Laser Assisted Machining of

Inconel 718 Super Alloy

By

Salar Tavakoli Manshadi

Department of Mechanical Engineering

McGill University

Montréal, Québec
February 2009

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies Research in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
Master of Engineering

© Salar Tavakoli Manshadi

Abstract

This research work assesses the effect of Laser Assisted Machining (LAM) on the
machinability of Inconel 718 using a triple layer coated carbide and a sialon ceramic tool.
This study was motivated by issues related to poor machinability of IN718 under
conventional machining operations. In this work a focused Nd:YAG laser beam was used
as a localized heat source to thermally soften the workpiece prior to material removal.
Finishing operations were assumed throughout the experiments. Optimization screening
tests were performed over a wide range of cutting speeds (ranging from 100 to 500
m/min) and feeds (ranging from 0.125 to 0.5 mm/rev). Results showed a significant drop
in all three components of cutting force when thermal softening caused by the laser
power was in effect. These tests yielded the optimum cutting speed and feed to be 200
m/min and 0.25 mm/rev for the coated carbide and 300 m/min and 0.4 mm/rev for the
ceramic tool. Under these optimum conditions tool life tests were carried out. Drastic
increase in terms of the material removal rate (MRR) was demonstrated under LAM
conditions as compared to conventional machining. A nearly %300 increase in MRR was
established for the coated carbide tool while slightly reducing tool life, mainly because
the coatings offering thermal and wear protection could not withstand the high
temperatures associated with LAM. Nearly %800 increase in MRR for the ceramic tool
was achieved while improving tool life (about %50). In all cases, improvements in
surface finish and surface integrity were observed. The dominant mode of tool failure
was observed to be average flank wear for all tools tested. However, the coated carbide
tool exhibited signs of chipping and flaking in the coatings. The morphology of the chips
produced was analyzed and it was shown that temperature and increased chip thickness
were the main causes of transition from steady state to shear localized chip structure.
Shear localized or sawtooth chips tended to form at high temperatures when maximum
undeformed chip thickness reached 140 μm.

i
Résumé

Cette recherche évalue l'effet de l’usinage assisté par Laser (UAL) sur l’usinabilité
d'Inconel 718 en utilisant deux outils : Le premier est enrobé d’une triple couche de
carbure et le second est en céramique sialon. Cette étude a été motivée par la difficulté
d’usiner IN718 conventionnellement. Dans ce travail, un rayon laser Nd:YAG a été
utilisé comme une source de chaleur localisée pour adoucir thermiquement la pièce avant
l'usinage. Les expériences représentaient les opérations de finitions. Une optimisation a
été exécutée à travers une sélection unitaire pour une large gamme de vitesses de coupes
(aux limites de 100 à 500 m/min) et de vitesses d’avance (aux limites de 0.125 à 0.5
mm/rév). Les résultats ont manifesté une réduction significative dans toutes les trois
composantes de la force de coupe quand l'adoucissement thermique provoqué par le laser
était mis en effet. D’après les tests, les valeurs optimales de vitesse de coupe et d’avance
sont 200 m/min et 0.25 mm/rév pour l’outil avec la couche de carbure et 300 m/min et
0.4 mm/rév pour l’outil en céramique. Dans ces conditions optimales, des épreuves de
tenue d’outils ont été réalisées. Une augmentation du taux d’enlèvement de matière a été
démontrée lors de l’application de l’UAL en comparaison à l’usinage conventionnel. Une
augmentation dans le taux d’enlèvement de matière de 300% a été établie pour l’outil
enrobé de carbure avec une légère réduction en tenue d’outil. La raison de cette réduction
est le fait que ces couches qui offrent une protection thermique et une résistance d’usure
ne pouvaient pas résister aux températures élevées associées à l’UAL. Une augmentation
de 800% dans le taux d’enlèvement de matière a été accomplie pour l’outil en céramique
avec une amélioration de tenue d’outils d’environ 50%. Dans tous les cas, une
amélioration de l’intégrité de la surface à été observée. En générale, ça été remarqué que
le mode dominant d'échec des outils est l’usure frontale. Pourtant, l’outil avec une couche
de carbure a fait signe d’usure frontale et d’écaillage de la couche. La morphologie des
copeaux produits a été analysée; il a été montré que la température et l’augmentation de
l'épaisseur des copeaux étaient les causes principales de transition du régime permanent
au cisaillement localisé de la structure des copeaux. Le cisaillement localisé et les
copeaux en forme de dent de scie en tendance à se former à de hautes températures quand
l'épaisseur des copeaux non-déformée atteint une valeur maximale de 140 µm.

ii
Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my principal

supervisor Prof. Helmi Attia and co-supervisor Prof. Vincent Thomson for their
invaluable guidance in the accomplishment of this research. My extended gratefulness
goes to Mr. Raul Vargas for his critical contributions and constructive comments in the
development of this work. I would also like to thank the Natural Science and Engineering
Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the National Research Council of Canada (NRC)
and my principle supervisor for their financial support throughout the course of this
research.

All experiments performed in this work were carried out at the Aerospace Manufacturing
Technology Center (AMTC), National Research Council of Canada (NRC). I would like
to thank Prof. Attia for providing me with the opportunity to conduct my experiments at
the AMTC and to interact with leading researchers in the field.

Furthermore, I am grateful to Mr. Nicola De Palma for his technical help and support on
performing the machining tests at the AMTC. As well, my deep appreciation is extended
to all the members at AMTC, NRC who helped during the experimental phase, and to
Mrs. Helen Campbell at McGill University for her help with the SEM imagery.

Last but not least I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents for their
endless support and encouragement. Without you none of this would be possible.

iii
Contents
Abstract............................................................................................................................... i 

Résumé ............................................................................................................................... ii 

Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii 

Contents ............................................................................................................................ iv 

List of Figures.................................................................................................................. vii 

List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xiii 

Nomenclature ................................................................................................................. xiv 

Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 

1.1  General ................................................................................................................. 1 

1.2  Terminal Thesis Objectives .................................................................................. 3 

1.3  Thesis Organization.............................................................................................. 3 

Chapter 2:  Literature Review ....................................................................................... 5 

2.1  Introduction .......................................................................................................... 5 

2.2  Superalloys ........................................................................................................... 5 

2.3  Inconel 718 ........................................................................................................... 6 

2.3.1  Microstructure ............................................................................................... 6 

2.3.2  Mechanical Properties ................................................................................... 8 

2.3.3  Machinability Issues ................................................................................... 10 

2.4  Machining of Inconel 718 .................................................................................. 11 

2.4.1  Cutting Forces ............................................................................................. 11 

2.4.2  Tool Wear ................................................................................................... 13 

2.4.3  Surface Integrity.......................................................................................... 14 

2.4.4  Chip Formation ........................................................................................... 15 

2.5  Thermally Enhanced Machining (TEM) ............................................................ 17 

iv
 2.5.1  Plasma Enhanced Machining (PEM) .......................................................... 17 

2.6  Laser Assisted Machining (LAM)...................................................................... 19 

2.6.1  LAM Principle of Operation ....................................................................... 19 

2.6.2  LAM of Ceramics ....................................................................................... 22 

2.6.3  LAM of Inconel 718 ................................................................................... 24 

2.7  Gap Analysis ...................................................................................................... 28 

2.8  Detailed Objectives of the Research Work ........................................................ 29 

Chapter 3:  Experimental Setup .................................................................................. 30 

3.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 30 

3.2  Workpiece Material ............................................................................................ 30 

3.3  Cutting Tool ....................................................................................................... 30 

3.4  Experimental Setup ............................................................................................ 32 

3.4.1  Machine Tool .............................................................................................. 32 

3.4.2  Laser ............................................................................................................ 32 

3.4.3  LAM Setup.................................................................................................. 34 

3.5  Cutting Forces .................................................................................................... 36 

3.6  Tool Wear ........................................................................................................... 37 

3.7  Surface Roughness Measurements ..................................................................... 38 

3.8  Workpiece Temperature Measurements............................................................. 38 

3.8.1  IR Camera Calibration ................................................................................ 40 

3.9  Chip and Microstructure analysis ....................................................................... 42 

Chapter 4:  Effect of LAM on the Machinability of Inconel 718 .............................. 45 

4.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 45 

4.2  Experimental Results Obtained in Laser Heating Tests ..................................... 45 

4.2.1  Preliminary Heating Tests........................................................................... 45 

v
 4.2.2  Secondary Heating Test Results ................................................................. 47 

4.3  Test Results of LAM Optimization Tests .......................................................... 49 

4.3.1  Triple Layer Coated Carbide (KC8050) ..................................................... 49 

4.3.2  Sialon Ceramic (KY1540) .......................................................................... 63 

Chapter 5:  Tool Life, Surface Integrity and Chip Morphology Under Optimum
LAM Conditions....................................................................................... 74 

5.1  Introduction ........................................................................................................ 74 

5.2  Tool Life Analysis .............................................................................................. 74 

5.3  Tool Failure Modes ............................................................................................ 78 

5.3.1  Triple Layer Coated Carbide ...................................................................... 78 

5.3.2  Ceramic Tool .............................................................................................. 80 

5.4  Microstructure Analysis ..................................................................................... 82 

5.4.1  Bulk Material .............................................................................................. 83 

5.4.2  Machined Surfaces ...................................................................................... 84 

5.5  Productivity Analysis ......................................................................................... 89 

5.6  Chip Morphology ............................................................................................... 92 

5.6.1  Triple Layer Coated Carbide Tool .............................................................. 93 

5.6.2  Ceramic Tool .............................................................................................. 97 

Chapter 6:  Conclusion and Future Recommendations........................................... 101 

6.1  Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 101 

6.2  Recommendations for Future Work ................................................................. 103 

References ...................................................................................................................... 104 

vi
List of Figures

Figure 2.1 SEM micrograph showing (a) δ -phase plates, (b) γ˝ discs and (c) γ´ spheroids
in IN718 treated isothermally at 850oC/24h. [11] ........................................... 7 
Figure 2.2 Yield strength of Inconel 718 vs. temperature. [14] .......................................... 9 
Figure 2.3 Optical micrographs of the Inconel 718 chip at 61 m/min. [37] ..................... 15 
Figure 2.4 Chip image for cutting speed of 75 m/min and feed of 0.125 mm/rev showing
signs of transition to shear localized chips. [12]............................................ 16 
Figure 2.5 Resultant cutting force vs. surface temperature for various cutting speeds for
PEM. [14] ...................................................................................................... 18 
Figure 2.6 Surface roughness vs. surface temperature for various cutting speeds using
PEM. [14] ...................................................................................................... 18 
Figure 2.7 (a) LAM process overview. [4] (b) heat gradient created near laser beam. [2]
....................................................................................................................... 20 
Figure 2.8 LAM setup. (a) As demonstrated by Anderson [42], (b) LAM setup at the
NRC Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Center (Photo courtesy of NRC-
AMTC) .......................................................................................................... 21 
Figure 2.9 Variation of cutting force vs. Tmr [47] ............................................................ 23 
Figure 2.10 Results for LAM of PSZ material (Pfefferkorn) [41]. ................................... 24 
Figure 2.11 Reduction in cutting forces in LAM of Inconel 718 at different speeds.[40] 25 
Figure 2.12 (a) effect of different coating materials applied to Inconel 718 to increase
absorptivity. (b) Absorptivity of different laser wavelengths on Inconel 718.
[42] ................................................................................................................. 26 
Figure 2.13 Specific cutting energy vs. material removal temperature. [42] ................... 26 
Figure 2.14 Notch wear at different Tmr. [42] ................................................................... 27 
Figure 2.15 VBmax and VBave vs. Tmr,ave. [42].................................................................... 27 
Figure 2.16 Tool cost comparison when machining 1m length of Inconel 718. [42] ....... 27 
Figure 3.1 Setup for laser heating experiments ................................................................ 33 
Figure 3.2 A spot burned by the laser viewed under magnification. Circle (a) shows the
true laser spot diameter for this test. .............................................................. 34 
Figure 3.3 Graph showing the results and the trend line obtained for the spot size tests. 34 

vii
Figure 3.4 (a) Schematic of laser assisted machining (b) Experimental setup used for the
laser assisted machining tests ........................................................................ 35 
Figure 3.5 Force directions during machining .................................................................. 36 
Figure 3.6 (a) Worn insert (KC8050), showing wear region (b) Flank wear criteria ....... 37 
Figure 3.7 Online roughness measurements; Portable Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+ ....... 38 
Figure 3.8 IR camera image (viewing workpiece from the top) ....................................... 39 
Figure 3.9 Typical heating curve for thermocouple. The conditions for this test are 3000
W, 300 m/min, 0.3 mm/rev, 3 mm spot size. IR measurement point
temperature is calculated as 383 °C. .............................................................. 41 
Figure 3.10 Comparison of the temperature data obtained from the thermocouple and IR
camera during the heating tests at various cutting speeds. ε=0.09- 3,000 W-
2mm spot size- 0.3 mm/rev. .......................................................................... 42 
Figure 3.11 Prepared chip sample, mounted in bakelite powder ...................................... 43 
Figure.3.12 Etched and polished chip sample showing microhardness indentation.
(Magnification: 150X) ................................................................................... 44 
Figure 4.1 Typical heating curve for laser heating tests. Temperature vs. time; 500 W,
1179.9 rpm, 0.1 mm/rev ................................................................................ 46 
Figure 4.2 Workpiece showing surface damage along the heating length caused by the
laser. ............................................................................................................... 47 
Figure 4.3 Effect of increasing feed on the temperature of the workpiece during laser
heating at 3,000 W - 2mm spot size- 100 m/min. .......................................... 49 
Figure 4.4 Methodology for optimization tests................................................................. 50 
Figure 4.5 Comparison of (a) cutting forces (b) feed forces (c) radial forces. Conventional
machining and LAM at 100 m/min and 0.125 mm/rev. ................................ 52 
Figure 4.6 Change in forces vs. cutting speed for conventional machining and LAM
(3,000 W) at feed= 0.125 mm/rev and DOC= 0.25 mm. ............................... 53 
Figure 4.7 Surface temperature measured with the IR camera vs. speed, for conventional
machining and LAM (3,000 W) at feed= 0.125 mm/rev and DOC= 0.25 mm.
....................................................................................................................... 53 

