In English, there are three tenses: PRESENT, PAST and FUTURE and three

aspects: SIMPLE, CONTINUOUS and PERFECT. Out of the combination of each tense
with each aspect there appear the twelve Indicative mood tenses.

TENSES represent an objective grammatical category = we can safely place an

action on the time axis and not risk being contradicted.

ASPECTS represent a subjective grammatical category = it depends on the speaker

to choose a certain action he means to express:
Simple Aspect = HABITUAL actions (Present, Past or Future);
Continuous Aspect = actions which LAST (in the Present, Past or Future);
Perfect Aspect = ANTERIOR actions (as to the Present, Past or Future).

The Aspect MARKERS are:

Simple Aspect: No TYPICAL AUXILIARY VERB, no VERB FORM
Continuous Aspect: TO BE + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
Perfect Aspect: TO HAVE + Verb(3rd form)

There are three VERB FORMS in English:

1) INFINITIVE: TO WALK, TO SEE etc.;
2) PAST SIMPLE: WALKED, SAW etc.;
3) PAST PARTICIPLE: WALKED, SEEN etc.

There are two sorts of verbs in English:

1) REGULAR VERBS ( they form the PAST SIMPLE and the PAST PARTICIPLE by
adding [-d/-ed]) e.g.: TO WORK – WORKED – WORKED;
2) IRREGULAR VERBS (the PAST SIMPLE and PAST PARTICIPLE forms do not
obey any rule and must be found in/ learnt from a dictionary) e.g.: TO TAKE –
TOOK – TAKEN.
 ENGLISH TENSES
I. THE PRESENT TENSES
1. PRESENT SIMPLE
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS
3. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. PRESENT SIMPLE = prezent (+ in fiecare…)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-s/-es] (3rd person, singular)
We add [-es] to verbs ending in: - a group of consonants difficult to pronounce, e.g. [-tch]: he watches;
- the vowel [-o]: e.g. he goes;
- the letter [-x]: e.g. he waxes.
b) Interrogative: Do/Does(he, she, it) + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive)?
c) Negative: Subject + Do/Does(he, she, it) + NOT (Don’t/Doesn’t) + Verb(Short Infinitive)
B. USE
For habitual actions; for recipes, sports commentaries, historical present, official plans etc.
E.g.: He reads interesting letters every week.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS = prezent (+acum)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO BE(Present) + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
b) Interrogative: TO BE(Present) + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject + TO BE (Present) + NOT + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
B. USE
For actions going on now; for actions which are habitual for a limited period of time, personal plans etc.
E.g.: He is reading an interesting letter now..

3. PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE = perfect compus

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO HAVE(Present) + Verb(3rd form)
b) Interrogative: TO HAVE(Present) + Subject + Verb(3rd form)?
c) Negative: Subject + TO HAVE (Present) + NOT + Verb(3rd form)
B. USE
For actions anterior to now; for past actions about which we don’t know when they happened, but
they have a clear effect upon the present moment.
E.g.: He has already read many interesting letters.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS = prezent (+ perioada: de…)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO HAVE(Present) + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
b) Interrogative: TO HAVE(Present) + Subject + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject +TO HAVE(Present) + NOT + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
B. USE
For actions which started in the past, are going on now and may go on in the future.
E.g.: He has been reading interesting letters for years.
 II. THE PAST TENSES
1. PAST SIMPLE
2. PAST CONTINUOUS
3. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. PAST SIMPLE = perfect compus (+ reper temporal)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ed/-d(for verbs ending in [-e])] (Regular
Verbs); Subject + Verb(2nd form in the dictionary) (Irregular Verbs)
b) Interrogative: DID + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive)?
c) Negative: Subject + DID + NOT (DIDN’T) + Verb (Short Infinitive)
B. USE
For past actions about which we know precisely when they happened; for narratives.
E.g.: He read an interesting letter last week.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS = imperfect

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO BE(Past) + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [ing]
b) Interrogative: TO BE(Past) + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject + TO BE(Past) + NOT (WASN’T/WEREN’T) +Verb(Short Infinitive)+[ing]
B. USE
For past actions which lasted/ took time.
E.g.: He was reading an interesting letter when you called.

3. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE = mai mult ca perfect

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO HAVE(Past) + Verb(3rd form)
b) Interrogative: TO HAVE(Past) + Subject + Verb(3rd form)?
c) Negative: Subject + TO HAVE(Past) + NOT (HADN’T) + Verb(3rd form)
B. USE
For past actions which ended before another past action/ before a past reference point.
E.g.: He had read an interesting letter when you asked him how he was.
Hardly/ Scarcely/ Barely/ No sooner had he opened the door when/ than(for NO SOONER) the phone rang.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS = imperfect (+perioada: de…)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + TO HAVE(Past) + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
b) Interrogative: TO HAVE(Past) + Subject + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject + TO HAVE(Past) + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
B. USE
For past actions which started in the past, before other past actions/ before a past reference
point, were going on then and may have gone on up to now.
E.g. He had been reading interesting letters for hours when you came in.
 THE ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING PAST:
1. USED TO (for past habitual actions which can no longer be repeated): He used to play cards.
2. WOULD (for past habitual actions which can still be repeated): He would go to the seaside
weekly.

III. THE FUTURE TENSES

1. FUTURE SIMPLE
2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS
3. FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

1. FUTURE SIMPLE = viitor

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL (‘LL) + Verb(Short Infinitive)
b) Interrogative: SHALL(I,We)/WILL (‘LL) + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive)?
c) Negative: Subject + SHALL(I, We)/WILL + NOT (SHAN’T/WON’T) + Verb(Short Infinitive)
B. USE
For future habitual actions
E.g. He will read an interesting letter tomorrow.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS = viitor (+perioada)

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL (‘LL) + BE + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
b) Interrogative: SHALL(I,We)/WILL + Subject + BE + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL + NOT (SHAN’T/WON’T) + Verb(Sh.Inf.) + [-ing]
B. USE
For future actions which will last
E.g. This time tomorrow, we will be reading interesting letters.

3. FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE = viitor anterior

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL (‘LL) + HAVE + Verb(3rd form)
b) Interrogative: SHALL(I,We)/WILL + Subject + HAVE + Verb(3rd form)?
c) Negative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL + NOT (SHAN’T/WON’T)+ HAVE + Verb(3rd form)
B. USE
For future actions which will end before another future action/ a future reference point.
E.g. By Friday, we will have finished reading your interesting letter.

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS = “voi/ vei… fi + gerunziu” + perioada

A. FORM
a) Affirmative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL (‘LL) + HAVE + BEEN + Verb(Short Inf.) + [-ing]
b) Interrogative: SHALL(I,We)/WILL + Subject + HAVE + BEEN + Verb(Short Inf.) + [-ing]?
c) Negative: Subject + SHALL(I,We)/WILL + NOT (SHAN’T/WON’T) + HAVE + BEEN + Verb (Sh.
Inf.) + [-ing]
B. USE
For future actions which will have started before another future action/ future reference point,
will be going on then and may go on up even further.
E.g. When you come home, I will have been reading letters for hours.
(!RULE: We MAY NOT use Future in time clauses.).
 THE ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE

1. PRESENT SIMPLE (official plans): The plane takes off at 5 p.m. tomorrow.
2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS (personal plans): What are they doing tonight?
3. TO BE TO (official intentions): The museum is to open next Tuesday.
4. TO BE GOING TO (personal intentions): We are going to leave on a trip next month.

IV. THE FUTURE IN THE PAST TENSES

1. FUTURE IN THE PAST SIMPLE
2. FUTURE IN THE PAST CONTINUOUS
3. FUTURE IN THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
4. FUTURE IN THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

USE
In If-Clauses and Indirect Speech.

1. FUTURE IN THE PAST SIMPLE

Affirmative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD (‘D) +Verb(Short Infinitive)
Interrogative: SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive)?
Negative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + NOT (SHOULDN’T/WOULDN’T) + Verb(Sh. Inf.)

2. FUTURE IN THE PAST CONITNUOUS

Affirmative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD (‘D) + BE +Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]
Interrogative: SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + Subject + BE + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-ing]?
Negative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + NOT (SHOULDN’T/WOULDN’T) + BE + Verb(Sh.
Inf.) + [-ing]

3. FUTURE IN THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

Affirmative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD (‘D) + HAVE + Verb(3rd form)
Interrogative: SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + Subject + HAVE + Verb(3rd form)?
Negative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + NOT (SHOULDN’T/WOULDN’T) + HAVE +
Verb(3rd form)

4. FUTURE IN THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Affirmative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD (‘D) +HAVE + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) +
[-ing]
Interrogative: SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + Subject + HAVE + BEEN + Verb(Short Infinitive) + [-
ing]?
Negative: Subject + SHOULD(I,We)/WOULD + NOT (SHOULDN’T/WOULDN’T) + HAVE + BEEN
+ Verb(Sh. Inf.) + [-ing]
 IF-CLAUSES
a. There are THREE types of IF-CLAUSES;
b. They express different degrees of probability for an action to
happen;
c. !!WE MAY NOT USE FUTURE AFTER IF

Type I
MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
FUTURE/PRESENT PRESENT
E.g. We will go to the cinema if the weather is fine.
Clues for Type I:
d. The degree of probability for the action to happen is almost 100%;
e. In Romanian, we have “viitor” in both clauses.

