Q1 (ii)

Meiosis represents a specialized form of cellular division that occurs in all sexually
reproducing organisms. The goal of meiosis is to halve the genomic content of the parent cell,
which contains two copies of each chromosome, so that the daughter cells, or gametes,
contain only one copy of each chromosome. (www.yourgenome.org, 2019). Two gametes can
then undergo fertilization to produce an embryo that is restored to diploid chromosome status.
During meiosis, cells are produced that have a reduced number of chromosomes. This
reduction means that when the germ cells (eggs and sperm) fuse. If meiosis did not reduce the
number of chromosomes to n, the number of chromosomes in a sexually reproducing
organism would double each generation. (www.sciencedirect.com, 2001).Both divisions in
meiosis have prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, but their details are
different. Meiosis may require days or weeks to complete.
The significance of meiosis lies in providing gametes – the origins of next-generation
progeny – with diverse gene combinations by mixing paternal and maternal genes. In
meiosis, variation occurs, because each gamete (either sperm or egg) contains a mixture of
genes from two different parent chromosomes in sexual reproduction. Other words to say, the
genetic coupling of non-identical DNA takes place in meiosis. It results in an offspring,
which has the genetic material of two different individuals. These chromosomes have the
basic DNA chain, which determines the physical and genetic characteristics of the child. To
create and transfer diverse combinations of DNA (genetic material) through the reproduction
process is the key to ensuring the diversity of organisms.

Q1 (iii)
Nausea is a common problem in early pregnancy. Although often called “morning
sickness”, nausea can occur at any time of day and may persist throughout the day.
Symptoms usually begin between 4 weeks' and 7 weeks' gestation and disappear by 16 weeks'
gestation in about 90% of women. Nausea and vomiting occur in up to 74% of pregnant
women, and 50% experience vomiting. Although the term morning sickness is commonly
used to describe nausea during pregnancy, the timing, severity, and duration of symptoms
vary widely. Approximately 80% of women report that their symptoms last all day, whereas
only 1.8% report symptoms that occur solely in the morning.

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 The causes of nausea in early pregnancy are unknown. However, observational data
indicate that these conditions correlate with levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
and the size of the placental mass, which suggests that placental products may be associated
with the presence and severity of nausea and vomiting. (Enrnest, 2014) Also, the increased
levels of hormones in pregnancy can slow down digestion. This may result in heartburn, acid
reflux and indigestion which can cause nausea and vomiting. As well, a bacterial infection in
the gut caused by Helicobacter pylori may worsen or seem like morning sickness. However,
this infection is not always found in women suffering from morning sickness.
For any woman who's been told that morning sickness is a indication of a healthy
pregnancy, nausea and vomiting in pregnancy are linked to a lower risk of miscarriage, a new
study finds. While experiencing experience unpleasant symptoms linked with nausea in
pregnancy, it might very well be a sign that things are progressing smoothly. According to a
new study published in JAMA Internal Medicine, these symptoms may be associated with a
reduced risk of pregnancy. (Welch, 2016), Also, this may be a very good reassurance sign,
for women who have one or two previous miscarriages and who lost symptoms of nausea at
the time when miscarriage took place. (Thomphson, 2016).
On average, most women find their pregnancy symptoms become less bothersome by
somewhere around the end of the first trimester, but it can also happen sooner or later. For the
vast majority of expectant moms, morning sickness doesn't typically linger much beyond
week 12 to week 14 of pregnancy (though a few women continue to experience symptoms
into the second trimester, and a very few, particularly those expecting multiples, may suffer
some well into the third). The symptoms of nausea and sometimes vomiting should improve
as the pregnancy progresses. By the beginning of the second trimester, many pregnant
women notice that their nausea and vomiting start to subside. The surge in hormones related
to pregnancy causes nausea, and many women seem to adjust to the rising hormone levels
and start to feel better. (Carpenter, 2019)