viii
Figure 4.8 Average wear measured on the flank face of cutting tool vs. speed. For
conventional machining and LAM (3,000 W) at feed= 0.125 mm/rev and
DOC= 0.25 mm. ............................................................................................ 54 
Figure 4.9 Tool wear on the flank face of the tool at 0.125 mm/rev and (a) 100 m/min,
conventional machining (b) 100 m/min, LAM (c) 150 m/min, LAM (d) 200
m/min, LAM (e) 250 m/min, LAM (magnification: 12X). Sliding distance=
30 mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6) ......................................................................... 56 
Figure 4.10 Surface roughness vs. speed, measured for conventional machining and LAM
(3,000 W) at feed= 0.125 mm/rev and DOC= 0.25 mm. ............................... 57 
Figure 4.11 Change in forces vs. feed under LAM (3,000 W). cutting speed= 200 m/min,
DOC= 0.25 mm. ............................................................................................ 58 
Figure 4.12 Surface temperature vs. feed, as measured by the IR camera for LAM (3,000
W) at cutting speed= 200 m/min and DOC= 0.25 mm. ................................. 59 
Figure 4.13 Average flank wear measured on the flank face vs. feed for LAM (3,000 W)
at cutting speed= 200 m/min and DOC= 0.25 mm. ....................................... 60 
Figure 4.14 Average wear on the flank face of the tool at LAM (3,000 W), 200 m/min
and (a) 0.125 mm/rev (b) 0.175 mm/rev (c) 0.2 mm/rev (d) 0.25 mm/rev (e)
0.3 mm/rev (f) 0.5 mm/rev (magnification: 12X). Sliding distance= 30mm.
(Refer to Figure 3.6) ...................................................................................... 61 
Figure 4.15 Average surface roughness vs. feed for LAM (3,000 W) at cutting speed=
200 m/min, DOC= 0.25 mm. ......................................................................... 62 
Figure 4.16 Cutting forces for the triple layer, coated carbide and the ceramic tool for
LAM (3,000 W), 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev. .................................................. 64 
Figure 4.17 Change in forces vs. cutting speed for conventional machining and LAM
(3,000 W), feed= 0.25 mm/rev and DOC= 0.25 mm..................................... 65 
Figure 4.18 Surface temperatures measured with the IR camera vs. speed for
conventional machining and LAM (3,000 W), feed= 0.25 mm/rev and DOC=
0.25 mm. ........................................................................................................ 65 
Figure 4.19 Average flank wear of the cutting tool vs. speed for conventional machining
and LAM (3,000 W), feed= 0.25 mm/rev and DOC= 0.25 mm. ................... 66 

ix
Figure 4.20 Average wear on the flank face of the ceramic tool, 0.25 mm/rev and (a) 200
m/min, conventional machining (b) 200 m/min, LAM (c) 250 m/min, LAM
(d) 300 m/min, LAM (e) 400 m/min, LAM (f) 500 m/min, LAM
(magnification: 12X). Sliding distance= 30 mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6) ........ 67 
Figure 4.21 Average surface roughness vs. speed, for conventional machining and LAM
(3,000 W), feed= 0.25 mm/rev, DOC= 0.25 mm. ......................................... 68 
Figure 4.22 Change in forces vs. feed for LAM (3,000 W) at cutting speed= 300 m/min
and DOC= 0.25 mm....................................................................................... 69 
Figure 4.23 Surface temperatures measured with the IR camera vs. feed for LAM (3,000
W), cutting speed= 300 m/min, DOC= 0.25 mm. ......................................... 69 
Figure 4.24 Flank wear of the coated carbide and the ceramic tool with LAM (3,000 W)
at 300 m/min and 0.25 mm/rev. ..................................................................... 70 
Figure 4.25 Average flank wear vs. feed for LAM (3,000 W), cutting speed= 300 m/min,
DOC= 0.25 mm. ............................................................................................ 71 
Figure 4.26 Average wear on the flank face of the tool for LAM (3,000 W), 300 m/min
and (a) 0.25 mm/rev (b) 0.3 mm/rev (c) 0.35 mm/rev (d) 0.4 mm/rev (e) 0.5
mm/rev (12X mag.). Sliding distance= 30mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6) ........... 72 
Figure 4.27 Surface roughness values vs. feed for LAM (3,000 W), cutting speed= 300
m/min, DOC= 0.25 mm. ................................................................................ 73 
Figure 5.1 Variation of flank wear as a function of machined length, showing the three
regions of wear. ............................................................................................. 75 
Figure 5.2 Tool life curves super imposed for all four cases ............................................ 76 
Figure 5.3 Surface roughness as a function of machined length. ..................................... 77 
Figure 5.4 SEM images of the failed coated carbide tool at LAM (3,000) W, 200 m/min,
0.25 mm/rev LAM, (a) x23 magnification (b) x60 magnification (area noted
as b in Figure a) ............................................................................................. 78 
Figure 5.5 SEM image of the triple layer, coated carbide at failure point. At 100 m/min,
0.125 mm/rev, 0.25 mm DOC, Flood coolant. [12] ...................................... 79 
Figure 5.6 X-ray chemical analysis on coated carbide tool. (a) before machining (b) after
machining. (LAM 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev, 3000 W) ................................. 79 

x
Figure 5.7 SEM images of the failed ceramic tool. At 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev
conventional machining, (a) x23 magnification (b) x60 magnification (area
noted as b in Figure a) ................................................................................... 80 
Figure 5.8 SEM images of the failed ceramic tool. At 3000 W, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev
LAM, (a) x23 magnification (b)x60 magnification (area noted as b in Figure
a) .................................................................................................................... 81 
Figure 5.9 X-ray chemical spectroscopy on the ceramic tool. (a) before machining (b)
after machining. (LAM 3,000 W, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev). ......................... 82 
Figure 5.10 X-ray chemical spectroscopy on the ceramic tool. (a) before machining (b)
after machining. (conventional machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev). .......... 82 
Figure 5.11 IN718 Bulk material (a) SEM image (b) magnified SEM image of area b
(c) optical micrograph (d) X-ray chemical spectroscopy. ............................. 83 
Figure 5.12 Optical micrographs of the machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool, conventional
machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) ceramic tool, LAM 3,000 W, 300
m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (c) coated carbide tool. LAM 3,000 W, 200 m/min, 0/25
mm/rev ........................................................................................................... 85 
Figure 5.13 Cutting forces corresponding to the last pass of the tool life tests. ............... 86 
Figure 5.14 SEM images of machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool, conventional machining,
300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) x1000 mag. of area b (c) ceramic tool, LAM, 300
m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (d) x1000 mag. of area d (e) coated carbide tool. LAM.
200 m/min. 0/25 mm/rev (f) x1000 mag. of area f ........................................ 87 
Figure 5.15 X-ray chemical spectroscopy of the machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool,
conventional machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) ceramic tool, LAM
3,000 W, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (c) coated carbide tool, LAM 3,000 W, 200
m/min, 0.25 mm/rev (d) surface protrusion shown in Figure 5.14 (b). ......... 88
Figure 5.16 Workpiece Hardness as a function of distance from the surface……………89
Figure 5.17 Time required to machine 100 cm3 of Inconel 718. ...................................... 91 
Figure 5.18 Diagram showing the undeformed chip using a round insert ........................ 92 
Figure 5.19 Chip types produced with the coated carbide tool (a) conventional machining,
100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (b) LAM, 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (c) LAM, 200
m/min, 0.175 mm/rev (d) LAM, 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev ........................... 93 

xi
Figure 5.20 Chip morphology for the coated carbide tool (a) conventional machining, 100
m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (b) LAM, 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (c) LAM, 250
m/min, 0.5 mm/rev. (x500) ............................................................................ 95 
Figure 5.21 Microhardness of the chips for the coated carbide tool under various
conditions. ...................................................................................................... 97 
Figure 5.22 Chip produced under LAM at 300 m/min, 0. 5 mm/rev (a) appearance (b)
morphology showing localized shear structure (x500). ................................. 98 
Figure 5.23 Microhardness of the chips for the coated ceramic tool under various
conditions. ...................................................................................................... 99 

xii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Phases observed in IN718 [9, 6]. ........................................................................ 6 
Table 2.2 Solvus temperatures of different phases in some nickel base superalloys. [12] . 8 
Table 2.3 Mechanical properties of IN718. [12]................................................................. 9
Table 2.4 Test matrix for LAM of silicon nitride ceramic [47]………………………….22
Table 3.1 Tool and tool holder geometries for the tripe layer carbide insert (KC8050) .. 31 
Table 3.2 Tool and tool holder geometries for the ceramic insert (KY1540)................... 31 
Table 3.3 Test matrix for laser spot calibration test.......................................................... 32 
Table 3.4 Linearity and crosstalk of the Kistler 9121 ....................................................... 37 
Table 4.1 Test matrix for preliminary laser heating tests ................................................. 45 
Table 4.2 Results for the secondary heating experiments................................................. 48 
Table 4.3 Test matrix for optimization tests for the coated carbide tool (KC8050) ......... 51 
Table 4.4 Test matrix for optimization tests for the ceramic tool (KY1540). .................. 63 
Table 5.1 MRR and machining specifications corresponding to the optimum conditions
………….for a single cutting edge up to the point of failure. .......................................... 90 
Table 5.2 Chip thickness measurement for the coated carbide tool. ................................ 94 
Table 5.3 Chip morphology for the coated carbide tool (magnification: 200X) .............. 96 
Table 5.4 Chip thickness measurement for the ceramic tool. ........................................... 98 
Table 5.5 Chip morphology for the ceramic tool (magnification: 200X) ....................... 100 
Table 6.1 Optimum conditions identified for each tool .................................................. 101 
Table 6.2 Tool wear mechanisms involved in LAM ...................................................... 102 

xiii
 Nomenclature

ae Depth of cut (mm) Tmr, ave Average material removal plane

temperature (°C)
cp Specific heat at constant pressure
(J/kgK) V Cutting Speed (m/min)

∆d Normal distance from workpiece VBave Average flank wear (μm)

surface to laser lens (mm)
VBmax Maximum flank wear (μm)
d Tool insert diameter (mm)
VBN Maximum notch wear (μm)
f Feed (mm/rev)
Vi Initial cutting speed (m/min)
fi Initial feed (mm/rev)
Vopt Optimum cutting speed (m/min)
fopt Optimum feed (mm/rev)
γ FCC matrix phase for IN718
Fx Force in x-direction (N)
γ˝ Ni3Nb strengthening phase for
Fy Force in y-direction (N) IN718

fz Feed z-direction γ΄ Ni3(Al, Ti) strengthening phase

for IN718
Fz Force in z-direction (N)
δ Ni3Nb orthorhombic phase for
hmax Maximum undeformed chip
IN718
thickness
Ølaser Laser spot diameter (mm)
Plaser Laser power (W)
ε Emmisivity
Ra Average workpiece surface
roughness (μm) Strain rate (s-1)

Tmr Material removal plane Value of effective strain rate (s-1)

temperature (°C)

xiv
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 General

Advances in the aerospace industry, in particular, have introduced the use of materials
that despite their superior properties have created difficulties in manufacturing. Good
examples of such material would be nickel and titanium based super alloys, ceramics and
even composite materials. These materials all have superior strength and toughness
compared to conventional, engineering material. However, while applications for such
material are growing, the ease of precisely machining them has not improved in parallel,
and currently, this makes up about 60 to 90 percent of the final cost of the product [1, 2].

Difficult-to-machine material can be classified as:

• Metals
o Titanium alloys
o Nickel-based super alloys (e.g., Inconel 718)
o Cobalt-based super alloys (e.g., MultiMet)
• Ceramics
o Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
o Zirconia (ZrO2)
o Silicon carbide (SiC)
o Alumina (Al2O3)
o Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
o Mullite (3Al2O3-2SiO2)
o Boron carbide (B4C)
• Metal-Ceramic Composites
o Metal matrix composites
o Cermets

Among these materials the most extensively studied for novel manufacturing methods,
such as laser assisted machining (LAM), are metals, silicon nitride and zirconia.

Metal alloys such as Inconel 718 are considered difficult to machine at room temperature
due to excessive tool wear and poor surface finish. These materials are ductile and
although there is not much concern about altering material properties during machining,

1
manufacturing costs are high. This is because a large number of tools are required per
part and the time associated with slow speeds, small depths of cut, and frequent tool
changing is excessive [3, 4, 5, 6]. The most widely used, difficult-to-cut, metals in the
aerospace industry are titanium and nickel based superalloys. The latter is the main focus
of this study. A summary of the characteristics that deem nickel superalloys difficult to
machine are listed below:

1. The major part of their strength is retained during the machining process owing to
their high temperature properties.
2. Work hardening occurs very fast during machining. This contributes to high rates of
tool wear.
3. Chemical reaction occurs at high cutting temperatures causing diffusion wear on the
tool.
4. A tough and continuous chip is produced, which is difficult to control.
5. The poor thermal properties of these alloys cause a very steep temperature gradient at
the cutting edge of the tool. Nickel alloys generally exhibit a negative partition
coefficient (R2), which represents the percentage of the heat generated at the tool chip
interface that flows into the chip. This means that heat generated in cutting is not
removed through the chip and dissipates within the workpiece. This leads to a very
high tool tip temperature [7, 8], which results in high tool wear.

Because of the inherent nature of difficult-to-cut material, conventional machining

methods such as milling or turning are proving inefficient. A number of innovative
machining processes are currently being applied to these materials. Machining methods
used in this area can be classified as follows [4]:

o Abrasive machining methods (e.g. ultrasonic machining, rotary ultrasonic machining,

Abrasive water jet machining, etc.)
o Non-contact machining methods (e.g. laser machining, electro-discharge machining,
chemical machining, etc.)
o Hybrid machining methods
ƒ Thermally-assisted-machining
ƒ Laser-Assisted machining (LAM)

2
 ƒ Plasma enhanced machining (PEM)
ƒ Laser-assisted grinding
ƒ Electro chemical machining
ƒ Mechanochemical machining
ƒ Ultrasonic grinding
ƒ Ultrasonic electro discharge machining

One approach, which is becoming increasingly popular with difficult-to-machine

materials, is laser assisted machining (LAM). In this process, the workpiece is subjected
to a focused laser beam. This results in a localized heat flux, which significantly increases
the temperature of the workpiece in the vicinity of the cutting tool. This heating softens
the material and thus improves its machinability. The focused laser beam is a preferred
heat source for thermal softening as it minimizes damage and distortion to the workpiece
material. LAM of Inconel 718 under finishing conditions is the focus of the present study.

