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A REVIEW OF THE MODELS FOR PNEUMATIC TIRE STRESS ANSLYSIS

Article · February 2009

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A REVIEW OF THE MODELS FOR PNEUMATIC TIRE STRESS ANSLYSIS
You-Shan Wang1, Zhi-Bo Cui1, Jian Wu2
1
Center for Composite Materials and Structure, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
2
Center for Rubber Composite Materials, Harbin Institute of Technology, Wei Hai, China

ABSTRACT

Recent years, the theory and methods for pneumatic tire analysis have some developments,
however, there are few papers on the review of these progress. So, this paper is devoted to review
the publications on the models for pneumatic tire stress analysis. Firstly, a basic description of
radial tires and bias tires structures is done. According to the different analysis mediums, the
models are divided into three categories: physical models, energy models and numerical models.
Then the detailed reviews are given on netting model, membrane model, shell model, composite
material model, string model, elliptic cord shape model, and piston-cord model, the last three
models are newly proposed. The basic progress of stress calculation and geometric formulas are
given, and followed by brief comments. The application of FEA models on tire static mechanics,
rolling and other aspects are mentioned, but not detailed. Finally, a conclusion is drawn.

INTRODUCTION

Thomson invented the first rubber tire in 1845. It was made of several different thickness
canvases, each canvas was dipped in rubber solution, and each one upon another, shaping a tube, at
last, the tube was vulcanized, as shown in Figure 1. Several years after Thomson invented the first
rubber tire, a lot of patents on solid tires and bicycle tires were made by the leading rubber
companies. In 1884, Macintosh Company applied a patent on a tire having a hollow center, which
largely accelerated the development of tire. Before long, in 1888, Dunlop invented the first
pneumatic tire, which is the beginning of modern tires 1.

FIG.1.—Thomson’s rubber tire.

At first, the pneumatic tire was diagonal (bias) tire, its body was built by several plies made of
steel or nylon, these layers were in different angels, Figure 2 shows a typical structure of bias tire.
Because of high rolling resistance, poor wear performance and a great deal of heat generation
caused by shear between plies, the bias tire is easy to be destroyed. In 1946, Michelin Company
invented the radial tire2, the plies were laid radially from bead to bead, and the number of carcass
plies in most radial tires was only one. The design increased the lifetime of tires greatly and saved
material obviously. Now, most of car and truck tires are radial, only a few agricultural vehicle tires
are bias. Figure 3 shows a typical radial tire and its main components.
Tire is the only automobile part that in contact with ground, the main functions are supporting
load, transmitting driving and braking torque, absorbing ground unevenness. No matter the vehicle
is stillness or moving, tire is supporting load all the time, the load contains pneumatic pressure and
vehicle weight. When the tire is working, there are centrifugal force and vibration, the forces are
more complex. All these conditions require tire to have excellent mechanic properties.

FIG.2.— The structure of bias tire.

FIG.3. —The structure of radial tire.

Tire is composed of matrix materials and reinforcements, matrix materials act as a seal and
cushion, the reinforcements are mainly responsible for the load. The properties of tire are controlled
by the material and stress of matrix and reinforcement. For example, increasing the stress in belt
will improve the wear performance3, increasing the stress of carcass will raise the stiffness of
sidewall4, and the others. So a lot of researches are carried out in this area. Because of the
complicated structure of tire, it must be simplified into simple model, which is physical and
geometric model, the tire stress and other properties can be obtained based on these models.
Improving tire performance by changing material compounds was reviewed by literature5,
however, there isn’t a literature on the tire structure models in recent years. So, in this paper, the
physical and geometric models and methods for tire stress analysis are concerned. According to the
existing literature, the models and methods are divided to three categories: physical model method,
energy model method and numerical model (finite element model) method.

PHYSICAL MODELS

NETTING MODE
The netting model is used to solve the bias tires initially, it assumes the inflation pressure is
undertaken by cords entirely, the cords are inextensible, and the rubber acts as seals only6, so, the
inflatable shape is independent of inflation pressure. The cords have common points at the positions
of intersection, these points can be regard as hinge supports, as shown in Figure 4. Establishing the
coordinate system as Figure 5, the tire stress can be calculated through the netting model.
According to the netting model, using the principle of balance, the relationships of stress are
obtained as7:
 y  2Tc sin 2  (1)

 x  2Tc cos2  (2)

 y  x  tg 2 (3)

where TC is the cord stress,  y is stress along the Y-direction,  x is stress along the X-direction,

a is half of the angel between two interact cord.

FIG.4.—An element of the cord net.

