Generalized tonic–clonic seizures and partial seizures

are treated mainly with oral carbamazepine (top middle),

valproate, lamotrigine or topiramate. These drugs are of similar
effectiveness, and a single drug will control the fits in 70–80%
of patients with tonic–clonic seizures, but in only 30–40% of
patients with partial seizures. In these poorly controlled patients,
combinations of the above drugs or the addition of second‐line
drugs, e.g., levetiracetam, clobazam or gabapentin may reduce
the incidence of seizures, but only about 7% of these refractory
patients become totally seizure free.

Causes of epilepsy
The aetiology is unknown in 60–70% of cases, but heredity is an
important factor. Damage to the brain (e.g. tumours, asphyxia,

infections or head injury) may subsequently cause epilepsy.

Convulsions may be precipitated in epileptics by several groups
of drugs, including phenothiazines, tricyclic antidepressants and
many antihistamines.

Etiologinya tidak diketahui pada 60-70% kasus, tapi faktor keturunan merupakan salah satu faktor penting.
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