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Submarine Volcanism:
a Review of the Constraints, Processes and Products,
and Relevance to the Cabo de Gata Volcanic Succession
RAYMOND A.F. CAS (*) & GUIDO GIORDANO (**)
pared with air, and the intensity is attenuated exponen- matic explosive eruptions should be more energetic than
tially with distance away from source (RESNYANSKY & rhyolitic ones, unless magmatic volatiles also play a part
DELANEY, 2006). in driving the explosive eruption. Conversely, when
magma is super-cooled by direct contact with liquid
water, it is instantaneously chilled through the glass
PROPERTIES OF MAGMA THAT AFFECT ITS ERUPTION transition temperature, to form glass. However, this
BEHAVIOUR IN SUBMARINE ENVIRONMENTS instantaneous phase transition imposes contractional
strain on the rock, causing a network of contractional
MAGMA COMPOSITION cracks and fractures to propagate through the rock, as
the rock quench fragments to hyaloclastite breccia (CAS
Most submarine volcanic eruptions are basaltic in & WRIGHT, 1987; MCPHIE et alii, 1993; WATTON et alii,
composition, varying from MORB, to island arc basalts, 2013).
to intra-plate alkalic compositions. It is usually only
where thickened island arc crust is involved in magma VISCOSITY OF MAGMAS ERUPTED IN SUBMARINE ENVIRON-
generation that more evolved, even rhyolitic compositions MENTS
are represented (WRIGHT et alii, 2006). With this comes
increasing magma viscosity and volatile contents. Silicic The confining hydrostatic pressure of deep-water
magmas have greater viscosity and strength than mafic environments acts to retard the exsolution of volatiles at
magmas, largely because of their higher silica content. the eruption depths. Current thinking is that CO2, which
Dissolved magmatic water has the effect of reducing is many times less soluble in silicate melts than water
magma viscosity, and when volatile exsolution occurs, the (fig. 3), has little effect on the viscosity of magma when
magma viscosity increases. dissolved in it (WALLACE & ANDERSON, 2000). CO2 will
exsolve at depth before H2O does. Dissolved magmatic
VOLATILE CONTENTS AND THEIR SOLUBILITY IN SILICATE
H2O has the effect of reducing magma viscosity by break-
MAGMAS
ing Si-O bonds. It exsolves readily under lower confining
pressures. Therefore the viscosities of magmas erupted in
Oceanic basaltic magmas have low overall volatile deep water, where hydrostatic pressures are high, will be
contents compared with more evolved magmas, with car- significantly lower than for a compositionally identical
bon dioxide and water being important in most cases one erupted in shallow water, and one erupted in subaer-
(HEAD & WILSON, 2003). H2O is more soluble than CO2 in ial settings from which volatiles can readily exsolve. This
silicate melts, irrespective of composition (fig. 3). Dis- will affect the rheology of erupting magmas, perhaps the
solved volatiles are important in two ways. First they have eruption style and its ability to vesiculate, given that vis-
the potential to drive explosive eruptions if abundant cous strength is one of the retarding factors to volatile
enough and if the vapour pressure they exert is suffi- exsolution, and vesicle growth (SPARKS, 1978).
ciently high to exceed the ambient confining pressure. Suspended solids such as crystals tends to increase
Secondly, dissolved magmatic volatiles strongly influence the bulk viscosity of magma at high crystal content levels
the viscosity of magmas, CO2 increasing magma viscosity, (~40%; SPERA, 2003). The effect of vesicles on magma
or having no effect, and H2O lowering it, relative to anhy- rheology depends largely on the competition between
drous compositional equivalents. However, CO2 is much shearing forces that tend to deform bubbles and the
less soluble in silicate magmas than H2O and exsolves resisting surface tension at the interface between magma
and separates from rising magma before and at greater and bubble. For small bubbles, the surface tension pre-
depth than does H2O (WALLACE & ANDERSON, 2000). vails, as well as where the high viscosity of magma pre-
vents development of high internal shear rates. In such
THERMAL ENERGY OF MAGMA cases bubbles act more like solids and enhance viscosity.