 FIG.5.— Cord stress of netting model.
Equation (1), (2), (3) are the relationships between the orthogonal forces acting on the bias tire
carcass, which is first derived by Haas in 19128.
When the stress in cord is a constant, increasing a will increase  y , however,  x will be reduced,

which can be seen directly from adding equation (1) and (2):
 x    2Tc
y
(4)

If Y axis represents the radial direction of tire, when increasing a, the radial stress will also
increase, then the stiffness of sidewall will improve, that can ameliorate handling performance.
Purdy 9 obtained the tension in the cord as
tp (  2   m2 )
t  (5)
n sin a sin 

Here, t is the tension in the cord,  is the radius,  m is the radius of outmost point, p is the

inflation pressure on the tire inner surface, n is the total number of carcass cords, a is the cord angel
with circumference circle,  is the contour angel with rotation axis. That also introduced in

literature10,11.
The netting model is also used to guide the manufacturing process. In the beginning of tire
manufacturing process, the plies are winding on building drum, all cords have the same radius r0
and a, as the pressure acting on the plies outside drum, plies will swell, the radius of cords and
angels between neighbor cords become different. According to the above equations, different angels
will cause different stress, so, how the angel will change with radius increase should be obtained.
 Figure 4 is a schematic diagram of cord net,  is the circumferential angel between two points,

it is a constant when the number of cords are given, l is the length between neighboring points, d
is the vertical length between two neighboring parallel cords, r is the radius of interaction points.
If l is assumed to be constant, it can be obtained:
l  r  cos a (r )  rD  cos aD  const (6)

r r
 D (7)
cos a (r ) cos aD
This is the cosine rule.
Where rD is the radius of drum, aD is the half angel between neighboring cords at drum, a(r) is the
half angel between neighboring cords with radius increasing.
When d is assumed to be constant, it can be given:
d ( r )  2r  sin a ( r )  2rD  sin aD  const (8)

r sin a ( r )  rD sin aD (9)

This is the sine rule 12-15.

When the area of rhombus A which is formed by four interaction nodes is a constant, the
following equitation can be obtained:
1
A(a (r ))  (2r  ) 2 tan a (r )  2(rD  ) 2 tan aD  const (10)
2

r 2 tan a (r )  rD 2 tan aD (11)

This is the tangent rule16.
Substituting equation (7) into equations (1) and (2), the stress changes with radius can be
expressed as:
r2 2 rD2  r 2 cos2  D
 y (7)  2Tc (1  cos  D )  2Tc (12)
rD2 rD2
2
r 2
 x ( 7 )  2TC 2
cos  D (13)
rD
Of course, we can also combine equations (9) or (11) with equations (1) and (2), two different
relationships will be derived as:
 y (9) 
rD2 2T sin 2  (14)
r2 c D

rD
2
2 r 2  rD2 sin 2  D
 x (9 )  2TC (1  2 sin  D )  2TC (15)
r r2

r4 rD4 tan 4 a
 y (11)  2Tc (1  )  2Tc D
(16)
r  rD tan a
4 4 4
D
r 4  rD4 tan 4 a D
  x (11)  2Tc
r4 (17)
r 4  rD4 tan 4 aD

The different rules will lead to different relationships of stress and radius, thinking about the
actual condition, l is constant, which is more in accord with reality.
The netting model has some shortages, for example, it cannot calculate the radial tire belt force,
because the stress distribution cannot be determined between the layers of cords; it can only
calculate the symmetrical load, inflation pressure and centrifugal force; the netting analysis cannot
include the stiffening effects of stress, and other shortages are detailed in the literature 17.

MEMBRANE MODEL

In the membrane model, tire is assumed to be a rotating flexible film body, as shown in Figure 6.
It assumes that the tire is uniform, thickness is unique everywhere and very small, and there are no
differences between rubber and reinforcements, the membrane only subjects to pneumatic pressure.

FIG.6.— The membrane structure of the pneumatic tire.

Tire structure is axisymmetric, applying the basic equation of linear membrane structure18,19,
1  (Tr ) N 
  T cos   p r  0 (18)
r  

1  ( N r ) T
  N cos   p r  0 (19)
r  

N N
 p (20)
r r

Because the shear stress in plane is zero, the relationship of meridional and circumferential
forces can be expressed as20:
N 
 p r  0 (21)

 1  ( N r )
 N cos   p r  0 (22)
r 

where  ,  are meridional and circumferential angels, N and N are meridional and circumferential

membrane force in unit length, r and r are the meridional and circumferential radius of tire profile,

T is the shear stress, r is the distance from rotating axis, p is inflation pressure, p , p , pv are load

components in direction of the tangent of parallel circle, meridian tangent and normal to the surface.
The equation (20) is very important, researchers deduced many useful theories using it. Clark17
assumed the elliptic function as meridian profile, the radius of tire profile and membrane force
become:
z 2 r  rw 2
( ) ( ) 1 (23)
a b
4 2 2 2 3 2
[b  ( a  b )( r  rw ) ]
r  4
(24)
ab
4 2 2 2 1 2
r[b  ( a  b )( r  rw ) ]
r  (25)
a ( r  rw )
p(r  rw )[b 4  (a 2  b 2 )(r  rw )2 ]1 2
N  (26)
2ar
2 2
p[2r (a  b )( r  rw )  b4 ]
N  (27)
2a[b 4  ( a 2  b2 )(r  rw )2 ]1 2
Here a, b are half length of ellipse horizontal and vertical axis, r is the distance from rotating
axis, rw is vertical distance from rotating axis of the widest point in tire section. These are helpful on
the strength and stress analysis of tire. However, sometimes the hypothesis of ellipse profile is
incorrect, specifically when the tire has lower aspect ratio.
Ghoreishy 21 used the membrane theory to calculate the tire stress, he defined the meridian
section as shown in Figure 7.
The stress in membrane can be derived from equation (18), (19) and (20) ,and utilizing the
meridian curve. The tire meridian curve is


Z = f ( y )dy (28)

where y and z are the coordinate axis in Figure 7 .