1.2 Terminal Thesis Objectives

The terminal objective of this thesis is to initially devise a setup to implement laser
assisted machining. The objective function of the LAM experiments is to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the process and identify cutting parameters that would yield the optimum
results in terms of tool wear and surface integrity. The specific objectives of the thesis are
discussed in more detail following a critical review of the literature (section 2.8).

1.3 Thesis Organization

The thesis is comprised of six chapters in total. The present chapter gives a brief
introduction to the motivation and issues that led to the study at hand.

Chapter 2 is an in-depth, critical literature review of previous research published in the

area of Inconel 718, its machinability issues and past LAM research.

Chapter 3 describes the experimental setup used to carry out and analyze the LAM
process.

Chapter 4 presents the results obtained from the heating and optimization screening tests
performed under LAM conditions and comparison to conventional machining.

3
Chapter 5 presents and discusses the results obtained from the tool life study,
microstructural analysis and chip morphologies.

Chapter 6 lays out the main conclusions of the present research and proposes
recommendations for future work to be carried out in this area.

4
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter provides a critical review of the literature regarding Inconel 718 (IN718)
and laser assisted machining (LAM). Initially, mechanical and metallurgical properties of
IN718 are briefly reviewed. This is followed by a comprehensive evaluation of research
performed on conventional machining of this material. Finally, the concept of laser
assisted machining (LAM) is introduced and the corresponding past research on IN718 is
reviewed. As a conclusion to this chapter, deficiencies in research work regarding LAM
of IN718 have been identified.

2.2 Superalloys

A Superalloy or a high performance alloy is a metallic alloy that exhibits excellent

mechanical strength and creep resistance at temperatures above 540 °C, where ordinary
steels and titanium alloys can no longer maintain their strength. Superalloys also show
good surface stability and good corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures [3, 6, 8].

There are three groups of superalloys; iron-nickel, nickel and cobalt based alloys. Inconel
718 is identified as a nickel based superalloy. These are the most widely used group of
superalloys in the industry.

All superalloys consist of an austenitic FCC matrix phase γ, plus a variety of secondary
phases. Superalloys derive their strength mainly from solid-solution hardeners and
precipitated phases [9, 6]. Despite their superior mechanical and thermal properties,
superalloys commonly pose a problem in terms of manufacturing. Machining and
especially finish machining of superalloys is generally very expensive and time
consuming. High temperature application of superalloys is extensive, including
components for aircraft engines, chemical and petrochemical equipment. The
significance of superalloys can be typified by the fact that, whereas in 1950 only about
10% of the total weight of an aircraft gas-turbine engine was made of superalloys,
nowadays this figure has risen to about 60% [9, 10].

5
2.3 Inconel 718
Inconel 718 is a precipitation hardenable nickel based superalloy, containing significant
amounts of iron, niobium, and molybdenum along with lesser amounts of aluminum and
titanium. It combines corrosion resistance and high strength with outstanding weldability
and other properties including resistance to post-weld cracking [6].

2.3.1 Microstructure

IN718 consists of an austenitic face centered cubic (FCC) matrix phase γ. Secondary
phases of value in controlling properties are FCC carbides MC, M23C6 and M6C7; gamma
prime (γ΄) FCC ordered Ni3(Al, Ti); and gamma double prime (γ˝) body centered
tetragonal (BCT) ordered Ni3Nb [6]. Superalloys derive their strength mostly from solid-
solution hardeners and precipitates. Principle strengthening precipitates are γ΄ and γ˝. The
different phases that exist in the IN718 microstructure are summarized in Table 2.1.

Phase Crystal structure Formula Specifications

γ FCC Matrix Continuous matrix of FCC structure. FCC nonmagnetic

phase that usually contains high percentage of solid-solution
elements such as cobalt, iron, chromium, molybdenum and
tungsten.

γ΄ FCC Ni3(Al, Ti) Principle strengthening phase in many nickel base

superalloys, but not IN718; crystal lattice varies in size
from the matrix. Shape varies from cubical to spherical

γ˝ BCT Ni3Nb Principle strengthening phase in IN718. Are coherent disk

shape particles that form on the {100} planes. Average
diameter is about 600 Å.

δ Orthorhombic Ni3Nb Observed in over-aged IN718; has an acicular shape when

formed between 815 and 980 °C.

MC Cubic TiC, NbC, Appears as globular, irregularly shaped particles that are
HfC grey to lavender.

M23C6 FCC (Cr, Fe, W, It can precipitate as films, globules, platelets, lamellae and
Mo)23C6 cells. Usually forms at grain boundaries.

M6C FCC various Randomly distributed carbide; may appear pinkish; M

element is generally molybdenum or tungsten.

Table 2.1 Phases observed in IN718 [9, 6].

6
C
Carbides vide limitedd strengthening by stabillizing grain boundaries
prov b a
against exceessive
shhear. Inconeel 718 is a nioobium-strenngthened nickkel based suuperalloy. Thhis means thaat the
prrinciple streengthening precipitate
p iss γ˝. Figure 2.1 shows an SEM im
mage of a tyypical
IN
N718 microsstructure witth all the maain phases prresent.

Figu
ure 2.1 SEM
M micrographh showing (aa) δ -phase plates, (b) γ˝ discs and (c) γ´
spherooids in IN718 treated isoothermally att 850oC/24h. [11]

T primary strengtheniing mechanism for Incconel 718 iss age hardeening due too the
The
prresence of a fine uniforrm metastabble γ˝ precippitate, distriibuted throuughout the matrix
m
[112]. At room
m temperaturre, slip in Incconel 718 iss heterogeneous in naturre and is connfined
too planar ban
nds of varyinng widths wiith dislocatioon pairs in the
t matrix annd no disloccation
sttructure obseervable in γ˝˝ particles [112, 9, 13]. At higher tem
mperatures, thhe deformatiion is
homogenouslly distributedd and is com
mprised of uniformly
u tanngled disloccations. Tablle 2.2
shhows the lim
mit of stabilitty of these phhases in diffferent nickell based superralloys.

7
 Alloy Solvus Temperature
Phase
(Limit of Stability)
γ΄ 855 ºC
A-286
η (Ni3Ti) 915 ºC
γ˝ 915 ºC
718
δ (Ni3Cb) 995 ºC
γ΄ or γ˝ 885 ºC
706
η and/or Ni3Cb 955 ºC
γ΄ 940 ºC
901
η (Ni3Ti) 995 ºC
γ΄ 955 ºC
Pyromet 860
η (Ni3Ti) 955 ºC

Table 2.2 Solvus temperatures of different phases in some nickel base superalloys. [12]

2.3.2 Mechanical Properties

Inconel 718 has superior high temperature mechanical properties such as resistance to
oxidation and corrosion, as well as high tensile stress and rupture stress (Refer to Table
2.3). It has been widely used for parts in the aerospace industry and nuclear reactors such
as jet engines, gas turbines, pump bodies and thrust reversers. It can have maximum
service temperatures of up to 1200 °C. The combined effects of poor thermal properties,
high temperature strength, tendency to severe work hardening and high tool-workpiece
affinity make machining of Inconel 718 very difficult. The details of Inconel 718’s
chemical composition are given below.

Inconel 718: 50-55% Ni, 0.08% C, 0.35% Mn, 18.5% Fe, 0.015 % S, 0.35% Cu, 19%
Cr, 3.05 %Mo, 5.3% (Nb+Ta), 0.9% Ti, 0.5% Al, 0.95% B [9]

8
 Density (g/cm3) 8.19

Melting Range (ºC) 1260-1338

Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 1375

Yield Tensile Strength (MPa) 1100

Elongation at Break (%) 25

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (μm/mºC) 13

Heat Capacity (J/gºC) 0.435

Thermal Conductivity (W/mK) 11.4

Table 2.3 Mechanical properties of IN718. [12]

Inconel 718 has exceptional high temperature strength and can retain much of its strength
at temperatures of up to 750 ºC. Figure 2.2 shows how the yield strength of Inconel 718
varies with temperature [14].
Yield Strength (KSI)

Temperature (ºC)

Figure 2.2 Yield strength of Inconel 718 vs. temperature. [14]

9
The constitutive law of IN718 has been identified by Shi [15] as:

exp 1

where A=1233 MPa, b=445 MPa, c=31, C=-0.023, =0.21. This law signifies that at
higher workpiece temperatures, strain rate and not strain is the dominating deformation
mechanism that affects the flow stresses.

2.3.3 Machinability Issues

Machinability is the general term used to rate the ease of machining a material relative to
tool life, surface finish or specific power consumption. The basic machinability of a
material is a function of its [7]:
1. Chemistry
2. Structure
3. Compatibility with tool material

Materials that have been introduced to the aerospace industry have poor machinability
due to their superior characteristics. The main causes for difficulties in machining nickel
base alloys such as Inconel 718 are [7, 16]:
• Tendency for maximum tool-face temperature to be close to the tool tip, causing
rapid tool wear. As explained earlier, this is because of the negative partition ratio
(R2) that leads to high temperatures at the tool-chip interface.
• High work hardening rates at machining strain rates leading to high machining
forces
• Strong tendency to weld to the tool and to form a built up edge (BUE).

In addition, Inconel 718 maintains its strength at high temperatures and exerts high
pressure on the cutting edge even at high cutting speeds [5]. The precipitates within the
material act as abrasive particles which add to the machining demand and keep cutting
speeds down. The high amount of nickel present in IN718 makes it very demanding to
machine, and very work-hardenable.

10
2.4 Machining of Inconel 718

The major cost of machining Inconel 718 is associated with finishing operations, where
depth of cut is very small causing rapid flank wear and generating chatter and high
cutting forces [2]. Most experimental results in the literature are based on roughing
operations. Only few have investigated issues regarding finishing operations [12].

2.4.1 Cutting Forces

Rahman et al. [17] conducted cutting tests on Inconel 718. They found the cutting forces
for Inconel 718 under wet cutting conditions. Rahmen et al. used two tools for the cutting
operation which had a rhomboid shaped geometry and were a TiN/PVD coated cemented
carbide grade EH20Z-UP and a Multi Al2O3 CVD coated cemented carbide grade AC25.
The cutting parameters tested were: (i) cutting speed ranges from 30 m/min to 50 m/min,
(ii) feed ranges from 0.2 mm/rev to 0.4 mm/rev, and (iii) a constant depth of cut of 2 mm.
These researchers found that the cutting and axial forces increased as the feed rate and
the cutting time increased. The cutting force increased, on an average by 600 N, as feed
rate was increased from 0.2 mm/rev to 0.4 mm/rev. No significant change was found in
cutting force as the cutting speed increased from 30 m/min to 40 m/min. Also, a CVD
coated tool generated higher cutting forces compared to a PVD coated tool. The results
obtained agree with the conclusions drawn by Liao [18] for machining Inconel 718 using
cemented carbide tools. Ezugwu et al. [19] also measured the cutting force, feed force,
and radial force under wet cutting conditions for Inconel 718. A single layer (TiN) PVD
coated carbide tool and a multilayer (TiN/TiCN/TiN) PVD coated carbide tool were used,
having a rhomboid shaped geometry. The cutting parameters tested were: (i) cutting
speed ranges from 29 m/min and 42 m/min, (ii) feed ranges from 0.13 mm/rev and 0.25
mm/rev, and (iii) a constant depth of cut of 2 mm. The researchers observed a significant
reduction in forces when machining at a higher cutting speed and a lower feed. This is
due to (i) the reduction in the tool-chip and tool-workpiece contact lengths/areas caused
by the thinner chips produced and (ii) the softening of the work material in the shear zone
due to the heat generated at higher speed conditions. Similar tests were carried out by
Ezugwu et al. [20] using two types of tools that have a rhomboid shaped geometry; a

11
single layer (TiAlN) PVD coated carbide tool and a multilayer (TiN/TiCN/TiN) PVD
coated carbide tool. The cutting parameters tested were: (i) cutting speeds ranging from
54 m/min and 68 m/min, (ii) a constant feed of 0.076 mm/rev, and (iii) depths of cut
ranging from 0.635 mm to 1.25 mm. Contrary to expectation, the researchers observed
the feed forces to be higher than the cutting forces, particularly towards the end of the
machining process. The forces were also higher when machining at higher cutting
speeds. The TiAlN coated tool gave higher forces than the TiN/TiCN/TiN coated tool
during machining. This result is probably due to the adverse effect of the burr formation
and work hardening of the workpiece material during prolonged machining. Chodhury et
al. [21] measured the cutting forces when machining Inconel 718 under dry cutting
conditions. The two types of tools used had a rhomboid shaped geometry: (i) an uncoated
carbide tool, grade H13A and (ii) a coated carbide tool (Al2O3/TiC), grade GC3015. The
cutting parameters tested were: (i) cutting speeds ranging from 7 m/min to 45 m/min, (ii)
feeds ranging from 0.12 mm/rev to 0.3 mm/rev, and (iii) depths of cut ranging from 0.8
mm to 2 mm. The researchers observed that the cutting force decreases with increasing
cutting speed, but increases with increasing feed or depth of cut.

Bhatt [12] conducted finishing machining operations using three different coated carbide
tools, all having round insert geometry with a 0° rake angle and a 7° clearance angle. The
three tools used were: (i) uncoated tungsten carbide tool, (ii) a single layered PVD
(TiAlN) coated WC and, (iii) triple layered CVD (TiCN/Al2O3/TiN) coated WC. He
conducted a series of tests with cutting speeds and feeds ranging from 50 m/min to 100
m/min and from 0.075 to 0.125 mm/rev, respectively. All cuts where kept within
finishing criteria having a constant depth of cut (DOC) of 0.25 mm. It was observed that
for low cutting speeds of 50 m/min the forces generated with the triple layer carbide tool
were higher than the other two inserts. However, feed forces generated by the triple layer
carbide tool exhibited a drop as the feed increased. At medium cutting speed of 75 m/min
and 0.1 mm/rev, the triple layer coated carbide had the lowest cutting, feed and thrust
forces of all three tools. At high cutting speeds the triple layer coated carbide generated
the highest forces in all three directions, with the uncoated tool generating the lowest. He
concluded that cutting forces increase with feed and decrease with cutting speed for all
three cutting tools.
12
2.4.2 Tool Wear

Studies performed by Liao [22] indicated a mixed type of wear mechanism for turning of
Inconel 718 using cemented tungsten carbide tools (WC). At high cutting speeds, tool
WC particles diffuse into the cobalt binder (Co) by means of grain boundary diffusion.
This weakens the bond strength between the carbide tool particles resulting in tool failure
[23]. He concluded that the collapse of the cutting edge in machining nickel based alloys
is mainly due to the increase of normal stresses acting on the cutting edge [24]. The
following tool wear mechanisms were demonstrated by Liao [22]:

Step 1: Bonding between the chip and tool is formed at high stress and temperature.