By contrast, where bubbles are large or a magma with
When basaltic lava at 1200°C cools to 0°C (DT = vesicles is experiencing high internal shear (e.g. in a flow
1200°C) approximately 4.3×109 J m-3 of thermal energy is banding regime, or where there is a shear gradient along
released. By contrast rhyolitic lava at 900°C releases the margins of the conduit), then because the bubbles are
approximately 2.6×109 J m-3 of thermal energy when it deformable they act as a lubricant, enhancing the shear
cools to 0°C (DT = 900°C) (HÖSKULDSSON & SPARKS, rate and lowering the bulk viscosity of the magma
1997). This suggests that basaltic phreatic/phreatomag- (SPERA, 2003).
366 R.A.F. CAS & G. GIORDANO
SUBMARINE ERUPTION PROCESSES, ing occurs and a network of contractional cooling cracks
STYLES AND THEIR PRODUCTS propagate inwards from the surface of the magma into
the body of the magma as the magma-glass phase transi-
As with subaerial eruptions, submarine eruptions tion front propagates inward. The magma thus fragments
range from effusive and lava forming to explosive. in a process called quench fragmentation, or cooling con-
Although shallow water eruptions have been witnessed traction granulation/fragmentation, due to the thermal
and their processes and products have been studied, this shock that the magma is subjected to. Using thermal
becomes more difficult in deep-water because of the remanent magnetization studies (TRM) to determine the
inaccessibility of submarine volcanoes, their vents and temperatures at which hyaloclasts formed in the Cabo de
deposits. Nonetheless, limited imagery of eruptions and Gata volcanic sequence, PORRECA et alii (2014) showed
their products, combined with uplifted submarine vol- that quench fragmentation can occur in the centre of sub-
canic rocks, and the application of physical principles marine lavas as they continue to cool well below the glass
have provided a reasonably good understanding of transition temperature, even down to temperatures of
processes and products. However, in spite of significant 210oC. The deposit resulting from quench fragmentation
advances, our understanding of many processes and is an aggregate of in-situ jigsaw-fit to clast-rotated glassy
the physical factors that affect submarine volcanism still debris called “hyaloclastite” (PICHLER, 1965; KOKELAAR,
lags considerably behind our understanding of subaerial 1986; CAS & WRIGHT, 1987; CAS, 1992; MCPHIE et alii,
volcanism. 1993). Quench fragmentation per se is not explosive.
Magma may also vesiculate to high levels in subma-
LAVA FORMING ERUPTIONS rine environments without explosive fragmentation if the
vesicle growth rate is slow, caused by a low volatile over-
(a) Non-explosive interaction between magma and water pressure. Highly vesicular pillow lava (e.g. >50% vesicles)
can form at depths of 4 kms, (DIXON et alii, 1997) and
Subaerially, lava forming eruptions can be relatively highly pumiceous felsic lavas with pumiceous carapaces
passive and effusive, or if magma viscosity is low enough can form (e.g. BINNS, 2003; ALLEN & MCPHIE, 2000;
fire fountaining may feed a lava flow. Although effusive SCUTTER et alii, 1998; ROTELLA et alii, 2013) without
submarine eruptions producing coherent lava flows explosive vesiculation or fragmentation. Whereas the
clearly occur, it is unclear if submarine fire fountaining vesiculated pumiceous lava documented by BINNS (2003)
can produce coherent lava flows, or whether given the in the Woodlark Basin occurs at depths from 700-900m,
cooling regime, chilling and even quench fragmentation the Yali dome discussed by ALLEN & MCPHIE (2000) in
of fire fountaining magma precludes spatter reconstitu- the Aegean Sea is interpreted to have erupted in relatively
tion and (clastogenic) lava formation. shallow water, of perhaps a few hundred metres.
Coherent lava flows such as basaltic pillow lavas and However, because of the dynamic nature of the
even coherent felsic lava flows and domes can be erupted magma-water interface, explosive superheating of water
on the seafloor without explosive interaction because of to steam may also occur, leading to phreatic to
the efficient, slow cooling and insulation effects provided phreatomagmatic explosive activity, as discussed below in
by “film boiling” (MILLS, 1984; WOHLETZ, 1986; ZIMA- section 2c, especially under relatively shallow water and
NOWSKI & BUTTNER, 2003; HEAD & WILSON, 2003). If a low hydrostatic pressure conditions (WOHLETZ, 1986,
sustained layer or film of steam or supercritical H2O 2003; FISKE et alii, 1998; MORRISSEY et alii, 2000; WHITE
forms at the magma-water interface, the rate of cooling of & HOUGHTON, 2000; ZIMANOWSKI & BUTTNER, 2003).