According to literature22, the parameters are defined as

N  (
y'
) N
y cos  (29)

N  (
y cos 
) N (30)
y'
where N and N are the reduced stress.
 

FIG.7. —Tire meridian section curve and coordinate.

The inflation pressure is perpendicular to the surface, which will lead to the relationship
p  p  0 (31)

Substituting equations (30), (31) into equations (21), (22), (23), rewriting the equations as
 N
0 (32)


 N
 y  y ' pv  0 (33)
z

N 
 y ''  2
N   [1  ( y ') ] p v  0
y (34)
The boundary condition can be regarded as
f ( yB )  0 (35)

where yB is the widest point of tire meridian section. Substituting equation (35) into equations (32),
(33),(34), the force can be written as
2 2
pv ( y  y B ) 2
N  1  f ( y) (36)
2y f ( y)

2 2 2
pv y 1  f ( y ) 1 ( y  y B ) f '( y ) 1
N  [1    2
] (37)
f ( y) 2y f ( y) 1  f ( y)
The tire meridian curve had the form21,23
 2 1
2 2 2 ra 2
( y  y B )[ct 2
 y ]2
cos a
Z   f ( y )dy   2 2 2 2
2
ra 2 2 2 2 2
2
ra 2
dy
( ra  y B ) ( ct 2
 ra )  ( y  y B ) ( ct 2
y )
cos a (38) cos a
According to the equations (36), (37)and (38), the distribution of membrane force can be
calculated, the author use an example to reveal the rule of distribution as shown in Figure 8, bigger
changes in circumferential force and little in meridian force was observed.

FIG.8.— Membrane force changes with radius

24
Walter combined the membrane and netting model together to study the centrifugal effects in
inflated, rotating bias-ply tires. Assuming the tire is loaded by inner pressure and centrifugal force,
tire membrane model has mass, and it was rotating in an angular velocity, the segment is shown in
Figure 9.

FIG.9. —Segment of meridian curve loaded by internal pressure and centrifugal force.
Because of the rotating centrifugal force, rewriting the equation (20) as 25
 N N mr  2 2

  p (39)
r r r

2 2
( r  r )
N   pr 2
(40)
2r
The material in tread is much thicker than sidewall, so assuming the mass distribution in tread is
m1 in unit length, and m2 in unit length of sidewall, defining the mass distribution as
m ( 
1 s
   1)
m  (41)
m ( 
2 b
   s )
where
rs
s 
rc

rb
b  ,
rc
rs is radial distance from axis of revolution to tread-sidewall junction (shoulder), rc is radial distance
from axis of revolution to crown, rb is radial distance from axis of revolution to bead.
Assuming the cord carries entire force, using tire profile curve and netting theory, the expression
of cord force can be obtained as
2 2
  pr
c
[(1   w ) cos  c  m1  ( (  )   (1))]
(  s    1)
 2 2
N (1   sin  s )
 (42)
T 
2 2

  pr
c
[(1   w ) cos  c  m1  (( (  w )   (1))  m2  ( (  )   (  s ))]
( b     s )
 2
N (1   sin  c )
2

here,  is the angle between cords and meridian plane at the crown, N is the total number of cords,
c

 (  ) is the function which occurs in dynamic equilibrium contour equation and formula of cord

2
load,  is the geometry and load parameter that equal to ( rc p ).

There are some studies26-28on tire shape and shear stress using membrane model, not detailed
here. Most of them combined the netting model and membrane model, which can simple problems,
and results are more accurate.
There are some limitations in the membrane model, it neglects thickness and bending stiffness of
carcass; assumes the tire as a uniform film, however, it is not uniform in fact absolutely; it cannot
calculate the stress and strain of the belt layer.
To a certain extent, the membrane theory has played an important role in guiding the tire design,
a lot of useful results are derived from it.

SHELL MODEL
 The membrane model comes from shell model. The shell model contains the moment, space
stress, and structure stiffness, which is more advanced than membrane model. The shell element is
shown in Figure 9. It is more complex compared with membrane element. However, it is much
closer to the real.

FIG.10.—The force and moment of shell element.