Step 2: Ni or Fe diffused into the Co grain boundaries and intermetallic phases between
tool particles and binders by ways of grain boundary diffusion due to high temperature.

Step 3: The intermetallic phases are dissolved due to high affinity of tool particles with
Ni. This causes destruction of the bonding between tool particles and Co.

Step 4: When the bonding energy between tool particles and Co is less than that between
tool particles and the chip, a large number of tool particles are detached from the tool
[25]. This is followed by rapid wear of Co and step one is repeated.

Sharman et al. [26] reported a 42 minute tool life when an EH20-UP (PVD coated)
carbide tool was employed at a cutting speed of 30 m/min, a 0.2 mm/rev feed, and a side
cutting edge angle of 45º. The failure of the EH20-UP tool was mainly dominated by
average flank wear (> 300 μm), whereas for the AC25 (CVD coated) carbide tool, the
tool life criterion of depth of cut notch wear (> 800 μm) was reached.

Ezugwu et al. [20] reported a 48 minute tool life for Inconel 718 when a multilayer
(TiN/TiCN/TiN) PVD coated carbide tool was employed at a cutting speed of 29 m/min
and a 0.25 mm/rev feed. The tool failure criterion of average flank wear (≥ 400 μm) was
reached at the end of the tool life. The researchers observed that a multilayer PVD coated
tool performed better than a single layer PVD coated tool. Flank wear was the dominant
tool failure mode at cutting speeds of up to 42 mm/min. The multilayer (TiN/TiCN/TiN)

13
PVD coated carbide tool gave a tool life of 30 minutes at a cutting speed of 42 mm/min, a
feed of 0.13 mm/rev, and a 1.0 mm depth of cut.

Several wear mechanisms have been identified as responsible for the deterioration of
ceramic tools when machining Inconel 718. The main tool wear mechanism for ceramic
tools was notch wear characterized by the plastic flow towards the side of the chip, and a
burr on the workpiece formed by the major cutting edge at particular cutting speeds [28,
29].

As referred to earlier, Bhatt [12] concluded from his finishing experiments that at low
cutting speeds of 50 m/min, no significant difference in tool wear mechanisms were
observed with increasing feed. He also noted adhesion of workpiece material to the rake
face of the tool. The main tool failure modes were abrasion and adhesion. At a moderate
speed of 75 m/min the triple layer coated carbide showed signs of cratering. At higher
cutting speed of 100 m/min, chipping on the cutting edge was also observed yet the
dominant mode of wear was still average flank wear.

2.4.3 Surface Integrity

The main issues reported regarding surface integrity of IN718, are surface tearing,
cavities and cracking [12, 28, 30, 31]. When cutting with new tools, little subsurface
microstructural alteration was seen; however, after continuing the cutting process, the
workpiece contained significant plastic deformation and increased levels of
microhardness [19].

Sharman [28] reported that subsurface microstructural deformation caused by machining

consists of deformed grain boundaries in the direction of cut. He noted cracked carbide
particles and surface cavities to be visible on the machined surface. Furthermore he stated
that a new tool has a lesser effect on grain deformation than a worn out tool. This is
because when cutting with a worn tool, the clearance angle is reduced causing rubbing to
take place. Also the cutting speed plays a major role in the change in subsurface
microstructure. He also observed that the residual stress profile was tensile near the
surface layer before rapidly dropping to compressive levels within a 50 μm depth, and

14
then leveling out with increasing depth of 200 μm below the workpiece surface. Under
the same conditions, tensile stresses were greater with a coated tool when compared to an
uncoated tool [32, 33].

Studies on machining of Inconel 718 [28, 30, 19] demonstrated that the residual stress
profile for turning is tensile. Use of ceramic tools has been shown to lead to greater levels
of tensile residual stress generation. This is most likely due to the high cutting speed
utilized with ceramic tools [34, 35, 36]. In addition, ceramic tools create a greater level of
smearing and are generally not preferred for finishing operations.

2.4.4 Chip Formation

Not much work has been done regarding the detailed mechanism of chip formation when
machining Inconel 718. Komanduri et al. [37] have investigated the deformation
characteristics of chips when machining Inconel 718 at various speeds with hot-pressed
ceramic (alumina plus titanium carbide) and cubic boron nitride cutting tools. According
to their research, the shear localized chips between the segments begin to form at about
61 m/min to 100 m/min. Figure 2.3 shows an example of a shear localized chip otherwise
known as sawtooth or more generally, segmental chip formed at a cutting speed of 61
m/min.

Figure 2.3 Optical micrographs of the Inconel 718 chip at 61 m/min. [37]

Two theories currently are in debate about the cause of sawtooth chip formation. Shaw et
al. [7], identified the root cause of this occurrence as a catastrophic thermoplastic
instability where the decrease in flow stresses due to thermal softening leads to this type

15
of chip formation (adiabatic shear theory). The cyclic crack theory proposed by
Nakayama dismisses the adiabatic shear theory suggesting that sawtooth chip formation
is initiated by periodic crack formation. The fact that sawtooth chips have been seen to
generate at extremely low cutting speeds (low temperatures) is further proof that periodic
crack is the main cause for this kind of chip formation and not adiabatic shear [7].

Bhatt [12] experimented on IN718 under finishing conditions. He obtained optical

micrographs on the chips collected. An SEM analysis of the chips showed no phase
change in the deformed chips. Furthermore, the chips under all cutting conditions (50-100
m/min) and feeds of up to 0.125 mm/rev were all steady state chips with signs of
transition to shear localized chips visible at higher cutting speeds of 100 m/min. Figure
2.4 shows a sample of a chip obtained under the mentioned conditions.

Figure 2.4 Chip image for cutting speed of 75 m/min and feed of 0.125 mm/rev showing
signs of transition to shear localized chips. [12]

Some reasons for sawtooth or shear localized chips to emerge [7] have been identified as:
high hardness due to heat treatment, high strain rate, and a high degree of strain
hardening. In more recent studies, Shaw et al. [38] have adapted the cyclic crack
approach to explain the generation of sawtooth chips. In this theory, a crack initiates and
runs down along the shear plane towards the tool point. This chip section then glides
outwards until the next crack propagates.

16
2.5 Thermally Enhanced Machining (TEM)

The basic principle of heating a material to make it deform more easily is ancient in its
origin. Warming up food to be able to cut is a simple example of a thermally assisted
cutting process. The concept of thermally-assisted machining applied to turning and
milling of hard material was first investigated in the early 1950’s. It was discovered [4,
39] that heating the surface of steel with an oxy-fuel torch prior to machining reduced the
spindle power needed. He also observed that the tool life decreased yet the material
removed in the same amount of time increased considerably. It was also demonstrated
that tool loads could be reduced with increased workpiece temperature [39]. Early
thermally-assisted experiments used oxyacetylene and inductance coils as the primary
heat source. Although the concept remains the same, recently more localized heat sources
such as plasma and laser have become more accessible. These heat sources are now being
used to increase the temperature of the workpiece surface in the immediate vicinity of the
cutting plane without changing the structure of the machined surface or causing
undesirable thermal distortion.

The most predominant types of TEM used are plasma enhanced machining (PEM) and
laser assisted machining (LAM).

2.5.1 Plasma Enhanced Machining (PEM)

PEM is an economic alternative to laser assisted machining reducing the considerable

initial costs associated with a laser, yet offering comparable heat input rates. Heating
during PEM is provided by direct current (DC). Transferred arcs generate thermal or
equilibrium plasmas. Thermal arc plasma generators consist of a tungsten cathode and a
cooled nozzle through which the plasma gas flows. The nozzle serves as an anode when
used with non-conducting work pieces. With conducting materials, the arc is transferred
to the workpiece which works as an anode [4].

Leshock [14] performed PEM experiments on Inconel 718 using a WG-300 insert at
different cutting speeds under a wide range of workpiece surface temperatures (20 to
700°C). For all the cutting speeds adopted, cutting force decreases with increasing

17
surface temperature up to 30% near 600°C. This reduction of cutting forces demonstrates
the decrease of shear strength of Inconel 718 at elevated temperatures. The actual shear
plane temperature would be higher than the surface temperature measured prior to
machining due to the additional energy dissipated by plastic deformation. Figure 2.5
shows the resultant cutting force as a function of the surface temperature.

Figure 2.5 Resultant cutting force vs. surface temperature for various cutting speeds for
PEM. [14]

Another apparent benefit of the PEM process is better surface roughness. Figure 2.6
shows surface roughness at different speeds as a function of surface temperature for
Inconel 718.

Figure 2.6 Surface roughness vs. surface temperature for various cutting speeds using
PEM. [14]

18
To summarize, the Benefits of PEM include a 30% reduction in the resultant cutting
force, two-fold improvement in surface roughness and about 40% increase in tool life,
compared with conventional machining. With a relatively low cost of plasma heating
units, the benefits and characteristics of plasma enhanced machining as applied to
difficult-to-machine material such as Inconel 718 are evident.

2.6 Laser Assisted Machining (LAM)

Over the years, many feasibility studies have been performed with the use of intense heat
to locally soften the material prior to cutting in an attempt to improve machinability of
the material. Laser assisted machining (LAM) has recently been considered as an
alternative process for machining hard to cut material such as Inconel 718. The advantage
of using a laser is that the highly localized heat of the laser spot avoids melting or
sublimation of the workpiece material [2].

2.6.1 LAM Principle of Operation

Laser assisted machining is a hybrid method which uses a high power laser to locally heat
the workpiece prior to material removal with a traditional cutting tool. At elevated
temperatures the yield strength of a brittle material decreases to below the fracture
strength changing the material deformation behavior from brittle to ductile. Also at
elevated temperatures, the yield strength of strong, ductile material decreases, thus
reducing cutting forces and tool wear as well as improving surface quality. Figure 2.7(a)
shows a schematic of laser assisted machining [4].

In conventional machining of IN718, there is a risk associated with temperature

distribution, where the highest temperature is being generated too close to the tip of the
tool. This means that the highest pressure is generated at the tool tip causing premature
cracking and a high potency for built up edge (BUE) formation. When the highest
temperature is not at the tip, the pressure is distributed well within the tool geometry so
that the hottest zones are adequately positioned on the chip face thus reducing wear [5].
This is precisely what LAM tries to achieve. The localized heat source, which is the laser
beam in this case, is absorbed by the workpiece resulting in a sharp temperature gradient

19
creating a favorable heat affected zone. Figure 2.7 (b) depicts the temperature distribution
on the cutting surface in a typical LAM turning experiment [2]. It is important to note
that the laser beam diameter (focal point) plays a major role in the intensity of the laser.
In previous research work, the laser beam diameter has been varied from 3 to 6.5 mm
[40, 2, 41]. Having a larger laser beam diameter will reduce the damage that the laser
might induce on the surface.

Figure 2.7 (a) LAM process overview. [4] (b) heat gradient created near laser beam. [2]

The main operating parameters associated with laser assisted machining are:

• Laser power
• Diameter of the focused laser beam
• Speed of the workpiece
• Depth of cut
• Feed rate
A typical overview of a LAM experimental setup is shown in Figure 2.8.

Laser

A laser (acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is an

optical source that emits photons in a coherent beam. Two main laser types are widely
used in LAM experiments: CO2 laser and Nd:YAG laser. The latter, having a shorter
wavelength, has better absorptivity [40].
20
Figure 2.8 LAM setup. (a) As demonstrated by Anderson [42], (b) LAM setup at the
NRC Aerospace Manufacturing Technology Center (Photo courtesy of NRC-AMTC)

There are several advantages to using laser as the primary heat source:

1) Precise focus of the laser beam provides controlled localized heating and
minimizes the creation of heat affected zones in the workpiece.
2) Lasers operate in air, unlike other heat sources such as electron beams which
require a vacuum, or plasma arcs that require a gas atmosphere around the
workpiece.
3) Laser beams can be directed to any optically accessible location and with virtually
any focal point geometry and intensity required

21
2.6.2 LAM of Ceramics

Although the concept of heating the work piece locally prior to cutting has been around
for many years, lasers emerged in the late 1970s [43]. Bass and co-workers demonstrated
the use of lasers to assist the machining of stainless steel. Cline and Anthony [4] first
utilized a laser to facilitate machining of Inconel 718. Rajagopal [40] also experimented
with a 14kW CO2 laser on Titanium and Inconel 718. Due to inefficiencies in laser-metal
interaction, low absorptivity, reflectivity and high initial cost, LAM did not generate
much interest at the time. Later on, Flom and co-workers conducted LAM research using
an Nd-YAG pulse laser on steel [4]. This type of laser provides higher absorptivity due to
its shorter wave length. They achieved a 49% reduction in cutting forces during the LAM
of steels and 30% for Ti-6Al-4V. Rozzi et al. [44, 45, 27, 46] derived a three-dimensional
heat transfer model for LAM of silicon nitride, which demonstrated a good agreement
with experimental values.

Due to their low density, superior wear resistance, and high temperature strength, silicon
nitride ceramics are increasingly being used for critical components in engineering
systems. Most past research into LAM has been carried out on this material [44, 47, 48,
49]. Table 2.4 shows the test matrix used by Lei [47].

V VZ Feed d Ll Dl Pl
Case
(rpm) (mm/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (mm) (mm) (W)
1 1000 10 0.01 1 1 2.5 250
2 500 10 0.02 1 1 2.5 250
3 2000 10 0.005 1 1 2.5 250
4 1000 20 0.02 1 1 2.5 250
5 1000 30 0.03 1 1 2.5 250
6 1000 10 0.01 1.5 1 2.5 250
7 1000 10 0.01 1 0.6 2.5 250
8 1000 10 0.01 1 2 2.5 250
9 1000 10 0.01 1 1 1.83 250
10 1000 10 0.01 1 1 3.84 250
11 1000 10 0.01 1 1 2.5 200
12 1000 10 0.01 1 1 2.5 300

Table 2.4 Test matrix for LAM of silicon nitride ceramic [47]. Ll= Laser lead, Dl= Laser
spot diameter, Pl= Laser power, Vz= Traverse speed d= depth of cut.

22
The conclusion drawn from experiments performed on silicon nitride is that as the
material removal temperature increases, more desirable cutting conditions are achieved.
Figure 2.9 shows the reduction in the cutting forces as a function of material removal
temperature as produced by Lei [47]. In this figure, the symbol Tmr is the material
removal temperature.