Q1 (iv)
Corpus luteum (CL) is a transient endocrine gland, established by residual follicular wall
cells following ovulation. During each ovarian cycle, up to 20 primordial follicles are
activated in order to start the maturation process, but in humans usually only one reaches full
maturity and ovulates, while remainders regress. The main secretory product of corpus
luteum is progesterone, which is required for the establishment and maintenance of
pregnancy. Additionally, progesterone serves as a negative feedback mechanism to the

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hypothalamus to suppress further follicular development. The corpus luteum is supported and
maintained by the pregnancy hormone human chorionic gonadotrophin or HCG. The corpus
luteum begins to decrease in size at around 10 weeks of pregnancy.
The insufficient progesterone production is the major cause of infertility and embryonic loss,
since progesterone is essential for both endometrial growth and embryo survival. In the
absence of implantation, corpus luteum will cease to produce progesterone and its tissue mass
will reduce in size, accompanied by loss of cellular integrity. This causes a decline in
estrogen and progesterone levels, leading to the start of another menstrual period.
A miscarriage is an event that results in the loss of a fetus during early pregnancy. It’s
also called a spontaneous abortion. It typically happens during the first trimester, or first three
months, of the pregnancy. Studies have shown that surgical excision of corpus luteum before
7 weeks of gestation, uniformly precipitated an abrupt decrease in serum progesterone
concentration followed by miscarriage. During the early stages of pregnancy, progesterone is
still produced by the corpus luteum and is essential for supporting the pregnancy and
establishing the placenta. A healthy, active corpus luteum is essential for the pregnancy to
continue. If it damaged and production of progesterone is poor during the first eight weeks of
pregnancy, a miscarriage can occur. If progesterone levels are low in the early weeks of the
pregnancy, this means that the placental cells surrounding the embyo are not producing
sufficient HCG to stimulate the corpus luteum to produce enough progesterone.
The corpus luteum is supported and maintained by the pregnancy hormone human
chorionic gonadotrophin or HCG. It begins to decrease in size at around 10 weeks of
pregnancy. As pregnancy evolves, the corpus luteum gradually regresses and plays a
negligible role in the final two trimesters. (Sullivan, 2016)

3
 Q2 (i)
Advantages of breastfeeding
Breastfeeding is the natural way of feeding of the newborn, and though not all moms
choose this route, breast milk offers plentiful benefits for your baby beyond nutrition.
According to American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), “Breastfeeding and the use of human
milk confer exclusive nutritional and non-nutritional benefits to the infant and the mother
and, in turn, optimize infant, child, and adult wellbeing as well as child growth and
development.”
Breastfeeding is great for the immune system - Breast milk is full of ingredients
your baby needs to prevent illness and infection. Your breast milk is specifically tailored to
the baby, so the antibodies present in breast milk boosts your baby’s immune system and
protects baby based on what you have been exposed to.
Breastfeeding promotes emotional and mental development - Breastfeeding helps
mother bond with baby together. The physical intimacy of skin-to-skin contact releases
serotonin and oxytocin, which promotes attachment and helps build a strong emotional bond.
This strong emotional bond helps baby’s brain develop better and reduces the risk of mental
health problems.
Breastfeeding benefits mother - Breastfeeding has been shown to reduce the risk of
breast, ovarian, uterine, and endometrial cancer. It has also been shown that longer
breastfeeding reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease. Nursing also has been shown to
reduce women’s stress level and decrease the risk of postpartum depression.
Breastfeeding is cheaper and more convenient- Breastfeeding is free, while
formula and bottle-feeding supplies can really add up. Also since breastfeeding reduces the
risk of illness, you can save a large amount in health care costs.
Lower incidence of infectious diseases, such as diarrhoea, pneumonia, ear infection,
respiratory tract illness bacterial meningitis, urinary tract infection, bacteria, necrotizing
enterocolitis, and late onset sepsis in preterm infants.
Improved dental health with less risk of tooth decay.
Reduction of the risk of obesity later in life when exclusively breastfed for at least 4
months. (happyfamilyorganics.com, 2019)

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 Q2 (ii)