Shell model also assumes the tire as a uniform structure, using the basic balance theory, the force
can be obtained as:
  R 
( N R2 sin  )  ( N R1 )  N 1  N ( R sin  )  Q R2 sin   p R1 R2 sin   0 (43)
    2
   R
( N R1 )  ( N R2 sin  )  N ( R2 sin  )  N 1  Q R1 sin   p R1 R2 sin   0 (44)
   
 
(Q R2 sin  )  (Q R1 )  N R2 sin   N R1 sin   pz R1R2 sin   0 (45)
 
  R 
( M  R2 sin  )  (M  R1 )  M  1  M  ( R sin  )  Q R1 R2 sin   0 (46)
    2
   
( M  R1 )  ( M  R2 sin  )  M  ( R sin  )  M   Q R1 R2 sin   0 (47)
   2 
M M
N  N      0 (48)
R1 R2

where R1and R2 are the radius of the shell, N is the in-plane stress, M is the moment,  and  are the

coordinate direction, Q is the force along Z direction.

Bozdog and Olson29-31 developed an advanced shell model for tire. Basing the equations (43-48),
applying the numerical partial differentials method to get an analytical solution, the tire section
profile is in Figure 11.
 FIG.11.—Cross sections comparing solutions.
The Bozdog’s solution are very similar with Brewer’s32 at the crown, there are some pronounced
differences in the sidewall. He thought his results are more accurate, because Brewer’s model does
not deviate from the original shape significantly until midway along the carcass. He also analyzed
the stress and strain, force and moment, and the result paralleled Brewer’s work, although the
solution methods were used considerably different.
Tridib33 had used shell model to calculate the stress of rolling tire, he made the assumptions that
all points lying on the middle surface, the normal is vertical to the surface before and after
deformation; for all kinematic relations, the distance of a point from middle surface is considered to
be unaffected by the deformations; the stress along radius direction can be negligible compared with
the stress in other two directions. From these assumptions, combining with the force balance of
shell element, which are defined in Figure 12, and made tire as a thin shell, the basic relationships
are obtained as equations (49-54).

FIG.12.—The force and moment of tire shell model element

D
N  ( v  w   u ') (49)
a
 D
NX  (u '  v   w) (50)
a

D (1   )
N X  N X   (u  v ') (51)
2a

K
M     w '')
(w (52)
2
a

K
MX   )
( w ''  w (53)
2
a

K (1   ) 
M  X  M X  2
w' (54)
a

Eh
D 2
(55)
1
3
Eh
K  2
(56)
12(1   )

where M X , M  are the moments of unit length in X and  direction respectively, M X  is the twisting

moment of unit length in X direction on the plane with normal in  direction, N X and N are normal

force of unit length in X and  direction, N X is shearing force of unit length in X direction on the

plane with normal in  direction, u, v and w are the deflection in axial, tangential and radial direction,
a is radius of the middle belt,  is Poisson's ratio of the shell material, h is the thickness of shell, E is
modulus of elasticity of the shell material.
He used the equations to get the static stress and dynamic stresses, the results are more complex,
not detailed here, he made several calculation example compared with experiment, the differences
are very small, such as Figure 13.

FIG.13.— Load-deformation characteristic of the 7.50X14 Radial Tire.

 When considering of the shear, moment and material characterizes, the calculation becomes
complicated, however, this can be closer to the real. The shell model is more advanced than others.
Because tire is a highly nonlinear assembly, its materials and structures are both nonlinear, which
makes the linear shell theory cannot be used to solve tire problem accurately17.

COMPOSITE MATERIAL MODEL

Since tire is composed by rubber matrix and reinforcing material, it is a composite structure in
fact. Rubber material is matrix, wire or nylon cord is reinforcements. The composite material model
makes the rubber material and reinforcing material as a whole, using the composite material
mechanics to analysis the tire, the model is shown as Figure 14.

FIG.14.— Composite material model of pneumatic tire.

It is mainly based on the composite material mechanics 34, the basic theory can be expressed as
N  A110  A120  A16 
0
 B11 K  B12 K  B16 K (57)

N  A120  A220  A26 

0
 B12 K  B22 K  B26 K (58)

N  A160  A260  A66

0
 B16 K  B26 K  B66 K (59)

M   B110  B120  B16

0
 D11 K  D12 K  D16 K (60)

M   B12 0  B220  B26

0
 D12 K  D22 K  D26 K (61)

M   B160  B260  B66

0
 D16 K  D26 K  D66 K (62)

where N , N  , N , M  , M  , M   are defined as equation (49-54), the Aij is the stiffness of tension,

Dij is the stiffness of bending, Bij is the stiffness of coupling, it is the bridge of tension and bending,
i, j are equal to 1,2,3 alternately. If the matrix B is not equal to zero, when stretching, the bending
will occur35, such as Figure 15.
 FIG.15.— Coupled extensional and torsional deformation for a composite plane.
35
Akasaka calculated the compliance matrix[C], one of the parameters is given by:
3 3
C xs  2[(1  vL ) EL ]cos  sin   2[(1  vT ) ET ]sin  cos  
(63)
(1 GLT ) sin  cos  (cos 2   sin 2  )  (2 ET ) cos 3  sin  (2  tan 2  )

Here Cxs is the compliance parameter coupled tension with shear, vL and vT are the Poisson’s ratio

along and perpendicular to the cord direction, ET and EL are the corresponding Young’s modulus,
 is the angel between two plies.
According to the Equation (63), when   54.7 , Cxs=0, the couple deformation will vanish. That
will reduce the strain of the rubber between two plies.
Puppo36 and McGinty37 studied the interlinear shear in the laminated composites under
generalized plane stress, they divided the laminate composite into three lyers, as Figure 16.