Figure 2.9 variation of cutting force vs. Tmr [47]

Another widely used Ceramic is aluminum oxide (Al2O3). Chang [50] performed LAM
experiments with this material and evaluated surface roughness and tool wear
mechanisms involved. With LAM, one can eliminate the threat of a thermally damaged
layer which occurs in conventional machining of aluminum oxide while the desired
surface finish and tolerance can be achieved. Chang concluded that tool wear in LAM is
much lower, resulting in producing better surface quality. Producing the same surface
quality with conventional machining would require reduction in both depth of cut and
feed, which would result in a decreased material removal rate. Hence, LAM can produce
a higher material removal rate than conventional machining [51].

Partially-Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ) is a structural ceramic that is being used in many

engineering application. PSZ is popular as a thermal barrier coating because of its low

23
thermal conductivity, and as a porous media for combustion applications. The fully-dense
form of PSZ is considered a structural material because its toughness and tensile strength.
Other applications include internal-combustion and gas-turbine engines. The brittleness
and hardness of PSZ and other ceramics make them difficult to machine, as stresses can
cause brittle fracture or undesirable surface finish. Pfefferkorn [41, 52] experimented
with PSZ using LAM. He was able to achieve lower specific cutting energy and longer
tool life at elevated temperatures. Figure 2.10 shows different characteristics of the LAM
process.

Figure 2.10 Results for LAM of PSZ material (Pfefferkorn) [41].

2.6.3 LAM of Inconel 718

Work on laser assisted machining (turning) of Inconel was first carried out by Rajagopal
(1982) [40] using a CO2 laser system. He determined the feasibility issues related to laser
assisted machining of IN718. The reduction in cutting forces is shown in Figure 2.11
[40].

24
 Figure 2.11 Reduction in
i cutting forrces in LAM
M of Inconel 718 at differrent speeds.[[40]

Itt was shown

n that the feeed rate for Innconel 718 could
c be douubled by thee use of a 122 kW
laaser. At the time these experiments
e were carrieed out, the innitial cost of
o a laser wiith its
loow absorptiivity could not justifyy LAM as a feasible alternative to conventtional
m
machining off Inconel 7188.

A
Anderson et al. [42] fuurther experiimented witth Inconel 718
7 using a thermal model
m
coonceived by
y Rozzi et. al.
a [44, 27]. A major isssue related to
t the feasibbility of LA
AM of
Innconel 718 is
i the low abbsorptivity of
o these alloyys. Furtherm
more, they exxperimentedd with
different coaatings to inccrease absorrptivity. Figgure 2.12 (aa) shows thee results. Itt was
prroven that a graphite abrrasive coatinng had a majjor advantagge over otherr coatings. Figure
F
2.12 (b) show
ws the absorrptivity of laaser power at
a different wavelengths
w s as presenteed by
A
Anderson et al.
a

25
 (a) (b)
Figure 2.12 (a) effect of different coating materials applied to Inconel 718 to increase
absorptivity. (b) Absorptivity of different laser wavelengths on Inconel 718. [42]

A sharp decrease in specific cutting energy from conventional machining to low

temperature LAM (up to temperatures of 550 °C) was established. This is shown in
Figure 2.13. Another decrease in specific cutting energy will generally be observed at
higher temperatures (temperatures in excess of 650 °C) where the strength of the material
is significantly reduced. The second decrease in specific cutting energy was not
demonstrated by Anderson due to a lack of experimental facilities.

Figure 2.13 Specific cutting energy vs. material removal temperature. [42]

Increasing the material removal zone temperature using LAM (material removal
temperature (Tmr) 540 ºC) decreases tool wear compared to conventional machining. The
maximum flank wear on the primary face decreases with increasing Tmr. Although the
average flank wear on the primary face during LAM is lower than conventional
machining, it increases with increasing Tmr,ave from 360 to 540 ºC. An increase in
temperature creates a smaller temperature gradient on the tool. This caused the primary

26
flank of the tool to wear more uniformly. With increasing temperature, a large decrease is
also seen in the maximum flank wear on the secondary face. This is depicted in Figures
2.14 and 2.15.

Figure 2.14 Notch wear at different Tmr. [42]

Figure 2.15 VBmax and VBave vs. Tmr,ave. [42]

An economical analysis of the LAM process was performed by Anderson. It was shown
that at 3.0 m/s, savings of up to 50% could be achieved. This is shown in Figure 2.16.

Figure 2.16 Tool cost comparison when machining 1m length of Inconel 718. [42]

27
2.7 Gap Analysis

Of the studies carried out on IN718 under LAM conditions only a CO2 laser has been
used as the heat source. A CO2 laser has a very low absorptivity with IN718. This
requires coatings to be applied to the workpiece material in order to achieve enhanced
absorptivity. The applied coatings cannot withstand very high temperatures, thus there
exists a temperature limit when using a CO2 laser. An Nd:YAG laser has a much higher
absorptivity rating with IN718 [53].

A truly practical setup in terms of industrial usage for LAM is lacking in published
research. Furthermore, there is need of a thorough comparison of different cutting tools.
Researchers have mainly used ceramic or CBN tools to study LAM. Triple layer coated
carbide has proved to have good thermal resistance [41, 12]. In general, carbide tools
tend to have less negative effects on the surface integrity of the workpiece and are known
to provide better surface roughness [28, 30]. Also, a comprehensive study on
optimization of cutting conditions has not been carried out. It is imperative to study the
conditions in which LAM is most beneficial. High temperatures created as a result of a
laser heat source might have an adverse effect on tool life due to the occurrence of other
wear mechanisms or microstructural damage that are not observed in conventional
machining,

Furthermore, a study on the surface integrity of IN718 under LAM conditions has not
been established. Whether or not the laser creates a phase change in the material is of
critical importance. Subsurface microstructural damage needs to be assessed. The use of
this material in the aerospace sector necessitates a more comprehensive analysis of the
surface integrity for the manufacturing processes used.

There is a lack of studies on the chip formation of Inconel 718 whether it is under
conventional or LAM conditions. The types of chips produced in LAM vs. conventional
machining could prove essential in predicting tool wear and surface damage.

28
2.8 Specific Objectives of the Research Work

The specific objectives of this thesis are threefold:

1. Initially to establish a setup and determine laser parameters that yield temperatures
suitable for the LAM process. After the initial stage a series of optimization screening
tests under various cutting conditions are performed. This analysis includes the
evaluation of the laser assisted machining process in terms of:
i. Tool wear mechanisms
ii. Cutting forces
iii. Surface roughness of the machined surfaces
The optimization tests are designed to yield the optimum cutting speed and feed.

2. After the establishment of optimum conditions, a complete tool life study is

performed for the selected conditions as the second objective of this research. The
tool life tests aim at evaluating LAM in terms of:
i. Tool wear progression with time
ii. Modes of tool failure and wear mechanisms
iii. Subsurface microstructural analysis and microhardness measurements
iv. Surface integrity and phase change within the material
3. Finally chips gathered during the tests are analyzed. This is to provide insight into the
chip formation mechanism and the resulting chip morphology during machining of
IN718 using LAM and conventional machining.

29
Chapter 3: Experimental Setup

3.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a detailed description of the setup used for the experiments in this
thesis. The specifications of all measuring equipment as well as their sources of error are
identified and discussed. Furthermore, the calibration procedure for the infrared camera
and the laser beam diameter are explained herein.

3.2 Workpiece Material

The workpiece material used in these experiments is INCONEL718 with surface

hardness of around 28 HRC. The material is solution heat-treated and aged. No coating
has been applied to the surface to enhance absorptivity. The workpiece diameters used
for laser assisted machining (LAM) screening tests were between 59-63 mm. The cutting
length was 30 mm for all tests with the exception of the tool life experiments for the
ceramic tool, which had a cutting length of 50 mm.

3.3 Cutting Tool

Two kinds of inserts were used for the cutting tests. The first is a triple layer coated
(CVD/TiCN/Al2O3/TiN) Carbide Tool (KC8050) and the second is a Sialon Ceramic tool
(KY1540) both provided by Kennametal. Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 show the geometry of
each insert and the corresponding tool holder. To have a stronger cutting edge, both
inserts were chosen to have a round geometry. It is important to note that the ceramic tool
utilizes a slightly negative rake angle, dictated by the tool holder. Ceramic tools generally
show a brittle behavior, thus a negative rake angle is commonly used to give the cutting
edge additional strength.

For tool life testing, the inserts were not removed from the tool holder for each
measurement. This ensures that the cutting edge does not change for each pass.

30
Table 3.1 Tool and tool holder geometries for the tripe layer carbide insert (KC8050)

Table 3.2 Tool and tool holder geometries for the ceramic insert (KY1540)

31
3.4 Experimental Setup

3.4.1 Machine Tool

All turning tests were performed on a 6-axis Boehringer NG 200, CNC turning center.
This machine has the following specifications: a 36 kW main spindle with a maximum
speed of 4,000 rpm and a maximum feed rate of 25 m/min. The machine is able to
accommodate a workpiece with a maximum diameter of 250 mm and a maximum length
of 650 mm.

3.4.2 Laser

For all experiments, a 1006-D 4KW Trumpf Nd:YAG laser, which provides a wavelength
of 1.069 μm was used. The laser head is mounted on a three axis stage which allows
minor linear or rotary adjustments. An Exair 2” flat nozzle, capable of providing 125 Psi
of air pressure is used to protect the laser lens from excess heat and chips. The setup used
for the laser heating tests is displayed in Figure 3.1. The laser beam is focused on the
workpiece, and is positioned at a 48-50° angle to the vertical direction. In order to find
out the optimum laser parameters for heating the workpiece, a series of surface heating
tests were performed.

3.4.2.1 Laser Spot Size Calibration Tests

In order to establish a correlation for the laser spot size as a function of the distance from
workpiece, a series of spot burning tests were carried out. A small laser power was
applied instantaneously to a black paper. Table 3.3 shows the matrix for these tests.

Laser Power Burning Time Distance from focal point (80

#
(W) (ms) mm from workpiece) (mm)
1 100 10 0
2 100 10 1.5
3 100 10 2.4
4 100 10 3.4
5 100 10 4.5
6 100 10 7

Table 3.3 Test matrix for laser spot calibration test

32
 IR Camera

Workpiece
Slip Ring
Laser Head

Machine
Spindle
Protective air nozzle

Figure 3.1 Setup for laser heating experiments

In order to determine the true size of the laser spot, the sample had to be analyzed under a
microscope. Figure 3.2 shows a magnified image of a spot burnt by the laser. Figure 3.3
shows the results for the tests. The equation used for adjusting the spot size was obtained
from the trend line of the graph to be:

ØLaser = 0.241∆d + 0.170

where ØLaser is the laser spot diameter in mm, and ∆d is the distance from the focal point
of the system, i.e., 80 mm from the workpiece.

33
 a

1 millimeter

Figure 3.2 A spot burned by the laser viewed under magnification. Circle (a) shows the
true laser spot diameter for this test.

3.5

3
Laser Spot diameter (mm)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Slider displacement from origin (80 mm from workpiece)

Figure 3.3 Graph showing the results and the trend line obtained for the spot size tests.

3.4.3 LAM Setup

The LAM tests were carried out in two phases. Phase-1 consists of quick screening tests
for both the ceramic and the coated carbide tool. Each test was performed with a new
cutting edge. These experiments were aimed at obtaining the optimum cutting condition
in terms of cutting speed and feed. In phase-2, tool life tests were carried out for the

34
selected cutting conditions. Figure 3.4 shows a schematic and the actual setup used for
the LAM tests.

Tool
holder

Feed
φ Laser head

W Laser spot

(a)

Dynamometer/
Tool holder

Laser Head
Workpiece

Tool Insert Protective air nozzle

(b)

Figure 3.4 (a) Schematic of laser assisted machining (b) Experimental setup used for the
laser assisted machining tests

35
3.5 Cutting Forces

The cutting forces were recorded for every cutting test. A three component 9121 type
Kistler dynamometer connected to a data acquisition system was used to record the
forces. Figure 3.5 depicts the direction of the dynamometer force measurements.

Fy: Radial force

Fx: Feed force

Fz: Cutting force

Figure 3.5 Force directions during machining

Error Analysis

There are two main sources of accuracy error associated with the dynamometer:

Nonlinearity: This is a measure of the maximum deviation of any calibration points from
a reference straight line. The maximum deviation is usually expressed as a percentage of
the full-scale reading.

Crosstalk: This is the percentage of measurement that is present on the other channels.
This kind of error exists in multi-axis dynamometers only.

The two main systematic sources of error during the measurement are ∆1 (nonlinearity
error) and ∆2 (crosstalk error). These two errors are independent, thus they can be
calculated using the following equation [15]:

∆ ∆ ∆

36
For the dynamometer used the following error specifications are provided by the
manufacturer as shown in Table 3.4.

Calibrated measuring range 5000 N

Linearity of full range ±1%
Crosstalk ±3%

Table 3.4 Linearity and crosstalk of the Kistler 9121

The highest force measured during the cutting tests is identified as 420 N. Using this case
for the error analysis; the highest error is calculated to be ±13.3 N.

3.6 Tool Wear

The flank wear measurements for the cutting operations were recorded using an Olympus
SZ-X12 stereoscopic microscope. The microscope has been calibrated against standard
block gauges. The measurements were done using digital camera imagery acquired by
computer software.

For the tool life tests, the measurements were carried out without removing the insert
after each cut. These experiments were discontinued if any of the failure criteria
explained below was reached. These criteria are in accordance with the International
Standard ISO 3685. Figure 3.6 (a) shows the area of wear on the tool’s flank face. The
regions of wear are schematically illustrated in Figure 3.6 (b).

• Average flank wear (VBave) of 300μm

• Maximum flank wear (VBmax) of 600 μm
• Notch wear (VBN) of 800 μm

VBa
Rake face
Wear region
VBmax VBN

Flank face (a) (b)

Figure 3.6 (a) Worn insert (KC8050), showing wear region (b) Flank wear criteria

37
Three separate measurements were taken on the tool’s flank face. The following
equations [54] were used to calculate the standard error:

Standard deviation (σ) = ∑ , Standard error (SE) =

√

where is the arithmetic mean of the samples and N is the sample size. The highest value
of standard error was found to be ±3.17 μm.

3.7 Surface Roughness Measurements

Surface roughness measurements were taken after each pass. The measurement was
carried out online (without removing the workpiece) using a portable Taylor Hobson
Surtronic 3+. The measurement length was 4 mm. For verification purposes, all the
specimens from the first screening tests were also measured using a Taylor Hobson
Talysurf series 2 topography machine. Online measurements with the portable Taylor
Hobson setup can be seen in Figure 3.7. The error percentage identified by the
manufacturer is 4.5%.