the magma may be slow enough to allow the magma at Given the high thermal energy of magma and the high
the interface to cool to form a coherent visco-plastic crust thermal conductivity and heat capacity of water, boiling
that finally cools to a glassy crust. Cooling across the and superheating of water is easily achieved.
vapour film is mostly by radiative heat loss, which is why
it is slow. The crust then also insulates the magma under (b) Coherent lavas and autoclastically fragmented lava
the crust from heat loss and direct contact with water. flows
Cooling contraction of the magma first to a visco-elastic
crust and then a solid crust is facilitated by plastic con- CAS & WRIGHT (1987), CAS (1992), MCPHIE et alii
tractional strain, hence the crust remains coherent. Once (1993) and BATIZA & WHITE (2000) have reviewed the
formed, a rigid crust could be autobrecciated by the shear characteristics of submarine lavas, including low aspect
force exerted by continued flow under the crust, produc- ratio basaltic pillow and massive sheet lavas to high
ing coarse, blocky autobreccia (CAS, 1992). aspect ratio silicic lava flows and domes. Needless to say,
However, the vapour film, being a dynamic fluid, may with increasing silica content and viscosity, lava flow
experience natural instabilities such as Taylor and Kelvin- thicknesses increase from low aspect ratio basaltic lavas
Helmholtz instabilities (e.g. WOHLETZ, 1986), leading to to thicker intermediate andesite lavas, to very thick, high
collapse of the film and allowing direct contact between aspect ratio silicic lava domes and flows. In addition, as
liquid water and magma. This would increase the cooling SiO2 content and viscosity increase, the tendency for sub-
rate of the magma at the interface, leading to “instanta- marine lavas to experience autobrecciation and quench
neous” phase transformation from hot (~1200oC for fragmentation increases. However, if significant mag-
basalt; ~900oC for rhyolite) liquid silicate magma to solid matic volatiles are retained and do not exsolve due to the
silicate glass at the interface at very high glass transition confining hydrostatic pressure at significant water depth,
(Tg) temperatures, and then cooling to ambient water the viscosity of submarine lavas will be lower than for
temperatures. The high cooling rates cause rapid volume subaerial counterparts, and the flow mobility will be
contraction, and very high contractional strain rates in higher, and their aspect ratio should be lower than for
the magma/glass. As a result, brittle contractional fractur- subaerial counterparts.
SUBMARINE VOLCANISM: A REVIEW OF THE CONSTRAINTS, PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS 367
Basaltic lavas vary from completely coherent to vari- in intensity with increasing water depth (MCBIRNEY, 1963;
ably quench fragmented pillow (e.g. fig. 4a) to massive PECKOVER et alii, 1973; KOKELAAR, 1986; CAS & WRIGHT,
sheet flows. Almost all andesitic to silicic lavas have mar- 1987; CAS, 1992; ZIMANOWSKI & BUTTNER, 2003).
ginal hyaloclastite and autobreccia, noted by transitions
from the coherent core, to an in-situ jigsaw-fit breccia to (a) Magmatic explosions
variably clast-rotated breccia textures (e.g. PICHLER,
Magmatic volatile exsolution occurs when a magma
1965; SORIANO et alii, 2013). Quench fragmentation can
rises to the Earth’s surface through lower lithostatic con-
produce finely granulated, glassy matrix between larger,
fining pressure domains, decompresses and becomes
often polygonal clasts (fig. 4b), Quench fragmentation
supersaturated with volatiles (SPARKS, 1978). In a subma-
of pumiceous carapaces can produce large volumes of
rine conduit, the hydrostatic pressure associated with
pumice hyaloclastite breccia with jig-saw fit to clast
water depth adds another confining pressure constraint
rotated texture (KUROKAWA, 1991; SCUTTER et alii, 1998;
on exsolution, and even if vesiculation occurs, to the
BINNS, 2003). Therefore pumice breccias in submarine
growth rate of vesicles formed. A magma erupting on the
settings may also be autoclastic in origin, not necessarily
deep seafloor is less likely to have experienced the same
explosive, and great care is required in distinguishing
level of H2O exsolution and vesiculation as a subaerially
pumice of different origins.