FIG.16. —Laminate description

They considered the effects of cord diameters, and obtained the strain and stress equation.

 
2
 P (1  v )  1 t P  1 
 xy  ( )  y , BE   x 1  ( )( ) v 
 PD E  2 D P  D  tan 
2

  (64)


sin 2
t
 2  (1  v ) sin 2 a  ( )( P

 1
) cos a 
2
cosh sy
cosh sw
 
 D PD 
 2
2(1  v ) P  D sin 
s ( ) (65)
tD P t PD
2  (1  v ) sin 2   ( )( ) cos 2 
D P
here P is the cable pace; a is the angle of the cable relative to the X coordinate; D is the cable
diameter and also the lamina thickness; E is the modulus of rubber; v is Poisson’s ratio of rubber; tis
t is rubber layer thickness;  y , BE is the belt lateral stress.

If giving the parameters values, making one parameter as a variable, the effects on interlaminate
shear strain are different, the example is shown in Figure 17.

FIG.17.—Effects of parameter variation of shear strain

The theory of composite material can be used to analysis tire, Walter38 had written a review of
composite material theory that used to tire in 1973. He introduced the fundamentals of composite
material technology, and the application in cord-rubber systems of pneumatic tire. The stiffness of
multi-ply system are determined, and discussed the effects of coupling between bending and
stretching. Through the basic theory, he analyzed the stiffness parameters that related to wear,
envelopment, vibration, and stress of tire. Clark39 also had a study on the cord-rubber plane elastic
characteristics.
In the literature40, the author introduced the elastic of cord, rubber, cord-rubber composite, and
the mechanics of one-ply, multi-ply composite structure, and more detailed in the limitation of the
theory. Most of the studies before 1981 were all in this paper.
Most of the composite material models are used to analysis ports of tire and few on the whole.
There are some new studies on the application of the composite theory to pneumatic. Padovan41
studied the end effects in twisted cord-rubber composite material and the load, moment transfer
ratio, the study found the load twist coupling property is very significant for prototypical twisted
cord, the transfer rate is modestly decreased with growing load-twist coupling. Shigo RAO42 studied
the mechanical properties of single cord-rubber composite belt, single belt with various cord angles
display three different deformation stages typically, nonlinear deformation with decreasing stiffness
at beginning, then linear stress-strain behavior and a nearly linear deformation stage with increased
stiffness at last. The fatigue of rubber-cord composite was also investigated by literature43-46,
inter-ply shear strain of 2-ply ‘tire belt’ composite laminate under circumferential tension was
affected by twisting of specimen due to tension-bending coupling, and the delamination and
debonding are independent of configuration of belt, the increase of inter-ply rubber thickness
lengthens their fatigue lifetime in an intermediate level of stress amplitude, and the fatigue lifetime
at different temperatures are tested, S-N curve are shown in Figure 18, the max principle stress is
liner relationship to lifetime. Pidaparti47-54 carried out a series of researches on the stiffness, stress,
deformation and fracture of rubber-cord composite, they found that there is a 150% increase in
extension-twisting stiffness when the cord-to-rubber modulus increases from 1000 to 10000, and
rubber thickness surrounding cord has a strong effect on the values of maximum deformations and
stress distributions. Jamshidi55 invented a fatigue method to evaluate the cord-rubber adhesion
strength, the authors produced a heat chamber to improve dynamic test and failure behavior of
cord-rubber composites. Cord-rubber debonding is a phenomenon of tire failure, which is detailed
in literature56-58, when using the composite material model to analysis tire, the core-rubber adhesion
must be concerned.

FIG.— S-N data with MAC2-SVI under three different ambient temperatures.
The composite model considered different materials of various parts of the tire, reflect the
authenticity of the tire structure more accurately, especially in analyzing the belt and other portion,
it is more efficient in calculating the stiffness of tire.
However, the composite material theory must combine with the shell theory, the calculation
process is more complex; assuming the cord-rubber structure to be linear elastic, however, it is
nonlinear when large deformation; assuming the cord and rubber are adhesive tightly, there are
many defects in fact.
Overall, the composite material offers an better method to analysis the inner stress of tire, it
cannot be compared by any model before.
 STRING MODEL

The string model divided tire into N identical sections, N is the number of carcass cords, and
each section contains only one cord. Inflated tire is an axisymmetric geometry structure, and stress
boundary conditions are also axisymmetric, so, the structure can be simplified to be planar situation
59
. Setting the plane loads on the string model, the stress analysis of one cord section is simplified to
two-dimension. The schematic diagram of string model is shown in Figure16.
The netting model, membrane model, shell model and composite material model can be used to
both radial tires and bias tires, however, the string model only can be used to analysis radial tires.