Type II
MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
FUTURE IN THE PAST PAST
E.g. We would go to the cinema if the weather were fine.
! RULE: The Past Simple of TO BE is WERE for all persons.
Clues for Type II:
f. The degree of probability for the action to happen is close to 50%;
g. In Romanian, we have “conditional prezent” in both clauses.

Type III
MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
FUTURE IN THE PAST PERFECT PAST PERFECT
E.g. We would have gone to the cinema if the weather had been fine.
Clues for Type II:
h. The degree of probability for the action to happen is 0%;
i. In Romanian, we have “conditional trecut/ imperfect” in both clauses;
j. We can add “but…”: e.g.: “…but the weather was not fine, so we didn’t go.”
EMPHATIC WAYS OF EXPRESSING IF-CLAUSES
Type II
Instead of:
“If the weather were fine, I would go to the cinema.”,
we can say:
“Should the weather be fine, I would go to the cinema.”,
which, in Romanian, is:
“Sa fie vremea frumoasa, as merge la cinema.”
Type III
Instead of:
“If the weather had been fine, I would have gone to the cinema.”,
we can say:
“Had the weather been fine, I would have gone to the cinema.”,
which, in Romanian, is:
“Sa fi fost vremea frumoasa, as fi mers la cinema.”
 INDIRECT/REPORTED SPEECH
DEFINITION: Indirect Speech is the transfer of dialogue into story, by means of an
introductory reporting verb, such as: tell, say, confess, answer etc.

I. If the reporting verb in the main clause is in the PRESENT/FUTURE, the following
changes occur in the subordinate clause:
a. PERSONAL PRONOUN changes: 1st person  3rd person
2nd person  1st person;
b. VERB changes (agreement in person with the subject);
c. DEMONSTRATIVE PROUNOUN/ADJECTIVE changes: this  that
these
 those;
d. ADVERB changes: Adverbs of Time: NOW  THEN; TODAY  THAT
DAY; YESTERDAY  THE DAY BEFORE; TOMORROW  THE NEXT DAY;
AGO  BEFORE; NEXT…  THE NEXT etc.
Adverbs of Place: HERE  THERE etc.
E.g. DIRECT SPEECH: “We arrived here yesterday.”
INDIRECT SPEECH: He says/will say that they arrived there the day before.

II. If the reporting verb in the main clause is in the PAST, all the changes above are
kept, but there appears one more important set of changes:
a. TENSE changes: PRESENT  PAST
PAST  PAST PERFECT
FUTURE  FUTURE IN THE PAST
E.g. DIRECT SPEECH: “We arrived here yesterday.”
INDIRECT SPEECH: He said that they had arrived there the day before.

! If we are to change a question into Indirect Speech, we must always return to the correct
order of words: GROUP SUBJECT + GROUP PREDICATE.
E.g. DIRECT SPEECH: “How old will you be next year?”
INDIRECT SPEECH: He asked me how old I would be the next year.

QUESTION TAGS
There are 6 steps to follow in forming the right QUESTION TAG:
1) We “find out” the tense the verb is in;
2) We “find out” which auxiliary the tense has;
3) We “find out” which form (Affirmative/Negative) the auxiliary is in;
4) We switch the Auxiliary from Affirmative to Negative and from Negative to Affirmative;
5) We add the Subject;
6) We add the Question Mark.

E.g.: They read a lot, don’t they?

EXCEPTION: I am reading, aren’t I?
 MODAL VERBS
DEFINITION: Modal Verbs are auxiliary verbs (that is they help us form the
predicate) but they keep their meaning, unlike the other common auxiliary verbs (To
Be, To Have) which are used to build tenses. The most common Modal Verbs are: CAN,
MAY, MUST.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MODAL VERBS
1. They only have a Short Infinitive form (e.g. TO can);
2. They are only followed by a Short Infinitive form (e.g. I must TO write a
letter.);
3. They form the interrogative by inversion with the subject (e.g. Do I may open
the window? May I open the window?)
4. They form the negative by adding “not” (e.g. They don’t can speak
Chinese. They cannot/can’t speak Chinese.)
rd
5. At the 3 person singular, Present Indicative, they do not add [-s/-es] (e.g. He
musts do his homework every day.)
6. They do not have all the tenses, that is why they take substitutes:
CAN  TO BE ABLE TO; MAY TO BE ALLOWED TO; MUST TO HAVE TO.

What can each modal verb express?