erupting, compositionally identical counterpart. How-
Lava forming eruptions can produce contemporane-
ever, basaltic magmas erupting in deep-water of several
ous or post-eruptive aprons or deltas of debris, including
kilometres may have retained some of their CO2 content,
spatter clast breccias to variably bedded aggregates of
whereas subaerial counterparts are likely to have
largely monomictic, lava derived breccias, some of which
degassed most CO2 by the time they reach the Earth’s sur-
are syn-eruptive resedimented hyaloclastite to post-erup-
face (HEAD & WILSON, 2003; DIXON et alii, 1997; CLAGUE
tive gravitational mass-flow talus apron or hyaloclastite
et alii, 2009). HEAD & WILSON (2003) propose that CO2
delta deposits resulting from grain flow, debris flow and
driven explosive eruptions of basalts are possible on the
turbidity current resedimentation (WATTON et alii, 2013;
deep sea floor, but the eruption columns are likely to be
fig. 5). Such aprons can be sourced from submarine lava
of limited magnitude. DOWNEY & LENTZ (2006) and STIX
cone or shield volcanic edifices, or from the passage of
& PHILLIPS (2012) argue that major explosive eruptions
subaerially erupted lavas entering the sea, building pro-
are possible at any water depth if the volatile content is
grading shoreline to subaqueous lava-hyaloclastite deltas
high, arguing that water depth and hydrostatic pressure
(WATTON et alii, 2013 and references therein).
have little effect in suppressing them. By contrast we
Peperite, which is a specific type of hyaloclastite, may
argue that explosivity and its intensity are not only con-
form in any setting where magma is intruding, or lava is
trained by volatile exsolution but very importantly by
flowing over, water-saturated, unconsolidated sediments.
properties of water, including the effects of the bulk mo-
Peperite results from the quench fragmentation of the
dulus, or relative incompressibility of water in constrain-
magma by the pore water in the sediments, and the
ing the intensity of any explosions that occur. RESNYAN-
simultaneous heating of the pore water, which begins to
SKY & DELANEY (2006) demonstrated that the intensity of
convect and then dynamically mixes the juvenile clasts
an explosion is reduced by 80% when it occurs in water
and the host sediment (CAS & WRIGHT, 1987; BUSBY-
compared with air, and the intensity is rapidly attenuated
SPERA & WHITE, 1987; MCPHIE et alii, 1993; SKILLING et
with increasing distance from source. Explosions at
alii, 2002). Peperite deposits are therefore chaotic mix-
depths to 1,000 m or even more seem feasible given a
tures of sediment and dispersed hyaloclasts, which grade
high enough magma volatile content, but beyond those
into jigsaw-fit assemblages of hyaloclasts with injected
depths, especially approaching the critical pressure water
veinlets of sediment between hyaloclasts, to jigsaw-fit
depths, most explosive events will be significantly sup-
hyaloclastite, and then into coherent lava or intrusive
pressed, as verified by the empirical observations by
rock. Without these gradational contact relationships,
I.C Wright in the Kermadec arc north of New Zealand on
peperite by itself could be mistaken for a poorly sorted,
the transition depth from explosive to effusive eruptions
chaotic debris flow deposit. Peperite will only occur at the
(e.g. WRIGHT et alii, 2006, p. 291).
base of submarine lavas, but may occur around all mar-
gins of a syn-depositional intrusion into wet sediment.
(b) Phreatomagmatic explosions
The form of the juvenile clasts will depend on both
magma rheology and the granulometry of the sediment, Phreatic/phreatomagmatic explosions result from the
with fluidal clasts being more common where magma vis- instantaneous explosive superheating and detonation of
cosity was low and sediment grain size was fine, and external water by magma that it comes in direct contact
blocky forms where magma viscosity was relatively high, with, when stable vapour films collapse. The sudden con-
and/or where the host sediment was coarse and granular tact between liquid water and hot magma, and the rapid
(BUSBY-SPERA & WHITE, 1987). heat transfer to the water causes instantaneous thermal
detonation of the water (WOHLETZ, 1986, 2003; MORRIS-
SEY et alii, 2000; WHITE & HOUGHTON, 2000; ZIMANOWSKI
EXPLOSIVE SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS AND RESULTANT PRO-
DUCTS
& BUTTNER, 2003). Explosive expansion of superheated
seawater is also affected by confining pressure, and so,
Submarine explosive eruptions can be driven by with increasing water depths, it should become less com-
exsolving magmatic volatiles and/or by the explosive mon as the vapour film at the interface becomes more
super-heating of the seawater that an erupting magma is compressed and denser (ZIMANOWSKI & BUTTNER, 2003).