FIG.19.—The tire force of string model and coordinate system.

rim rim bead
In Figure 19, Rz , R y are the constraint forces of rim along z and y direction; Fz is the bead

body crown crown

force along z direction; TA is the carcass force of crown at point A; Fz and Fy are the forces
acting on crown by belt; p(z) is the equivalent inflation pressure acting on string model; point C is
the widest position of tire section; point A is the tire highest point; D is the outermost point of belt
region that contacting with carcass; E is the outermost efficient point of the belt force acting on
carcass; Q is a point between point B and E; r is radius of point on the carcass;  is the angle
between normal direction of carcass and y axis.
The string model only contains one cord, and its forces are in plane, simplifying the inflation
pressure p on the string, the string undertakes the inflation p(z) is:
2 P
p( z )  z (66)
N
where N is the number of cords in tire, z is the distance from tire rotating axis (y axis in Figure 19),
P is the inflation pressure on tire cavity.
Assuming the cord stress between point B and point E is a constant, namely
dt
0 (67)
dz
here t is tension in one cord.
 Taking A-C segment of cord as the research object, such as Figure 20. According to the
equilibrium conditions, the result can be obtained as

body
 P( zQ2  zC2 )
TC  (68)
N sin Q

body
where TC is the tension of point C, Q is the angel between carcass normal direction at point Q

and y axis.
The sums of inflation pressure along the y and z direction are
 ( z A2  zC2 )
FyAC  P (69)
N
2 P y A
FZAC  zdy (70)
N  yC

FyAC and FZAC are the components of sum of inflation pressure acting on A-C part. yA and yC are

the vertical distances from rotating axis.

Fig.20.—The force of A-C and B-C segments

Assuming the acting point of the force is I, then the position of I can be calculated as
3 3
2( z A  z C )
zI  2 2
(71)
3( z A  zC )
yA

 yC
zydy
(72)
yI  yA

 yC
zdy

Then selecting B-C part as the research object, as Figure 20, the components of inflation pressure
can be expressed as
 ( zC2  zB2 )
FyBC  P (73)
N
2 P yC
FZBC  zdy (74)
N  yB

FyBC , FZBC are similar to FyAC and FZAC .

 Assuming the acting point of the force is L, the position L of can be calculated as
3 3
2( z C  z B )
zL  2 2
(75)
( zC  z B )
yC

 yB
zydy
(76)
yL  yC

 yB
zdy

According to the force equilibrium condition, the equilibrium equations can be obtained as
 yL FZBC  zL FyBC  yC TCbody  yG RZrim  zH Ryrim  yF FZbead  0 (77)

 FZBC  TCbody  FZbead  Rzrim  0 (78)

yL FZAC  zL FyAC  z ATAbody  yC TCbody  zE Fycrown  yD FZcrown  0 (79)

FZAC  TCbody  FZcrown  0 (80)

The bead bears the pulling force of carcass, the direction must be along the radial, it is also a
plane force, and the force is axisymmetric, such as Figure 21,

FIG.21.—The bead force.

Defining the bead force of unit length is pz, the bead force is Tbead,

bead 2 z F p z
Fz  (81)
N
bead
NFz
Tbead  z F p z  (82)
2
bead
where Fz is the force acting on bead by one cord, z F is the vertical distance between bead center
and rotating axis.
The belt force is shown in Figure 22.
 FIG.22.— The belt force.
belts
Defining the circumferential angle as  , circumferential force as T , combining the Figure 16,
the belt force can be expressed as
Fycrown  TAy
belts
0 (83)

N crown
Tbelts  F 0 (84)
2 Z

where TAybelts is belt force at point A along the tangent direction of carcass in string model.

If giving the tire structure, utilizing the equations (68-84), the force of carcass, belt, and bead can
be derived. Li Wei59 using the string model to calculate the tire stress, giving the carcass radius and
circular center position as Figure 23.

FIG.23.—The carcass curve composed by five arcs.

The radius and circular center position are given as Table I.
TABLE I
THE RADIUS AND CIRCULAR CENTER POSITION OF TIRE ARCS
ad de ec cf fb

z0,mm -1858.5 386.1 394.6 393.5 244.6

y0,mm 0 27.5 29.3 11.9 144.7

r,mm 2351.7 106 98.5 115.9 84
where z0, y0, r are the circular center position of arcs, ad, de, ec, cf, fb are the carcass arcs.
The calculation results are in Table II.
TABLE II
THE PARAMETERS OF TIRE STRING MODEL

FzAC ,N FyAC ,N zI,mm yI,mm FzBC ,N FyBC ,N zL,mm yL,mm

324.9 236.5 445.1 62.5 110.9 233.5 330.7 96.5

Substituting these parameters into string model, the force of carcass, belt, and bead can be
obtained, comparing with the finite element results, the deviation is less than 5%, which is caused
by neglecting the effects of rubber.
String model involves force at the bottom of bead, which is not calculated in the other models.
However, it also ignored the stiffness of the carcass and belt, does not considered the moment in tire,
the stress distribution in belt layer is not able to calculate.

