector is facing growing challenges, coming from two main categories: The normal
ageing of the infrastructures, and the evolution of electricity sector and more generally electricity
consumption and production behaviours—largely motivated by climate change mitigation necessities.
This second category of challenges may involve a drastic change in the management of energy flows
throughout the electricity network and addressing them with conventional grid upgrades may lead to
oversized components, and huge investments to maintain energy security. On the other hand, the
alternative option consisting in adding flexibility to the network is gaining interest, as it would enable
optimal technology installation, operation and investments.
It was shown that storing electricity is the important missing piece in the present flexibility puzzle.
Many different technologies achieving many different types of performance were compared regarding
their role in providing this flexibility to the grid, and it appears that the highest amount of value can be
achieved by installing batteries (electrochemical ES) behind the meter of consumers. Furthermore,
electrochemical energy storage units could be operated to provide benefit to its owner, as well as to the
grid, by re-shaping the apparent electricity consumption profile as seen from the electricity network.
The role could be key in the transition of consumers into “prosumers”, who are willing to introduce
photovoltaic (PV) rooftop panels, Electric Vehicles (EVs), Heat Pumps (HP), or simply have a better
control on their energy consumption.
The commercialisation of such systems has already started, mostly as an upgrade to rooftop PV.
These technologies, their performance, and the numerical models used for their development were
examined and compared. Still, the deployment remains low and does not enable the full expected
potential yet. The reasons for this are based on market, regulatory, financial, economic, and technical
concerns and were developed in the last section.
The paper shows that domestic integrated battery energy storage systems are a very strong
candidate to address the challenges faced by the electricity sector. The relevant technology is now
emerging and there is still room for performance improvement and decrease in costs. However,
investments that could lead to a large deployment are held back by a number of barriers and challenges
acting as a vicious circle. The present small number of installed batteries leads to a lack of regulation
effort, as not enough systems are present in the network, which makes market regulations and
competition unfavourable to domestic BESS. The situation brings about higher risks in investments,
therefore only a small number of systems are installed every year, leading to the small fleet growing
 Energies 2019, 12, 3954 22 of 27

too slowly to make regulation efforts worthy. Additionally, the lack of real-world data due to the small
amount of installed systems sustains the unfair market and competitions context and the reluctance to
Energies 2019,Figure
investment. 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
8 illustrates this self-sustained inhibition process. 27 of 32

Small fleet

Too slow fleet Lack of

Lack of real-
increase regulation
world data

Risky investments Unfair market &

competition

Figure 8. Illustration of the vicious circle in domestic battery implementation.

Now that there is evidence concerning the potential added value of behind-the-meter BESS, a great
step forward would Figurebe8. to
Illustration
demonstrateof thequantitatively
vicious circle inthedomestic
benefitsbattery implementation.
of such a solution. Still, as real-world
implementations are expensive and risky—due to the high complexity of implementing such new
Now thatand
systems there is evidence
operating concerning
them the potential
properly—and may onlyadded value
take of behind-the-meter
place BESS, a great
once the trustworthiness of thestep
forward would
solution be to
is more demonstrate
clearly quantitatively
demonstrated. In the nearthe benefits
future, ofshould
efforts such bea solution. Still, asaccurate
made to generate real-world
implementations
and valid models that are able to provide reliable quantitative results regarding the technical viabilityand
are expensive and risky—due to the high complexity of implementing such new systems
operating
of thethem properly—and
solution. From these may only
results, take place
decisions once the
regarding fortrustworthiness
instance regulationof the solution is more
or investments couldclearly
be
demonstrated. In the near future, efforts should be made to generate accurate and
made in order to unlock the barriers to deployment and thus releasing all the potential achievable valid models that are able
to provide
without reliable quantitative
compromising results regarding
the operation the technical
of the electricity network.viability of the the
As a result, solution.
lack ofFrom these results,
data leading to
decisions
difficulties in competition and reluctance in investment (see Figure 8) could be by-passed by providing to
regarding for instance regulation or investments could be made in order to unlock the barriers
deployment and that
information thuswould
releasing all the
reverse the competition
potential achievable
and investmentwithout compromising
balance in favour ofthe operation
domestic of the
BESS.
electricity network. As a result, the lack of data leading to difficulties in competition and reluctance in
investment
Author(see Figure 8) could
Contributions: be by-passed
Writing—draft by providing
and editing, information
C.J.; Reviewing, editingthat
andwould reverse
supervision, A.Z.;theReviewing,
competition
editing and supervision,
and investment C.B.; Reviewing,
balance in favour of domesticediting and supervision, P.K.; Reviewing, P.M.; Funding acquisition and
BESS.
reviewing, N.H.
Funding:
Author This research
Contributions: and the APC
Writing—draft were funded
and editing, by the European
C.J.; Reviewing, editingUnion’s INTERREG
and supervision, VAReviewing,
A.Z.; Programme, grant and
editing
numberC.B.;
supervision, IVA5038.
Reviewing, editing and supervision, P.K.; Reviewing, P.M.; Funding acquisition and reviewing, N.H.
Acknowledgments: This work was conducted under the SPIRE 2 project, which is supported by the European
Acknowledgements:
Union’s INTERREG This VA
work was conducted
Programme, managedunder
bythethe SPIRE
Special2 EU
project, which isBody
Programmes supported by the European Union’s
(SEUPB).
INTERREG VA Programme, managed by the Special EU Programmes Body (SEUPB).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Funding: This research and the APC were funded by the European Union’s INTERREG VA Programme, grant number
IVA5038.
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