Figure 3.7 Online roughness measurements; Portable Taylor Hobson Surtronic 3+

3.8 Workpiece Temperature Measurements

a) IR Camera:

A Flir systems, Thermovision A20 Infra red camera with a wavelength detection range of
8-12 μ was used for both the laser heating and the laser assisted machining tests. The

38
camera can perceive temperatures between -40° to 900° C. The camera was used in
conjunction with ThermoCAM S40 analysis software to record and perform
measurements. The camera is placed in such a way that it views the workpiece from the
top (see Figure 3.1). Figure 3.8 shows a picture from the ThermoCAM S40 software
taken by the IR camera showing the point that the measurements were taken. The camera
moves along the machine Z-axis, thus always gathering data from a point 45-50º from
where the laser beam strikes.

Slip Ring

Workpiece

Point of
measurement
Z

Y
X

Figure 3.8 IR camera image (viewing workpiece from the top)

b) Thermocouple:

For verification and calibration of the IR camera during dynamic turning tests, a K type
thermocouple was attached to the workpiece. The thermocouple was passed through an
air cooled Michigan Scientific B6-2W high speed slip ring, capable of handling speeds of
up to 15,000 RPM. The data was collected through a data acquisition system using
Labview software.

39
3.8.1 IR Camera Calibration

Radiation thermometry works by correlating the energy emitted by a black body to its
thermodynamic temperature. The advantages of radiation thermometry is that it is non-
intrusive and has a relatively fast response time, i.e., in the order of milliseconds. The key
variable in measuring temperature with IR is the emissivity. Emissivity is a measure of
the fraction of the total radiation emitted by a perfect black body at the same temperature.
Its value falls between 0 and 1 [55, 56].

In practice, emissivity can vary not only with temperature, but also with other factors
such as direction, surface conditions, etc. The behavior of emissivity makes a
fundamental problem in determining temperature in different setups. The turning
operation occurs at extremely high RPM. At this speed the direction of the radiation is
dissimilar to the static conditions. In order to get an accurate reading, a thermocouple was
attached to the workpiece, to measure the true value of temperature and calibrate the
camera under the experimental conditions.

Figure 3.9 shows a typical heating curve obtained by the thermocouple. The curve is
showing a spiked pattern. In these tests, the laser beam is much bigger than the
thermocouple junction; this is why such a pattern is established. Each spike peak
corresponds to the instant where the laser spot comes in contact with the thermocouple
junction (one revolution). The highest peak is the instant where the thermocouple
junction is in the middle of the laser beam, thus having the highest temperature. Knowing
the angular distance from the stagnation point of the laser to the measuring point of the
IR camera (49º), the precise temperature is calculated. Using the data collected from the
thermocouple, the emissivity was set to 0.09 for the IR camera.

40
 450

400

350
Temperature (°C) 300

250

200

150

100

50

0
39 40 41 42
Time (s)

Figure 3.9 Typical heating curve for thermocouple. The conditions for this test are 3000
W, 300 m/min, 0.3 mm/rev, 3 mm spot size. IR measurement point temperature is
calculated as 383 °C.

Error Analysis

The most important source of error for radiation thermometry is in the spectral emissivity
of the material. A single material can have vastly different emissivities. The IR camera
system used allows for a single value of emissivity to be set for a measurement. This is a
great source of error as the experiments deal with temperatures that vary from 50 to 900
°C. Emissivity is a function of temperature and if set to a single value it will give
accurate readings for a certain range of temperature. Other sources of error can include:

• Reflection errors, which mainly occur due to the presence of other heat sources in
the measurement zone, i.e., hot chips, tool, etc.
• Low resolution and slow response time especially in case of high rotational speed.

Figure 3.10 shows a comparison of value obtained from the thermocouple and the IR
camera using ε=0.09. The average value of error was established at 7.4%.

41
T error meentioned in the literaturre [55] for IR
The R thermomeetry is indicaated to be on
o the
orrder of 5-10
0%. As the precise tem
mperature off the workpiiece was noot critical foor the
prresent study
y and the aim of tem
mperature measurement
m was to ennsure raisingg the
teemperature to
t a certain range, an errror of 7.4%
% was deemeed acceptablle for the cuutting
teests [57, 55]..

1000
880 Temp thermocouple
900
780 temp. IR camera
800
700
0 700
700 620 600
600
Surface Temperature (°C)

500
4
480
500

400

300

200

100

0
100 150 200 300
Cutting sp
peed (m/min)

Figure 3.10 Comparison

F C n of the tempperature dataa obtained froom the therm mocouple annd IR
camera during the heatiing tests at various
v cuttinng speeds. ε=
=0.09- 3,0000 W- 2mm spot
s
size- 0.3 mmm/rev.

3 Chip and Miccrostructture analyysis

3.9

C
Chips were collected
c for all phase-1 (screening) tests duringg the first cuut when the insert
i
cuutting edge is
i new. In orrder to be mounted,
m the chips were cut
c and placeed between small
m
metal springss in a sandw
wich-like fashhion as depiicted in Figuure 3.11. Thhe position of
o the
chhip was such that the loongitudinal cross
c sectionn of the chipps were faciing upwardss (the
suurface which
h was to be ground
g and polished).
p

42
 Mounting Chip
spring

2 millimeter

Figure 3.11 Prepared chip sample, mounted in bakelite powder

For microstructure analysis, small cubic sections (10×5×8 mm) were machined out of the
workpiece with the use of a Wire Electro-Discharge Machine (WEDM). A WEDM was
used to avoid disrupting the stress and strain field of the machined surfaces. In order to
analyze the full effect of the machining process, the analyzed workpieces correspond to
surfaces at the point of tool failure.

All the samples were hot mounted in conductive Bakelite powder (Condufast by Struers)
at 180°C on a Struers LaboPress-3 machine. The heating and cooling cycles for the
mounting process were 6 and 4 minutes, respectively.

The grinding of the samples was performed using a silicon carbide paper of 220 grit size
followed by a 9 μm diamond solution for 4 minutes with a force of 200 N and 180 RPM.
Following the grinding process, polishing was achieved in two steps using 3 and 1 μm
diamond solutions for 5 minutes each with a force of 180 N and 150 RPM. As a last step,
a colloidal silica solution was used for 30 seconds in order to achieve a mirror like
surface. All grinding and polishing operations were performed on a Struers TegraPol-35
machine. Following these steps, the samples were electro-etched using 3 volts for 6-8
seconds. The chips required about 3 seconds due to their small thickness. The solution
used in the electro-etching contains 25 gr of Chromium Trioxide (CrO3), 130 ml of

43
Hydrochloric acid and 7 ml of distilled water. The electro-etching was carried out on a
Struers LectroPol-5 electro-etch system. The samples were cleaned using an ultrasonic
machine for 3-5 minutes.

The samples were analyzed under an Olympus GX71 optical microscope. Chip thickness
was measured at three separate locations using the microscope. The highest value of
standard error for these measurements is calculated to be ±0.011 mm (refer to section
3.6). Further analysis of the required samples was done under a Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM).

Micro-hardness tests were carried out on the samples using a 100 g load on a Struers
Duramin A300 micro-hardness machine. For reliable results tests were carried out at
three random locations along the chip near the midsection. Figure 3.12 shows an etched
chip sample with the micro-hardness indentation.

Indentation

Figure 3.12 Etched and polished chip sample showing microhardness indentation.
(Magnification: 150X)

44
Chapter 4: Effect of LAM on the Machinability of
....................Inconel 718
4.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the results obtained for the laser heating and the laser assisted
machining (LAM) screening tests. The methodology used for the experiments is
discussed in detail. The laser heating tests developed the optimum laser parameters for
the laser. The LAM screening tests or Phase-1 of the cutting tests explored the effect of
LAM on cutting forces, surface roughness and tool wear.

4.2 Experimental Results Obtained in Laser Heating Tests

4.2.1 Preliminary Heating Tests

In order to obtain a general understanding of the LAM setup and the issues involved, a
series of preliminary heating tests were performed. The test matrix and the temperatures
obtained for these experiments are illustrated in Table 4.1. The laser used in the
experiments had a focal point of 80 mm from the lens which generated a laser spot size of
0.3 mm in diameter. For this phase, all tests were carried out at this spot size. The
temperature was monitored using the IR camera. At this step no thermocouples were
used. The calibration process for the IR camera was explained in section 3.8.

Test Laser Power Rotational speed Feed Laser spot size Surface Temp.
# (W) (RPM) (mm/rev) (mm) (ºC)
1 3000 393.3 0.1 0.3 220
2 3000 393.3 0.15 0.3 210
3 3000 393.3 0.25 0.3 190
4 3000 393.3 0.3 0.3 185
5 3000 786.6 0.1 0.3 173
6 3000 1179.9 0.1 0.3 154
7 3000 1573.2 0.1 0.3 121
8 3000 1573.2 0.3 0.3 110

Table 4.1 Test matrix for preliminary laser heating tests

45
Figure 4.1 illustrates a typical heating curve obtained from the IR camera during a
heating cycle. In this figure we can see a sharp temperature rise after approximately 7
seconds. This is the point at which the laser is striking the material. After this point, the
temperature increases to a relatively steady state, as the workpiece is absorbing the laser
power. After the laser beam is removed from the workpiece at the end of the heating
cycle, there is rapid cooling where the temperature drops 60 ºC in approximately 3
seconds.

The absorptivity of the laser by IN718 increases with increasing surface temperature
(Figure 2.12). This explains the slight increase in temperature during the steady state
period of the heating cycle (between 10-23 seconds).

180

160

140

120

100
Temp (°C)

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

Figure 4.1 Typical heating curve for laser heating tests. Temperature vs. time; 500 W,
1179.9 rpm, 0.1 mm/rev

During the preliminary heating tests, a number of issues were observed. First, the laser
beam in these tests was extremely focused, having a spot diameter of only 0.3 mm. This
created a very high power density (42.5 kW/mm2). The intense power delivered to a
small area caused the workpiece surface material to melt and vaporize. This led to the
generation of plasma gases. The gas had a very high temperature and was hazardous to

46
the measuring equipment. In addition, the vaporization of the surface caused a change in
the surface quality of the workpiece. Figure 4.2 shows how the surface was altered during
a heating cycle. It is important to note that the surface damage was severe enough to be
distinguishable by the naked eye. Moreover, the evaporation of the workpiece caused
heat to be removed from the workpiece surface rapidly, thus the temperatures achieved
during these tests did not exceed 220 ° C.

Damaged Surface

Figure 4.2 Workpiece showing surface damage along the heating length caused by the
laser.

As a result of the observations made in the preliminary tests, a larger laser spot diameter
was used in the secondary heating tests. A larger spot diameter distributes the laser power
over a larger area, thus avoiding workpiece surface material damage.

4.2.2 Secondary Heating Test Results

The secondary heating experiments were aimed at finding the optimum laser heating
parameters for the cutting tests to be carried out. The test matrix and the temperatures
obtained during these experiments are explained in Table 4.2. The main variables to be
determined were the laser spot size and the laser power. A series of tests were carried out

47
with different feeds and cutting speeds in order to study how the increase in the speed and
feed affects the surface temperature of the workpiece.

Temp.
Surface Laser Power Temp.
Test feed Spot size IR
Speed Density Thermocouple
# (mm/rev) Ø(mm) Power (W) Camera
(m/min) (W/mm2) (°C)
(°C)
1 100 0.3 3 3000 425 450 430

2 200 0.3 3 3000 425 482 435

3 300 0.3 3 3000 425 388 380

4 100 0.3 2 2500 796 565 590

5 200 0.3 2 2500 796 490 445

6 300 0.3 2 2500 796 318 361

7 100 0.3 2 3000 955 880 820

8 150 0.3 2 3000 955 700 650

9 200 0.3 2 3000 955 700 620

10 300 0.3 2 3000 955 480 500

11 100 0.5 2 3000 955 766 715

12 100 1 2 3000 955 650 675

Table 4.2 Results for the secondary heating experiments.

From Table 4.2, it is clear that a power density of 955 W/mm2 yields the highest
temperatures compared to other tests under identical conditions. It was concluded that a
power rating of 3,000 W and a spot size diameter of 2 mm, ensured optimum absorption
over the beam area. All tests were monitored for surface damage and none showed
observable alteration to the workpiece surface. Creating a power density greater than 955
W/mm2 showed signs of plasma gas generation and surface damage. It was evident that
increasing the RPM gave the workpiece smaller interaction time with the laser beam.
Thus, lower levels of temperature were observed when the cutting speed was increased

48
frrom 100 to 300 m/minn (Figure 3.10). As exppected increeasing the feed
f also haad an
addverse effect on the absoorption of heeat from the laser. Figuree 4.3 shows the effect off feed
onn temperaturre.

1000
880 820 Maxx. Thermocoup
ple 
900
Maxx IR camera
800 766 7
715
675
Surface Temperature (ºC)

700 650
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
0.3 0.5 1
feed (mmm/rev)

Figure 4.3 Effect of inccreasing feedd on the tem

mperature of the
t workpiecce during lasser
heatiing at 3,000 W - 2mm sppot size- 1000 m/min.

4 Test Results
4.3 R o LAM Optimiza
of O ation Tessts

T optimizaation tests carried out in this

The t section are aimed att finding the optimum cuutting
f laser asssisted machhining in teerms of forces, tool wear
parameters for w and suurface
rooughness. Two
T separate tools werre used in these tests (refer to section 3.3). The
m
methodology used for opttimization iss illustrated by
b a flowchaart in Figuree 4.4. It shouuld be
noted that thee depth of cuut (DOC) waas kept consttant at 0.25 mm
m for all exxperiments.

4
4.3.1 Triplle Layer Coated
C Caarbide (KC
C8050)

T approach
The h to the optiimization teests for the KC8050
K toool was to firrst utilize a fixed
feeed of 0.125
5 mm/rev forr all tests. Inn these testss the cutting speed was the
t variable. The
teest matrix fo
or these testss is illustrateed in Table 4.3 (Tests 1-5).
1 To estaablish a referrence

49
point, a test was
w carried out at a speeed of 100 m/min
m under conventionaal machiningg and
L
LAM conditiions. After the
t optimum
m cutting speeed was deteermined, thee speed wass kept
coonstant at th
he optimum condition
c annd the feed was
w the variaable (Tests 6-10).
6 Thesee tests
determined th
he optimizedd cutting speed and feed for the coateed carbide toool.