on contact with. However, given the physical properties of According to PECKOVER et alii (1973) and ZIMANOWSKI &
water bodies, especially with increasing water depth, such BUTTNER (2003), phreatic/phreatomagmatic explosions
explosive eruptions are likely to be increasingly restricted are highly unlikely at depths of more than a few hundred
368 R.A.F. CAS & G. GIORDANO
c)
a)
d)
b)
Fig. 4 - a) Quench fragmented pillow lava, Miocene Green Tuff Belt,
Shakotan Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan; b) Transition from coherent
andesite to in-situ jig-saw fit hyaloclastite to variably clast rotated
with increasing granulated matrix hyaloclastite breccia, Miocene El
Barronal Andesite lava sequnce, Playa del Barronal, Cabo de Gata,
Spain. Exposure height is about 3 m; c) Lobe of In situ quench frag-
mented jig-saw fit andesite hyaloclastite breccia, enclosed in more
intensely fragmented hyaloclastite breccia, Miocene El Barronal An-
desite lava sequence, Playa del Barronal, Cabo de Gata, Spain. Lobe
has a width of about 1 m; d) Pervasively quench-fragmented andesite
hyaloclastite breccia grading (right) into fractured and jointed lobes
of andesite, and in sharp contact (left) with a jointed andesite (fee-
der?) dyke. Miocene El Barronal Andesite lava sequence, Playa del
Barronal, Cabo de Gata, Spain. Cliff has a height of 5 m; e) Apparen-
tly layered andesite hyaloclastite breccia and sandstone, with irregu-
lar jig-saw fit breccia lobes and pods (dark) alternating with much
more finely fragmented hyaloclastite sandstone. The layering could
reflect an original flow banding fabric. Miocene El Barronal Andesi-
te lava sequence, Playa del Barronal, Cabo de Gata, Spain. e)
SUBMARINE VOLCANISM: A REVIEW OF THE CONSTRAINTS, PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS 369
from subaerial vents have been reviewed by CAS & fire fountains could be driven purely by buoyancy, exiting
WRIGHT (1987, 1991). WHITE (2000) supplemented this the vent as a dense, weakly vesiculated (<20%), low vis-
work by focusing on density currents fed directly from cosity magma jet. As proposed by CAS et alii (2003), above
subaqueous eruptions. Density currents may be hot and the vent the fire fountain would expand and flare, and
gas-supported or evolve into, or begin as water-supported fragmentation of the fire fountain magma could be due to
mass flows of various types. Welding in subaqueous envi- a combination of shearing due to differential velocity
ronments is relatively rare, and confined to deposits near between the margins and centre of the fountain, exten-
vent, involving high mass flux and/or extremely large vol- sion as the fountain expands sideways above the vent,
ume events whereby presumably a gas or steam envelope and quench fragmentation of the fountain magma and
insulates the flow system from direct interaction with spatter clasts, especially at the periphery of the fountain
liquid water, so retaining heat in the deposit long enough (fig. 7a).
to weld (e.g SCHNEIDER et alii, 1992; KESSEL & BUSBY, With high to moderate height fountains, the larger
2003). A basic question regarding subaqueous pyroclastic surface area of the fountain, and the higher degree of
flows is: shouldn’t most gas-supported subaqueous flows expansion out of the vent will ensure more interaction
be buoyant and float upwards? with the water mass leading to higher degrees of quench
Commonly however, syn-eruptive mixing-in of water fragmentation of the magma and ejected spatter clasts
occurs, leading to syn-eruptive transformation from gas- (fig. 7a,b). With lower fountains there will be a high pro-
supported flow systems to water-supported mass-flows, portion of large spatter clasts to matrix because there has
such as (mega)turbidity currents. Alternatively, post-erup- been less interaction with the water mass (fig. 7c). The
tive resedimentation of large volumes of cold pyroclastic Ryugazaki deposits include variable proportions of fluidal
debris occurs by water-supported mass flows such as spatter clasts, but are dominated by abundant finer
debris flows and (mega) turbidity currents. It appears matrix of glassy granules, resulting from quench frag-
that water supported mass flow deposits are better mentation of the magma and spatter fragments in the fire
hydraulically sorted than primary gas supported pyrocla- fountain (CAS et alii, 2003; fig. 7a,d). Some of the spatter
stic flow deposits (CAS & WRIGHT, 1991; CAS, 1992), grad- clasts are truncated by quench fracture surfaces and con-
ing from a grain-supported facies at the base, with very tain an internal network of quench fractures (fig. 7d).