Infertility is defined as the incapacity to fulfil pregnancy after a reasonable time of

sexual intercourse with no contraceptive measures taken. Infertility is a circumstance
affecting one fifth to one sixth of couples in reproductive age. Within the field of
reproductive health, infertility implies a deficiency that does not compromise the physical
integrity of the individual, nor is it life-threatening. However, such deficiency may negatively
impact the growth of the personality, bringing about disappointment and weakening the
individuality, since most couples believe having children as a vital objective. (Olmego, 2000)
According to the Centre of Disease Control, the causes of female infertility can be
divided into three broad categories including defective ovulation, transport and implantation.
(cdc.gov, 2013)
Defective Ovulation
Defective ovulation occurs because of the following causes:
Endocrine disorders: The dysfunction of hypothalamus and pituitary gland can lead to
an excess amount of prolactin, this may prevent ovulation. Moreover, other endocrine glands
including adrenals and thyroid may also delay ovulation. When the corpus luteum, fails to
produce enough progesterone required to thicken the uterine lining, the fertilized egg may not
be able to implant, thus leading to infertility.
Physical disorders: Certain physical disorders such as obesity, anorexia nervosa, and
excessive exercise may lead to overweight or malnutrition, and later the menstrual cycle, thus
make the couple infertile
Ovarian disorders: Polycystic ovarian disease (PCO) can lead to infertility because of
an increased amount of testosterone and LH and decrease uptake of glucose by muscle, fat
and liver cells resulting in the production of large amounts of insulin by the pancreas. Low
FSH levels also hinder the production of eggs from the ovarian follicles, and lead to form
fluid-filled ovarian cysts that eventually cover the whole ovaries and prevent conception.
Endometriosis: This refers to a condition in which sections of the uterine lining
implant in the vagina, ovaries, fallopian tubes or pelvis. These implants form fluid- filled
cysts that grow with each menstrual cycle, and eventually turn into blisters and scars. These
scars then block the passage of the egg and delay pregnancy.
Defective Transport
The following can lead to defective transport of ovum and sperm:

5
 Ovum: Occurrence of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID), gonorrhoea, peritonitis,
previous tubal surgery, and fibril adhesions can cause tubal obstruction; as a result the egg is
not released or trapped, therefore, delaying conception. Scar tissue after abdominal surgery:
After abdominal surgeries, presence of scar tissue may alter the movement of the ovaries,
fallopian tubes, and uterus, resulting in infertility
Cervix: Trauma, surgery, infection, anti-sperm antibodies in the cervical mucus may
also delay pregnancy.
Defective Implantation
Implantation failure refers to the failure of a fertilized egg to implant in the uterine wall to
begin pregnancy. (www.nichd.nih.gov, 2013). While the specific cause of implantation
failure are often unknown, possibilities include:
 Genetic defects in the embryo
 Thin endometrium
 Embryonic defects
 Endometriosis
 Progesterone resistance
 Scar tissue in the endometrial cavity

Male infertility is any condition in which the man adversely affects the chances of
initiating a pregnancy with his female partner. Most commonly, those problems arise when
the man is unable to produce or deliver fully-functioning sperm. (www.gaurology.com, 2019)

he causes of male infertility are plentiful, some are simple and easily corrected, and others are
more complex and genetic.

Overall, these causes can be divided into two groups: production problems or obstruction.

1. Production problems:

1. Varicocele: Varicose veins of the testicle or Varicocele are the most common
problem. Varicocele is even more common in men who have previously fathered
children and are now unable to do so. It may lead to reduced sperm count and/or
motility.
2. Medication: Certain medications can affect sperm production, purpose and
ejaculation. Such medications are usually approved to treat conditions like arthritis,
depression, digestive problems, infections, hypertension and even cancer.