Initial condiition: Vi m/minn, fi mm/rev Conventional machining

m

Feed consstant at fi mm/rev; increase

cuutting speed; LAAM

Cutting
Forces
Cuutting
Speeed Tests Surfacee Analysis Surface
temp. Roughness
R

Tool
Wear

Select optim
mum cutting speed Vopt

Cuttingg speed constannt at Vopt; Increeasing feed

Cutting
Forces

feeed Tests Surface Analysis Surface

temp. Roughness
R

Tool
Wear

Select optimum feedd fopt

Tool
T Life
tests Use fopt annd Vopt As optiimized conditioons for tool lifee tests

Figgure 4.4 Methhodology forr optimizatioon tests

50
 Test Cutting Feed DOC (mm) Laser Laser Machining
# Speed (mm/rev) spot Power conditions
(m/min) (mm) (W)
1 100 0.125 0.25 N/A N/A Conven./ Dry

Effect
2 100 0.125 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
of 3 150 0.125 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
cutting
speed 4 200 0.125 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
5 250 0.125 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
6 200 0.175 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
7 200 0.20 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
Effect
of 8 200 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
feed
9 200 0.3 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
10 200 0.5 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry

Table 4.3 Test matrix for optimization tests for the coated carbide tool (KC8050)

4.3.1.1 Effect of Cutting Speed on Forces

Figure 4.5 shows the cutting, feed and radial (thrust) forces for the conventional and
LAM reference case at 100 m/min and a feed of 0.125 mm/rev. A sharp decrease is
observed in all three forces when the laser is in effect. The percentage of force reduction
is 23, 46 and 25%, respectively. As mentioned previously in section 2.3.1, the heat
generated by the laser power has an effect on the strengthening precipitates in the IN718
microstructure, i.e., γ΄ and γ˝. Once these precipitates reach their limit of stability, i.e.,
above 650 ºC [6], a sharp reduction in the material’s yield strength is observed. This
thermal softening in turn results in reduction of forces in all three directions. Figure 4.6
shows the three components of force measurement for all the tests performed in this
section. It is clear that there is a very sharp decrease in all three forces from room
temperature machining (conventional) to high temperature machining (LAM). Further
increase in the cutting speed contributes to the reduction of forces due to higher levels of
temperature generated in the cutting zone. This trend seems to reach a plateau at speeds
of 200 m/min and above. This means that a further increase of cutting speed does not
affect forces significantly due to the fact that higher cutting speeds result in poorer
absorptivity of laser power. This is further confirmed in Figure 4.7, where no significant
increase in surface temperature is observed from 200 to 250 m/min. It is important to note

51
that the measured temperatures correspond to the workpiece surface before material
removal.

250

200

150
Cutting
Forces (N) 100

50
(a)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

150

Feed 100
Forces (N)
50
(b)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

250
200
Radial 150
(Thrust) 100
Forces (N) (c)
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

Figure 4.5 Comparison of (a) cutting forces (b) feed forces (c) radial forces. Conventional
machining and LAM at 100 m/min and 0.125 mm/rev.

52
 300
Cuttin
ng Forces
240 Feed Forces
250
Radiaal Forces

200 17
70 180
165
160 160
Force (N)

140
150 130
110
95 90
100 75
65 60
55
50

0
100 (cconventional) 100 (LAM) 150 (LAM) 0 (LAM)
200 250 (LAM)
Cutting speed (m/min)
(

Figure 4.6
6 Change in forces
f vs. cuutting speed for conventiional machinning and LAM
(3,000 W)
W at feed= 0.125 mm/reev and DOC C= 0.25 mm.

1000
833 835
900 790
0 8
810

800
Surface tempreature (ºC)

700
600
500
400
300
200 160

100
0
100  100
0         1
150         200         250        
(Conventionaal) (LAM
M) (LLAM) (LAM) (LAM)
Cutting speed (m/min)
(

Figure 4.7 Su
F urface tempeerature meassured with thhe IR cameraa vs. speed, for conventiional
machin ning and LA
AM (3,000 W)W at feed= 0.125 mm/revv and DOC= = 0.25 mm.

53
4.3.1.2 Effecct of Cuttingg Speed on Tool
T Wear

T establish the benefitss of LAM on

To o tool wearr and to finnd an optimiized conditioon in
teerms of cutting speed, the
t tests perfformed in thhis section were
w analyzeed for tool wear.
w
T average flank wear was measurred (VBave ) for all the test conditioons at a connstant
The
cuutting length
h of 30 mm. For each tesst a new cuttting edge waas utilized. The
T results foor the
toool wear meeasurements are represennted in Figurre 4.8. The rake face was also analyyzed,
yet for this cutting lengthh, there wass no sign off cratering orr excessive wear
w on thee rake
faace.

250

210
200
Tool wear, VBave (μm)

150
115
108
8
1
102
100 92

50

0
100  (Convv.) 100  (LA
AM) 150  (LAM) 00  (LAM)
20 250  (LAM)
Cutting Sp
peed (m/min)

Figure 4.8 Average wear

w measureed on the flaank face of cutting
c tool vs.
v speed. Foor
conventionnal machining and LAM (3,000 W) at
a feed= 0.1225 mm/rev anda DOC= 0.25
mm.

A illustrated
As d by the charrt, a sharp redduction in fllank wear waas observed (from 210 too 108
μ
μm) when th
he laser heaating is in effect.
e The main reasonns for this drop are thhat in
coonventional machining, the highest temperaturee is maintainned close to the cutting edge.
N
Nickel alloyss generally demonstrate
d a negative partition coefficient (R2) that repreesents

54
the percentage of the heat generated at the tool chip interface that flows into the chip [7].
This means that the chips are actually cooled as they pass over the tool face and do not
remove much heat from the cutting zone. This causes stress concentration to occur on the
area with maximum tool temperature (i.e., tool tip) thus leading to rapid wear and plastic
deformation. Once the laser is in use, a more favorable heat gradient is generated in the
cutting zone, where the temperature is distributed more uniformly on the rake face. This
causes a more uniform wear on the flank. Also the existence of hard phases in the
microstructure further accelerates tool wear caused by abrasion at conventional
machining temperature. With LAM, the particles soften to a point where they cause less
abrasion. Figure 4.9 shows magnified pictures of the flank face of the tools at different
cutting speeds. The region of wear is indicated in Figure 3.6.

Increasing the cutting speed from 200 to 250 m/min, increases the average flank wear.
The reason for this is that as the temperature and the cutting forces increase, the coating
layers of the tool do not provide adequate resistance to heat. From this point (200 m/min)
any increase in the speed would result in higher tool wear due to lower absorptivity of
heat from the laser and subsequent damage to the tool coating.

Uniform flank wear caused by abrasion is the dominant mode of wear for all cases except
conventional machining, where non-uniform flank wear occurs. As demonstrated in
Figure 4.9 (a), there are signs of edge chipping and flaking (removal) of the tool coating
in the flank face. This is due to very unfavorable or steep temperature gradients and high
cutting forces. Figure 4.9 (b)-(c) demonstrate a more uniform flank wear. The coatings on
the carbide tool provide thermal and wear resistance. Once flaking occurs and the coating
is damaged, tool wear increases drastically. It is important to note that notching was not
observed for any of the cases discussed. The small length of cut used in the optimization
tests does not seem to generate any notching. Although cratering on the rake face has
been reported by other researchers [12, 28], no signs of excessive wear on the rake face is
observed. The short cutting length used for these tests results in short interaction between
the chip and the rake face. Cratering may start to form when cutting larger lengths. This
issue is further explored in section 5.3.

55
 (a) (b)

Flaking and edge chipping

0.50.5 mm
millimeter
Flank Face 0.5 mm

(c) (d)

0.50.5 mm
millimeter 0.50.5 mm
millimeter

(e)

0.50.5 mm
millimeter

Figure 4.9 Tool wear on the flank face of the tool at 0.125 mm/rev and (a) 100 m/min,
conventional machining (b) 100 m/min, LAM (c) 150 m/min, LAM (d) 200 m/min, LAM
(e) 250 m/min, LAM (magnification: 12X). Sliding distance= 30 mm. (Refer to Figure
3.6)

56
4.3.1.3 Effecct of Cuttingg Speed on Surface
S Rougghness

Surface roug
ghness was measured foor various cutting
c speeeds. Poor suurface finishh is a
m
major issue in
n machiningg IN718. Thee main causees for high surface
s roughhness are suurface
teearing, smeaaring, etc. Inn general, inncreasing thhe cutting sppeed is expeected to impprove
suurface qualitty due to higgher temperaature and thee correspondding drop in material streength
[228]. As a reesult of highh temperaturre generatedd with the assistance
a off the laser beam,
b
m
more favorab
ble conditionns are generaated at all cutting speedds. Figure 4..10 illustratees the
drramatic effeect of cuttinng speed andd the use off a laser on the averagee roughness (Ra),
using the measurement
m system deescribed in section 3.66. The increased roughhness
obbserved at 250
2 m/min is
i associatedd with the inncreased toool wear show
wn in Figuree 4.8,
w
which leads to
t poorer surrface qualityy. The large size of the laser
l spot also helps impprove
rooughness sin
nce the irraadiation from
m the beam
m on the maachined surfface reduces the
shharpness of the
t surface peaks
p or feedd marks creaated by the toool [42].

2.00

1.80
1.54
1.60
Surface roughness, Ra (μm)

1.40

1.20

1.00

0.80
0.57
0.60
0.37 0.4
44
0.40
0.26
0.20

0.00
100 (Conv.)
1 100  (LAM) 150  (LLAM) 20
00  (LAM) 250 (LAM)
Cutting Speeed (m/min)

F
Figure 4.10 Surface
S roughhness vs. speeed, measured for conveentional macchining and LAM
L
(3,000 W)
W at feed= 0.125 mm/reev and DOC C= 0.25 mm.

57
A a conclusiion for the variable
As v cuttting speed teests, the optiimum cuttinng speed for laser
asssisted mach
hining was identified
i too be 200 m/m
min with a depth of cutt=0.25 mm. This
coondition ex
xhibited the lowest surrface roughnness and thhe lowest tool
t wear of
o all
coonditions tessted. It also produced reeasonably low
w forces. Thhe lowest cuutting forces were
obbserved at 250
2 m/min; however,
h thiis speed couuld not be juustified as thee optimum speed
s
ass it created high
h wear annd poor surfface quality.. The LAM tests for opttimum feed were
caarried out using
u a cuttting speed of
o 200 m/m
min (Vopt). This
T speed delivered higher
h
m
material remo
oval rates whhile improving the qualitty of the cut.

4.3.1.4 Effecct of Feed onn Forces

T obtain thee optimum conditions
To c inn terms of feeed, a seriess of tests weere designedd with
inncreasing feed, as show
wn in Table 4.3
4 (tests 6--10). In thesse experimennts, laser heeating
w used for all conditioons. The cuttting speed was
was w kept coonstant at 2000 m/min. Figure
F
4.11 shows th
he three com
mponents of force
f as a funnction of feeed.

350
Cutting Forces 310
Feed Forces 283
300
Radial Forces 265
257
250 3
223
210 210
0 200
200 183
162
Force (N)

2
142
150 134
126
102
94
100

50

0
0.175 0.2 0.25
5 0.3 0.5
Feed (mmm/rev)

F
Figure 4.11 Change
C in foorces vs. feed under LAMM (3,000 W). cutting speed= 200 m//min,
D
DOC= 0.25 mm.
m

58
A illustrated
As d by Figure 4.11,
4 there iss a steady inccrease in all three compoonents of forrce as
thhe feed increeases. Increaasing the feed means a thicker uncut chip thickkness, thus more
m
material to bee removed per
p revolutioon leading too an increasse in all threee componennts of
cuutting force.. The increase in forces,, especially at feeds higgher than 0.22 mm/rev, caan be
exxplained by
y the reductiion in the suurface tempperature of the
t workpiece as a resuult of
inncreased trav
verse speed of the laserr beam overr the workpiiece. This is demonstratted in
Figure 4.12. There is a decreasingg trend in the
t surface temperaturee as the feed is
inncreased. It is
i evident thhat increasingg the feed dooes not causee a significaant increase in
i the
cuutting zone temperatures, as a resullt of the cuttting action, while
w increaasing the traaverse
sppeed (in the direction off feed) reducces time alloowed for thee laser poweer to be absoorbed
byy the mateerial. Increasing the feeed in exceess of 0.3 mm/rev
m willl in turn cause
c
siignificantly less thermal softening and thus higgher forces since the teemperature levels
l
faall lower thaan the 650 ºC
C region. This is the oppposite of whaat was obserrved in Figurre 4.7
w
where increaasing cuttinng speed acctually incrreased the surface tem
mperature off the
w
workpiece.

900 790 780

740
800 714
657
700
Surface temperature (°C)

568
600

500

400

300

200

100

0
0.125 0.175 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.5

mm/rev)
Feed (m

F
Figure 4.12 Surface
S tempperature vs. feed, as meaasured by thee IR camera for LAM (33,000
W) at cutting
c speedd= 200 m/miin and DOC= = 0.25 mm.

59
4.3.1.5 Effecct of Feed onn Tool Wearr

A shown in Figure 4.13, for the connditions testeed, increasinng feed has an adverse effect
As e
onn the tool wear
w until a feed
f of 0.2 mm/rev.
m Afteer this point the tool wear improvess with
inncreasing feeed and conssequently thee undeformeed chip thickkness. A verry thin chip does
not distributee the pressurre along the cutting edgee. This resullts in a poorr contact bettween
thhe chip and the tool cauusing higher tool wear [55]. After 0.22 mm/rev, hoowever, the flank
w
wear is reducced with incrreasing feedd. This is beccause the chhips produceed after this point
arre thick eno
ough to imprrove the conntact between the chip and
a the cuttiing edge, annd are
thhus advantag
geous for tool life. The thinner chipps producedd at feeds off smaller thaan 0.2
m
mm/rev wherre not optim
mum in termss of ensuringg good contaact between the chip annd the
cuutting edge, and exertedd all of the pressure
p on the
t cutting edge,
e leadingg to a more rapid
t measured tool insertts. It can be seen
toool wear. Figure 4.14 shhows the flaank face of the
frrom this figu
ure that wheen feeds are lower than 0.2 mm/rev, the undesirrable distribbution
of pressure caauses plasticc deformation along the cutting edgee of the tool.. A more uniiform
fllank wear without
w plastiic deformation is seen inn feeds upw
wards of 0.255 mm/rev (F
Figure
4.14 d-f).