little fine matrix, to a fines rich top. Subaerial pyroclastic
flow deposits are not so well and continuously hydrauli- (g) Deep submarine equivalents of Strombolian/Vulcanian
cally sorted. style eruptions
One of the most recent studies of the passage of pyro- DEARDOFF et alii (2011) have proposed that the
clastic flows into water was the study of TROFIMOVS et alii weakly explosive submarine eruption of NW Rota V vol-
(2006, 2008), who studied the nature of the off-shore cano in the Marianas arc in 2006 at water depths of
deposits resulting from the passage of pyroclastic flows 550 m was similar in style to strombolian explosions from
from Montserrat into the sea. They found that the subaer- subaerial volcanoes. The eruption, which was spectacu-
ial pyroclastic flows transformed into water supported larly imaged from a submersible, varied from lava effu-
turbidity currents upon entry into the sea, although parts sion, to gas streaming to explosive bursts, producing
of the ash clouds were able to flow over water for a lim- weak buoyant plumes rising 10’s of metres above the vent
ited distance. The offshore deposits had the facies charac- (fig. 8). Juvenile pyroclasts and recycled debris were
teristics of turbidites. deposited close to the vent. The vesicularity of juvenile
pyroclasts varied from 0 to 38%, suggesting that these
(f) Submarine fire fountaining vesicles were not the cause of the explosions. Fragmenta-
Many examples of submarine fire fountain spatter tion probably resulted from both explosive fragmentation
deposits are recorded in the literature from both the mod- of very large gas bubbles, and by cooling quenching gran-
ern seafloor and ancient submarine rock successions (e.g. ulation.
SMITH & BATIZA, 1989; SIMPSON & MCPHIE, 2001; CAS et CLAGUE et alii (2009, and numerous earlier publica-
alii, 2003; DAVIS & CLAGUE, 2003), with known occur- tions) and DAVIS & CLAGUE (2003) have also documented
rences at depths down to at least 2,000 m (SMITH & the deposits of other submarine strombolian style erup-
BATIZA, 1989; DAVIS & CLAGUE, 2003). HEAD & WILSON tions on the modern ocean floor. Little is known about
(2003) suggest that at depths of several kms, submarine the dispersal patterns and distances of these modern sub-
fire fountains of basaltic magmas are driven mostly by marine examples.
CO2. They make a mistake in assuming that magma frag-
mentation in a fire fountain can only occur when the level (h) Shallow water Surtseyan explosive eruptions
of vesiculation is 75% and that it involves gas bubble This eruption phenomenon has been well reviewed by
bursting. The mechanism driving fire fountains and frag- WHITE & HOUGHTON (2000). During the iconic eruption
mentation at these depths remains unclear. It seems of the monogenetic Surtsey tephra cone volcano offshore
unlikely that vesicle expansion at explosive rates will from Iceland from 1962-1964, which began in water
occur at those depths, given that both CO2 and H2O will depths of just 140m, the pulsing, phreatomagmatic explo-
be compressed supercritical fluids, not gases. The spatter sive style built a tephra cone above sea level in just a few
clasts described by CAS et alii (2003) at Ryugazaki, Japan, days (THORARINSSON et alii, 1964). Since then this style of
are very poorly vesicular, indicating that bubble expan- eruption (KOKELAAR, 1983) is recognised as a typical
sion and vesiculation to levels of 75% did not cause frag- phreatomagmatic explosive eruption style to be expected
mentation of the magma in the fountain. However, even in relatively shallow water, such as marine shelf depths
bubbles of supercritical CO2 and H2O would render the and in lakes. The deposits that make up surtseyan tuff
basaltic magma less dense than the oceanic crust, and cones are bedded, include subaerial and subaqueous fall-
given the low viscosity of submarine basalt magmas, the out deposits, base surge deposits, abundant ballistic
372 R.A.F. CAS & G. GIORDANO
(d)
1 km, although some deeper ones have been interpreted. lar block breccias (fig. 9a,b,c) to pumice lithic clast brec-
The Ordovician Lower Rhyolitic Tuff caldera in North cias (fig. 9d) and stratified pumiceous ash sediments.