6
 3. Hormones: Hormones produced by the pituitary gland are responsible for stimulating
the testicles to make sperm. Therefore, when levels are severely low, poor sperm
development can result.
4. Sperm disorders: Problems with the production and development of sperm are the
most common problems of male infertility. Sperm may be underdeveloped,
abnormally shaped or unable to move properly. Or, normal sperm may be produced in
abnormally low numbers or seemingly not at all.
5. Smoking: Smoking cigarettes has been linked to impaired morphology and motility of
sperm cells
6. Alcohol: Alcohol may interfere with sperm development and hormone levels

2. Obstruction: Normal sperm production takes three months, the final two and a half weeks
of which are spent travelling from the testicle to the outside. The distance over which sperm
must travel is 15 to 20 feet, mainly through tiny, microscopic tubules. The tubules may be
blocked for the following reasons:

o Previous Vasectomy is the most common cause and can be reversed in many cases
through a microscopic vasectomy reversal procedure.
o Retrograde ejaculation: Retrograde ejaculation took place when semen pushes
rearward into the bladder instead of out the penis. This is caused by the failure of
nerves and muscles in the bladder neck to close during orgasm. It is one of several
difficulties couples may have delivering sperm to the vagina during intercourse.
Retrograde ejaculation can be caused by preceding surgery, medications or diseases
affecting the nervous system. Signs of this condition may include cloudy urine after
ejaculation and diminished or “dry” ejaculation with orgasm.
o Inflammation, repeated infections or scarring may block the normal passage of
sperm at any portion of the male reproductive tract and cause obstruction.

3. Immunologic infertility: Triggered by a man’s immunologic response to his own sperm,

antibodies are usually the product of injury, surgery or infection. In attacking the sperm, they
prevent normal movement and role of the sperm. Though researchers do not yet understand
just exactly how antibodies damage fertility, they know that these antibodies can make it
more difficult for sperm to swim to the uterus and penetrate eggs.

7
4. Genetics: Genetics play a central role in fertility, particularly since sperm carry half of the
DNA mix to the partner’s egg, malformations in chromosomal numbers and configuration as
well as deletions on the important Y chromosome present in normal males can also impact
fertility.

Q2 (iii)

Vasectomy is a surgical procedure for male sterilization or permanent contraception.

During the procedure, the male vas deferens are cut and tied or sealed so as to prevent sperm
from entering into the urethra and thereby prevent fertilization of a female through sexual
intercourse. (www.nhs.uk, 2019)
1. A vasectomy is a permanent form of birth control that leads to male sterilization.
After a vasectomy, a man is unable to produce sperm to fertilize a woman’s eggs. Thus, he
will be unable to get a woman pregnant. The procedure, which the patient can get done in a
doctor’s office without being “asleep,” stops sperm from being able to leave the testes. With
no sperm entering the woman, she won’t get pregnant.
2. Sexual activity, penile sensitivity, and the production of male hormones are not
typically affected. A vasectomy should have no adverse effects on your sex life. Any
problems that develop in relation to having sexual intercourse would result from
psychological rather than physical causes. After a vasectomy, a man’s hormones remain
normal, and there is no noticeable difference in his ejaculate volume, since sperm make up
only a tiny part of the semen. Because the sperm cannot come out after the vas deferens is
cut, like other dead body cells, the sperm disintegrate and are reabsorbed by the body.
(www.hopkinsmedicine.org, 2019)
3. It is considered rare that a vasectomised male has no sperm whatsoever. Typically,
he still has some sperm, just not as much as he did before the operation. A vasectomy doesn’t
mean the man stops producing sperm, just that the duct that carries the sperm has been either
sealed or severed. (www.nhs.uk, 2019)When a sealing method is used, some sperm still can
manage to get mixed with seminal fluid. So, there could be a chance that DNA could be
recovered from sperm cells from the semen of a vasectomised male, depending how complete
the operation was. Because some viable sperm will remain system beyond the point of
vasectomy, additional methods of contraception are still advised for the first six months. In
case vasectomy surgery was absolutely and totally successful, DNA from male semen cannot
be obtained.

8
 4. Hormones which control the male sex characteristics and performance are still
produced; therefore there is no change in a man's appearance and no loss of sex drive or the
ability to have a healthy, active sex life. The sole change is in the man's ability to cause
pregnancy in a woman. A man continues to have erections and ejaculations but his semen
contains no sperm.

9
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