CAN/COULD (Past Tense of CAN, but also independent Modal Verb)
Affirmative:
1. Ability (Physical: I can run very fast.; Intellectual: Everyone here can read.);
2. Possibility: The sky is cloudy. It can/could rain later.
3. Permission: Can/Could I open the window?
Negative:
Impossibility: It is only 6 a.m.. They can’t already be in their office.

MAY/MIGHT (Past Tense of MAY, but also independent Modal Verb)

Affirmative:
1 .Possibility: The sky is cloudy. It may/might rain later.
2. Permission: May/Might I open the window?
Negative:
Impossibility: It is only 6 a.m.. They can’t already be in their office.
Lack of permission: You may not open that door.
Interdiction: You must not (mustn’t) forget to do your homework.

MUST
Affirmative:
1 .Obligation: Everyone must do his job right.
2. Probability: The light is on. They must be at work.
Negative:
Interdiction: You must not (mustn’t) forget to do your homework.
Lack of obligation: You needn’t bring her flowers; it is not her birthday.(You haven’t – yet)
You needn’t have brought her flowers; it is not her birthday.(You have – although it was not
necessary)
 OTHER MODAL VERBS

SHALL: Offer: Shall I carry your bag?

SHOULD: Advice: They should work harder than they are working now.
WILL/WOULD: Volition: If you will, I’ll take you to a nice place tomorrow.
OUGHT TO: Strong advice, Weak obligation: They ought to think about themselves more.
DARE: How dare he talk to us like that?

THE “SHORT INFINITIVE” FORM AFTER MODALS

1. Continuous Infinitive (for actions going on now/ which took/will take time):
He may be reading now, but I am not very sure.
2. Perfect Infinitive (for actions which ended before the moment of speech)
They must have read the article by now, because they look very angry.
3. Perfect Continuous (for actions which started in the past, are going on now and may go on in the
future, as well)
I should have been reading for hours, but I feel too tired.

THE FOUR VOICES

DEFINITION: The voice is the grammatical category which provides the connection
between Subject and Object by means of a verb.

I. The ACTIVE VOICE

II. The PASSIVE VOICE
II. The REFLEXIVE VOICE
III. The FACTITIVE VOICE

I. The ACTIVE VOICE = The SUBJECT (=AGENT) does an action which is

reflected upon an OBJECT
Form: Subject + Verb(in a certain tense and mood) + Object
E.g. I open the door.

II. The PASSIVE VOICE = The old SUBJECT becomes OBJECT; the OBJECT
becomes SUBJECT.
Form: Subject (= the Object in the Active Voice) + TO BE (in the tense and mood of
the verb in the Active Voice) + Verb (3rd form) + Object (= the Subject in the Active
Voice)
E.g. The door is opened by me.

III. The REFLEXIVE VOICE = The SUBJECT does an action which is reflected
upon him/her/itself.
Form: Subject + Verb + Reflexive Pronoun.
Reflexive Pronouns:
1st and 2nd person Personal Pronouns in the Genitive + [-self/-selves]:
 Myself, yourself, ourselves, yourselves;
rd
3 person Personal Pronouns in the Accusative/Dative + [-self/-selves]:
Himself. Herself, itself.
E.g. He washes him. – The ACTIVE VOICE (e.g. father-baby relationship)
He washes himself. – The REFLEXIVE VOICE

IV. The FACTITIVE VOICE = The SUBJECT (“Intellectual” Agent)

asks/makes/has someone else (“Physical” Agent) do something out of which
the Subject profits.
Form: Subject + TO HAVE/TO GET + Object + Verb(3rd form)
E.g. I cut my hair every month. – The ACTIVE VOICE
I have my hair cut every month. – The FACTITIVE VOICE (= my hair was cut by a
hairstylist)

THE SUBJUNCTIVE
DEFINITION: The SUBJUNCTIVE is the mood of subjectivity and unreal
statements, unlike the INDICATIVE which is the reality mood.

I. The SUBJUNCTIVE may be required by Impersonal Predications, such as: It is +

adjective (natural, obvious, remarkable, advisable etc.). In that case, there are 2
types of Subjunctive:
1) The BRITISH SUBJUNCTIVE: Subject + SHOULD + Verb (Short Infinitive):
It is natural that he should leave.
2) The AMERICAN SUBJUNCTIVE: Subject + Verb(Short Infinitive):
It is natural that he leave.

II. The SUBJUNCTIVE required by:

WISH, AS IF (=AS THOUGH), WOULD (‘D) RATHER, IT IS (HIGH) TIME, IF ONLY.
In this case, the SUBJUNCTIVE is expressed by means of Temporal Relationships:
Simultaneity: PAST SIMPLE
Anteriority: PAST PERFECT SIMPLE
Posteriority: FUTURE IN THE PAST SIMPLE
E.g.: I wish they were here.
They behave as if they had forgotten.
If only they would come!