Wales probably formed in continental shelf water depths The best exposed quench fragmented, hyaloclastic,
of several hundred metres at most, based on the palaeo- andesite thick lava flows are exposed along the coast in
ecology of fossils in the associated sedimentary rocks the southern part of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone and
(HOWELLS et alii, 1986). KESSEL & BUSBY (2003) used form the El Barronal Formation (SORIANO et alii, 2013).
fluid inclusions from VMS sulphide deposits to determine There, hyaloclastite is largely jig-saw fit throughout sig-
the water depth of the Ordovician Bald Mountain caldera nificant thicknesses of the piled-up lava units, demon-
in Maine, USA, at >1.45 km water depth. strating that quench fragmentation may occur at very
late stages or after flow stopped. PORRECA et alii (2014)
suggested that this is due to a combination of prolonged
REWORKING AND RESEDIMENTATION OF VOLCANIC CLASTS stability of the insulating vapour film during flow and
quench fragmentation continuing well below the glass
CAS & WRIGHT (1987), STOW et alii (1998) and CAREY transition temperature.
& SCHNEIDER (2011) have summarised the spectrum of Extensive fragmentation of subaqueous volcanics also
transport processes and deposit characteristics that occur favours gravitational instabilities and resedimentation
when volcanic materials are transported into subaqueous downslope at growing domes. The Cabo de Gata volcanic
environments from subaerial and shallow water settings. succession shows a wide range of resedimented volcani-
The principal agents of resedimentation into deep water clastic deposits that range from small volume granular
are grainflows, turbidity currents, debris flows, subma- flows, to turbidites, to debris avalanches. SORIANO et alii
rine landslides and debris avalanches (fig. 9a,b,c). Distin- (2012) describe the dacitic Los Frailes Formation in the
guishing primary deposits from ones that have resulted central part of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone, where
from syn-eruptive to post-eruptive reworking and resedi- some of the lava domes may have been emergent above
mentation of primary, juvenile volcaniclastic deposits can sea level, and were the sources of massive matrix- to
be very difficult. This is especially the case in modern clast-supported monomictic breccias and megabreccias
seafloor settings, where access is limited and visual expo- with individual block up to more than 20 m across, which
sure of deposits, their textures, contact relationships and have been interpreted as debris avalanche deposits. Some
extent are lacking, and where the resedimented deposits breccias contain large numbers of radially jointed blocks
consist of exactly the same components as the primary (e.g. fig. 9b) indicating they were partly hot when they
volcanic source materials. were formed. This raises the possibility that some could
As already discussed, and by way of examples of this have been block and ash flows resulting from syn eruptive
point, pumice deposits deposited in deep-water could lava dome collapse.
have resulted from non-explosive spalling of erupting In addition to the dominant effusive style associated
vesicular magma (e.g. ROTELLA et alii, 2013), submarine with the various volcanic centres of the Cabo de Gata
fallout from a submarine explosive eruption (CASHMAN volcanic zone, explosive activity is also represented by
& FISKE, 1993), rafted transport by currents of either several distinct units of pumice lithic clast breccias,
spalled pumice or pyroclastic pumice varying distances which record significant explosive events in the volcanic
from source, from proximal (ROTELLA et alii, 2013) to province. These pumice breccias are best preserved and
sometimes thousands of kms (e.g. from the Tonga arc to widely exposed within the Los Frailes Formation (SORIA-
Australia, BRYAN et alii, 2006, 2012), submarine fallout NO et alii, 2012), the Cerro de los Guardias Formation and
from a subaerial explosive eruption, transport by either the Cala del Plomo Formation, both in the central-north-
subaqueously or subaerially originated pyroclastic flows ern part of the Cabo de Gata volcanic zone (SORIANO et
into deeper water, post-eruptive reworking and resedi- alii, this issue). These deposits are associated with the
mentation of pumice deposits from shallow to deeper most evolved chemical compositions, up to rhyolites.