ENERGY MODELS

ELLIPTIC MODEL

Long and Zhao 60 developed an elliptic cross-section theory named TECO (Tire Entirety
Construction Optimization).
The elliptic model assumes the inflatable profile above the rim point of radial tire is an elliptical
arc, such as Figure 24, the length of cord is constant in the tire deformation process, the shape of the
curve can be described as elliptical arc both before and after the deformation. In fact, the cord
length controls the shape. The tire stress of carcass, belt and bead are derived by the principle of
virtual work.

FIG.24.— Tire elliptic model and parameters

Where rm and rk are the distance of the widest and highest points on the elliptic model to the tire
rotating axis, RD is the distance of outermost point of belt to rotating axis, rc is the distance of rim
point to rotating axis, bD is the width of belt, a and b are half the length of elliptic axis, c is the
length of rim point to tire center axis, m and n are the distances of rim point to the top and bottom of
ellipse.
Simplifying tire force as Figure 25, P is the inflation pressure, the force acting on carcass is
replaced by external pressure.

FIG.25.—The force acting on carcass.

Assuming that there is a virtual displacement dm at the center of crown, the tire cavity volume
changes dV, internal pressure is perpendicular to the profile in the process of deformation, so the
energy storage of tire cavity increasing. Due to the smaller change of volume, it can be considered
the internal pressure P is unchanged, PdV is the virtual work of internal pressure. The contact
pressure of belt and carcass is f(x), the vertical displacement is  ( x ) , according to the virtual work

principle:
b


D

PdV  2 f ( x ) d  ( x )2 r ( x ) d ( x ) (85)

0

Assuming r ( x)  rk , d  ( x)  dm and defining the composition of contact forces as F, it can be

expressed as:
b


D

F 2 f ( x ) dx (86)
0

Substituting equation (82) into (83),

PdV  2 rk Fdm  0 (87)

PdV
Tb  rk . F 
(88)
2 dm
 Defining g(s) as pressure sharing rate of belt, it is a constant, Pb is the contact pressure as f(x).
According to the definition,
F
Pb  (89)
2bD

Pb Tb
g 
P 2bD rk P (90)

Defining the force of one cord as Tc , from the Figure 26, it can be derived.

Fig.26. The schematic diagram of carcass force

The pressure acting on the carcass under belt is P-Pb, so Tc can be expressed as
2 2 2 2
 P[( RD  rm )  (1  g)(rk  RD )]
T 
C
(91)
N
The bead force is shown in Figure 27, assuming bead only subjects the tension caused by
carcass, B is the bead pressure of unit length, Tb is the circumferential tension of bead.

FIG.27.—The schematic diagram of bead force.

 According to equilibrium principle, the pressure and force can be derived as

N TC
B 
2  rB (92)

P
TBead  [ RD 2  rm 2  (1  g )( rk 2  RD 2 )] (93)
2
Here B is the pressure acting on the bead, TBead is the force in the bead. If giving the structure

parameters of tire, using equations (85-93) to calculate the tire force is very simple. The theory can
guide the tire design effectively. They also used this theory to solve other actual problems 61-64, and
achieved good results.
The calculation process of elliptic cord shape model is simple, however, the hypothesis of
elliptic cord shape is not satisfied when the tire has a large width and this model cannot obtain the
inner stress of tire. This model is very convenient in strength calculation.

PISTON-CORD MODEL

KOUTNÝ16 developed a piston-cord model to calculate the tire cord force. This model assumes
that the volume of cavity controls the cord stress, the changes of carcass cord length and the shape
of belt will affect the volume of cavity. The model contains a piston and a cord as Figure 28.

FIG.28.—Piston cord model of pneumatic tire.

When a force F(x) is acting on the cord, the piston will go down, the cavity will become small,
inner air will be compressed, and cord will be elongation. The initial distance of the piston from
bottom is h, the area of the bottom is A, the initial inflation pressure is pa, it is the atmospheric
pressure, the displacement of piston is x. Assuming the compression is isotherm. According to the
Boyle law, the product PV is a constant, so the inner pressure can be obtained when the piston has a
displacement x, namely p(x),
p ( x )  pa h / ( h  x ) 0 xh (94)

The overpressure is
p ( x )  pa  pa ( h / ( h  x )  1) (95)

The pull force acts on the piston is

F ( x )  Apa h / (h  x) (96)

The initial length of the cord is l, the elongation is l ( x) due to the force F(x), the elasticity

constant of the cord is k, so

F ( x )  k l ( x) (97)

The work accumulated in the cord is

Wcord ( x )  (k / 2)l 2 ( x)  (k / 2)( F ( x) / k ) 2  ( Apa x / (h  x )) 2 / (2k ) (98)

The work accumulated in the compressed air in cylinder is

x x x
x xhh h
Wair ( x )    F ( x )dx   Apa  dx   Apa  dx  Apa [ x  h ln ] (99)
0 0 hx 0 hx hx

The quotient of equations (98) and (99)

Wcord ( x ) Apa ( x / h) 2
Q( x)   2
(100)
Wair ( x ) 2kh (1  x / h) (ln(1  x / h)  x / h)