water by shallow water currents, and mass-flows rang- Water depth and hydrostatic pressure played little or no
ing from grain-flows to turbidity currents to debris role in suppressing explosive activity because water
flows and debris avalanches (CAREY & SCHNEIDER, depths were not great enough, which the fossil assem-
2011; fig. 9d). blage supports. However, the deposits appear to be resed-
imented pyroclastic deposits, from shallow water sources
or even subaerial volcanic edifices, as evidenced by the
RELEVANCE TO THE CABO DE GATA VOLCANIC SUCCESSION common occurrence of sub rounded to well rounded
pumice clasts indicating significant tractional abrasion
Recently published papers, (and in this issue), have prior to and during resedimentation. Some may have
re appraised the volcanic geology, setting and volcanic originated as primary pumice and ash pyroclastic flows
eruption processes that formed the Miocene Cabo de that transformed into water supported granular mass
Gata volcanic succession of south eastern Spain (SORIA- flows of pyroclastic debris. There is no evidence of weld-
NO et alii, 2012, 2013, this issue; PORRECA et alii, 2014). ing or hot state emplacement. It is unclear if the pyroclas-
SORIANO et alii (this issue) interpret the whole Cabo de tic deposits originated from emergent subaerial vents or
Gata succession as having accumulated in a shallow from shallow submarine vents. The absence of abundant,
marine environment, ranging from above to below wave radially jointed pumice clasts may suggest the former
base, based on several fossiliferous carbonate and silici- (cf. ALLEN & MCPHIE, 2000; ALLEN et alii, 2008).
clastic sedimentary horizons that are intercalated within As a whole, the main subaqueous eruption and
the volcanic lithofacies. emplacement styles that can be inferred from the analysis
The volcanic deposits range from coherent to frag- of the deposits at Cabo de Gata are very consistent with
mented lavas and lava domes (fig. 4) to monomictic angu- the proposed shallow marine environment, where both
SUBMARINE VOLCANISM: A REVIEW OF THE CONSTRAINTS, PROCESSES AND PRODUCTS 375
subaerial processes, largely due to the very different prop- BUSBY-SPERA C.J. & WHITE J.D.L. (1987) - Variation in peperite tex-
erties of the ambient water mass compared with the tures associated with differing host-sediment properties. Bull. Vol-
canol., 49, 765-775.
atmosphere, and the way that erupting magma can interact
CAREY S.N. (1997) - Influence of convective sedimentation on the for-
with the water mass. Further advances will occur when all mation of widespread tephra fall layers in the deep sea. Geology,
relevant physical properties of the ambient water mass that 25, 839-842.
impact on eruption behaviour are taken into account, in CAREY S.N. & SCHNEIDER J.-L. (2011) - Volcaniclastic processes and de-
particular in relation to submarine explosive eruptions. posits in the deep-sea. Developments in Sedimentology, 63, 457-515.
The review also highlights the difficulties of interpret- CAS R.A.F. (1992) - Submarine volcanism: a review. In Large R. (ed.),
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This paper is the result of many years of interest in subaqueous CAS R.A.F. & WRIGHT J.V. (1991) - Subaqueous pyroclastic flows and
volcanic processes and their deposits. We thank our institutions, col- ignimbrites: an assessment. Bull. Volcanol., 53, 357-380.
leagues and students for their support and interest. Because of space
limitations we could not cite all the relevant literature and we apolo- CAS R.A.F., YAMAGISHI H., MOORE L. & SCUTTER C. (2003) - Miocene
gise to colleagues for omissions. We thank the anonymous journal Submarine Fire Fountain Deposits, Ryugazaki Headland, Oshoro
reviewers, journal editors Sandro Conticelli and Raffaello Cioni, and Peninsula, Hokkaido, Japan: Implications for Submarine Foun-
Kelly Russell for helpful comments and suggestions that considera- tain Dynamics and Fragmentation Processes. In: White J.D.L.,
bly improved the manuscript. Smellie J.L. & Clague D.A. (eds.), Submarine Explosive Volcanism.
Amer. Geophys. Union Monogr., 140, 299-316.
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Manuscript received 27 February 2014; accepted 23 September 2014; editorial responsability and handling by R. Cioni.