Making an example of 445/65R22.5 tire, the carcass equator is 544 mm and the volume enclosed
by the carcass is 0.230012 m3. The carcass cord tension due to the pressure 900kPa is 333N. If
the belts were removed, assuming he carcass equator radius is 623mm, the increased volume is
0.263122m3. The inflation pressure reduced to 774kPa, the cord tension is 284.66N. The total
energy of the compressed air contained in the cavity of the free carcass is 502.534 kJ and in the cord
is 1.440 kJ after compression.
The model was used to calculate tension of belt and carcass in radial tires as in diagonal tires 66,67.
The model of carcass and belt in radial tires are shown in Figure 29 and Figure 30.
Fig. 29 is the carcass model of radial pneumatic tire. When F(x) goes down l , total numbers of
carcass cords is m, t donates the tension of carcass, according to the energy equilibrium (the first
law of thermodynamics),
V ( l l )
(101)
mt l 2  Wcord ( x )  Wair ( x )   
V (l )
p(V )dV

The Boyle law implies that

V (l l )
V (l  l )
  p(V )dV   p(V (l ))V (l )ln  p(V (l ))(V (l )  V (l  l )) (102)
V (l )
V (l )

Therefore, if m denotes the total numbers of carcass cords,

 V (l )  V (l  l ) 2 dV (l )
t  lim p(V (l ))  p(V (l )) (103)
 l 0 l m dl

FIG.29.—Piston-cord model of carcass tension in radial pneumatic tire.

FIG.30.—Piston-cord model of belt tension in radial pneumatic tire.

If the belt shorten 2RA as Figure 30, the belt tension can be derived similarly67-69,

V ( R  R)  V ( R) 1 dV ( R)
T ( R)  lim p(V (l ))  p(V ( R)) (104)
R  0 2R 2 dR
The piston model does not contain the effects of materials, it is a simple calculation relatively,
however, the calculation of tire volume is more difficult and it cannot calculate three-dimensional
stress and the stress distribution of belt.
 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

Finite element method is widely used in many areas, also in tire analysis. The main principle of
the finite element method is dividing objects into small portions. Then, according to mechanical
equilibrium conditions and compatibility condition, integrating the portions into a whole, using the
boundary conditions to solve the equations, the results of all points are obtained, ultimately.
At first, the FEA models are only used to static mechanics analysis of tire, including inflation
and static loading70-78,such as Figure 31,then extending to rolling analysis79-89, such as Figure 32,
rolling resistance and temperature prediction 89-95, and other aspect96-100, almost containing all tire
performance analysis. The FEA model is not detailed in here.

FIG.31.— Finite element model of pneumatic tire under large side-tipping condition.

FIG.32.— Finite element model of pneumatic tire under steady rolling condition.
 The FEA models are very convenient for tire analysis, and there are a lot of FEA softwares, for
example ABAQUS (the most widely used), ANSYS, MARK, MSC.SOFTWARE, HYPERWORKS
and so on101, and the calculation results are also very accurate. While some complicated models
need a long time for calculation, with the development of computer science the calculation time will
be substantially reduced.

CONCLUSIONS
Pneumatic tire is a very complex composite structure, simplifying it to a single material is not
very accurate certainly, however, it can be guidance in general. The physical model will develop to
composite shell, not a simple material shell, it still has not been studied. The FEA model will
become dominant increasingly, and the calculation will become more and more accurate with the
development of math and computer.
This review has concerned on the theory calculation and model analysis mainly, few on the
specific tire structure analysis, at the same, many other papers and research interests are omitted,
because the purpose is to describe the models for tire stress analysis, and analysis methods in a lot
of papers are similar, most are the expand of models mentioned in this paper, just some changes in
formulas, however, the foundation are the models above.
In recent years, the theory of tire structure analysis has no great development, however, the FEA
method is applied to all aspects of tire researches. In a long time, the FEA model will be the most
widely used method in tire analysis. But there are also some problems need to be solved, for
example: (1) the geometric models become larger, the meshes become more, if there is a slight error
in each calculation step, total error becomes very large, how to assure the accuracy of FEA results;
(2) how to design experiments to verify the calculation results, now, many data cannot be obtained
by experiment ;(3) when the results are obtained, how to determine the results are good or bad for
tire performance, in other words, how to find the criterion; (4) automatic optimization is a trend in
tire design, how to reduce the amount of computation; (5) how to combine multiple physical fields
together in the tire analysis, for example, combining temperature with mechanics or acoustics, in
fact, this interaction is very important to tire lifetime and performance; (6) how to develop a theory
taking into account the stiffness of bead and belt, and the effects of temperature and material on tire
performance.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author thanks all people who contributed to this review. They are ZHAO Jian-ming
(Shanghai Double Coin Tire Co.), Long You-ming (Shanghai Double Coin Tire Co.), Liu Lian-bo
(Shandong Ling Long Tire Co.), Wang Yan-lin (Shandong Triangle Rubber Co.), Jiang Zhong-kai
(Guizhong Rubber & Tire Co.).

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