140
0 128
121 120 117
120
0 111 109

100
0
Tool wear, VBave (μm)

80
0

60
0

40
0

20
0

0
0.125 0.175 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.5
mm/rev)
Feed (m

Figure 4.13 Average

F A flannk wear meaasured on thee flank face vs.
v feed for LAM (3,0000 W)
at cuttting speed= 200
2 m/min anda DOC= 0.250 mm. (sliiding distancce 30 mm)

60
 (a) (b)

Flank Face
0.5 mm

0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

Plastic deformation (c) (d)

0.5millimeter
0.5 mm
0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

(e) (f)

0.5
0.5 mm
millimeter 0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

Figure 4.14 Average wear on the flank face of the tool at LAM (3,000 W), 200 m/min
and (a) 0.125 mm/rev (b) 0.175 mm/rev (c) 0.2 mm/rev (d) 0.25 mm/rev (e) 0.3 mm/rev
(f) 0.5 mm/rev (magnification: 12X). Sliding distance= 30mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6)

61
4.3.1.6 Effecct of Feed onn Surface Rooughness

G
Generally, wiith the increase of feed an
a increase in surface rooughness is expected. Thhis is
m
mainly becau
use of more distinct feedd marks prooduced by thhe cutting eddge. In LAM
M the
m
material undeergoes therm
mal softeningg. This meanns material reemoval is faacilitated andd thus
suurface rough
hness is im
mproved. Thiis is observved clearly in
i Figure 4.10.
4 Figure 4.15
demonstrates how averrage surfacee roughnesss (Ra) variies with feeed under LAM
L
coonditions. As
A seen in thhis figure, the roughness value does not significantly increase up
too feeds of 0.3
0 mm/rev,, after whicch it drastically increasses. As expllained in seection
4.3.1.4, the in
ncrease of feed
f above 0.3
0 mm/rev causes a drop in the teemperature of
o the
w
workpiece. As
A a result litttle or no theermal softeniing occurs after
a this poinnt thus leadiing to
m
more tearing and poorer surface
s rougghness. Furthhermore, the size of the beam
b diametter as
m
mentioned in
n section 4.33.1.3, has a dulling efffect on the sharp peakss caused by feed
m
marks on the machined surface.
s As the
t feed incrreases, the laaser has lesss time to heaat the
feeed marks th
hus the dullinng effect is reduced.
r

2.50

1.97
2.00
Surface roughness, Ra (μm)

1.50

1.00 0.88

0.50 0.35
0.27 0.31
0.19

0.00
0.125 0.175 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.5
Feed (mm/rrev)

Figure 4.15
5 Average suurface roughnness vs. feedd for LAM (3,000 W) at cutting speeed=
200 m//min, DOC= = 0.25 mm.

62
 One can conclude that for the triple layer, coated carbide tool, the optimum cutting
condition is determined to be: 200 m/min cutting speed and 0.25 mm/rev feed with a
depth of cut of 0.25 mm (as utilized for all further experiments in this study). These
cutting conditions used with a laser power of 3,000 W and a laser spot size of 2 mm,
deliver a striking increase in the material removal rates compared to studies performed
under conventional machining using the same tool [12]. This is also accomplished with
improved surface quality and reduced tool wear. In section 5.1, a thorough investigation
on the tool life under these conditions is carried out.

4.3.2 Sialon Ceramic (KY1540)

The same approach followed in the investigation of the triple layer, coated carbide tool
(KC8050) is adopted for the optimization of cutting conditions using a ceramic tool.
Generally, ceramic tools can withstand higher material removal rates, mainly due to their
high hot hardness, thermal resistance, wear resistance and low affinity with the
workpiece. Thus, the starting point for the optimization tests for the ceramic tool are the
conditions indicated in section 4.3.1 as optimum conditions for the coated carbide tool,
namely, 200 m/min cutting speed and 0.25 mm/rev feed. Table 4.4 shows the test matrix
used for this tool. These conditions also help give a good comparison platform between
the ceramic and coated carbide tool at identical cutting conditions.

Cutting Laser Laser

Test Feed Machining
Speed DOC (mm) spot Power
# (mm/rev) conditions
(m/min) (mm) (W)
1 200 0.25 0.25 N/A N/A Conven./ Dry
2 200 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
Effect of 3 250 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
cutting
speed 4 300 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
5 400 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
6 500 0.25 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
7 300 0.3 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry

Effect 8 300 0.35 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry

of Feed 9 300 0.4 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry
10 300 0.5 0.25 2 3000 LAM/ Dry

Table 4.4 Test matrix for optimization tests for the ceramic tool (KY1540).

63
4.3.2.1 Effect of Cutting Speed on Forces

The cutting force observed for the ceramic tool is generally higher than the carbide insert.
This is mainly due to the negative rake angle that this tool utilizes. A negative rake angle
is generally preferred for ceramic tools as the strong cutting edge resists chipping. Figure
4.16 compares the cutting forces for the triple layered carbide tool and the ceramic tool
under identical LAM conditions. There is an increase in the cutting and radial forces as a
result of the negative rake angle of the ceramic tool. The cutting tool geometry for both
tools is described in section 3.3.

300
250
250

200 183
Force (N)

150

100

50

0
Tripl Layer Coated Carbide Ceramic

Figure 4.16 Cutting forces for the triple layer, coated carbide and the ceramic tool for
LAM (3,000 W), 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev.

Figure 4.17 shows the cutting forces for the ceramic tool as a function of increasing
cutting speed. It is observed that increasing the cutting speed creates a significant
reduction in the cutting force up to speeds of 300 m/min. The radial and feed force are
not significantly affected by the increase in cutting speed, yet show a major drop when
compared to conventional machining. The cutting, feed and radial forces are reduced
when the laser is being used by 20%, 50% and 25% respectively.

64
 500 Cutting Forces
450 420 Feed
d Forces
Radial forces
400
350 310 320 318 324 315 310
300
250
250 225 215 215 210
Force (N)

200
150 108
100 56 55 50 50 48
50
0
200 (Conv.) 200 (LAM) 250 (LAM) 300 (LAM) 400 (LAM) 500 (LAM)
Cutting speeed (m/min)

Figure 4.17
7 Change in forces vs. cuutting speed for conventtional machinning and LA
AM
(3,0000 W), feed= 0.25
0 mm/revv and DOC= = 0.25 mm.

A
After 300 m//min the forrces show liittle or no reduction
r wiith increasinng speed. As
A the
cuutting speed
d is increaseed the tempeeratures in the
t cutting zone
z rises. However,
H w a
with
higher speed,, lower laserr absorption is taking plaace, thus theere is no signnificant reduuction
obbserved afteer this pointt. The surfaace temperattures measuured with thhe IR camerra are
shhown in Fig
gure 4.18. It is importantt to note thatt the surfacee temperaturres acceptablle for
thhermal soften
ning are not observed att speeds greaater than 4000 m/min.

900 790
0 750
800 695
Surface temperature (°C)

700 590
600 520
500
400
300 220
200
100
0
200  0         250         300         400         500        
200
(C
Conv.) (LAM
M) (LAM) (LAM) ((LAM) (LAM
M)
Cutting sp
peed (m/min)

Figure 4.18 Surfacce temperatuures measured with the IR

R camera vs. speed for
conventionaal machiningg and LAM (3,000
( W), feed=
fe 0.25 mm/rev
m and DOC=
D 0.25 mm.
m

65
4.3.2.2 Effecct of Cuttingg Speed on Tool
T Wear

T tool weaar mode for the ceramicc is dominatted by flankk wear. This is similar to
The t the
w
wear characteeristics of thhe coated caarbide tool that
t have beeen reported in section 4.3.1.
4
Figure 4.19 shows the proogression off flank wear as a functioon of the cuttting speed. It
I can
be seen that there is a siggnificant dropp in VBave under
u LAM conditions
c w
when comparred to
coonventional machiningg mostly due
d to theermal softeening causeed by elevvated
teemperatures.. Above 3000 m/min, thhe wear on the flank faace incresess with increasing
cuutting speed
d. As seen inn Figure 4.188 the surfacee temperaturres above 3000 m/min arre not
suufficient to reach
r the staability tempeerature of the γ΄ and γ˝ phases,
p thus resulting inn high
toool wear. Maagnified imaages of the flank
f face off the cutting tool for all conditions tested
t
arre shown in Figure 4.20..

140
119 121
120 114

100 91 89
85
Tool wear, VBave (μm)

80

60

40

20

0
200          200         250         300         400         500        
(conv.) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM)
C
Cutting speed
d (m/min)

F
Figure 4.19 Average
A flannk wear of thhe cutting toool vs. speedd for conventtional machining
and LAM (33,000 W), feeed= 0.25 mm m/rev and DOC=
D 0.25 mm.
m

T thermal softening
The s caaused by the laser has a major impacct on the aveerage flank wear.
w
T can be seen from Figgure 4.20 (aa) and (b). Thhe reductionn in the mateerial’s yield stress
This s
annd the instab
bility of hardd phases in the
t microstruucture createes less abrassive wear. Due
D to
better chemiccal stability of the ceram
mic tool, lesss adhesion wear
w seems to affect thee tool
w
when comparred to the triiple layer, cooated carbidde. Further analysis
a of thhe adhesion wear
m
mechanism iss done for thhe complete tool
t life in seection 5.3.

66
 Rake Face

0.5 mm 0.50.5 mm
millimeter

Flank Face

(a) (b)

0.5 millimeter
0.5 mm
0.5 millimeter
0.5 mm

(c) (d)

0.5
0.5 mm
millimeter 0.5
0.5 mm
millimeter

(e) (f)

Figure 4.20 Average wear on the flank face of the ceramic tool, 0.25 mm/rev and (a) 200
m/min, conventional machining (b) 200 m/min, LAM (c) 250 m/min, LAM (d) 300
m/min, LAM (e) 400 m/min, LAM (f) 500 m/min, LAM (magnification: 12X). Sliding
distance= 30 mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6)

67
4.3.2.3 Effecct of Cuttingg Speed on Surface
S Rougghness

T surface roughness
The r foor the speed tests followss the same trrend as the tool
t wear. Above
A
cuutting speed
ds of 300 m/min,
m the rooughness inncreases. Aggain this is caused by lower
l
teemperatures that lead to insufficient thermal soft
ftening. The surface rougghness valuees can
be seen in Fig
gure 4.21.

0.70

0.60 0.57
Surface roughness, Ra(μm)

0.50 0.46 0.44

0.40 0.37

0.29
0.30 0.26

0.20

0.10

0.00
200          200         250         300         400         500        
(conv.) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM) (LAM)
C
Cutting speed (m/min)
(

F
Figure 4.21 Average
A surrface roughness vs. speedd, for convenntional machhining and LAM
L
(3,0000 W), feed== 0.25 mm/rev, DOC= 0.250 mm.

From the con

nditions testeed under diffferent cuttinng speeds, thhe most dessirable condiitions
seeem to be 300
3 m/min, since it offeers 20% higgher producttivity than 250
2 m/min while
w
prractically acchieving thee same surfface finish and tool wear.
w There is also a slight
s
reeduction in feed
f and cuttting forces for
fo 300 m/miin comparedd to 250 m/m
min. The optiimum
coonditions in terms of cutting speed are
a thus idenntified as 3000 m/min forr the ceramicc tool
unnder LAM conditions.
c

4.3.2.4 Effecct of Feed onn Forces

T condition
The ns selected for
f testing thhe effect of feed
f are shown in Tablee 4.4. Figuree 4.22
shhows the cuttting, feed annd radial forrces for the conditions
c teested.

68
 500
Cutting Fo
orces
450 Feed Forcees 420
Radial Forces 383 390 3
386
400
50
35
350 324 310
0
286
300
Force (N)

246
250 220
200
150 110
100 8
68 80
63
50
50
0
0.25 0.3 0.3
35 0.4 0.5
Feed (mmm/rev)

Figure 4.22 Change in forces

f vs. feeed for LAM (3,000 W) at
a cutting speeed= 300 m//min
andd DOC= 0.225 mm.

A can be seeen, all three components of force inncrease with increasing feed. The thhicker
As
chhips produceed as a result of higher feed
f are the main
m reason for this incrrease. Figuree 4.23
shhows the surface temperature measuurements foor these testss. The surfacce temperatuure is
decreasing with
w increasinng feed as a result of higher traversse speed of the
t laser oveer the
w
workpiece.
800 69
95 70
67 66
64 65
53
Surface temperature (°C)

700 59
90
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0.25 0.3 0.3
35 0..4 0.5
Feed (m
mm/rev)

F
Figure 4.23 Surface
S tempperatures meeasured withh the IR cam
mera vs. feed for LAM (3,000
W), cutting
c speed= 300 m/mmin, DOC= 0.25
0 mm.

69
4.3.2.5 Effecct of Feed onn Tool Wearr

Inn general, ceeramic toolss show less wear

w than cooated carbidde inserts [7, 5] due to better
b
thhermal shock
k resistancee, low therm
mal conductivvity and higgh hot hardnness. Figure 4.24
coompares thee average flaank wear (VB
Bave) of the coated carbiide tool andd the ceramicc tool
unnder identiccal LAM coonditions. As
A can be seeen, the coaated carbidee demonstraates a
higher wear. This is maainly becausse of the facct that the coatings
c on the carbidee tool
caannot withsttand the elevvated temperratures assocciated with LAM.
L Howeever, the cerramic
toool has an ex
xtremely higgh thermal reesistance.

140
12
20
120
100 89
Tool wear, VBave (μm)

80
60
40
20
0
Triple layer co
oated carbide  Ceramic ttool (KY1540)
(KC80
050)

F
Figure 4.24 Flank
F wear of
o the coatedd carbide andd the ceramiic tool with LAM
L (3,0000 W)
at 300 m/min
m and 0..25 mm/rev.

Figure 4.25 shows

s the average
a wearr on the flannk face (VB
Bave) progresssion as the feed
inncreases. As it is observved, increasinng the feed lowers the flank
f wear up
u to 0.4 mm
m/rev.
A
Although a th
hicker chip has an adveerse effect on
o tool wearr, increasingg the feed inn this
caase is impro
oving the toool wear as it is creatingg a more favvorable contact configurration
between the chip
c and thee cutting edgge. This trennd continues up to a feed of 0.4 mm
m/rev.
A
After this poiint, lower thhermal softeening causedd by low tem
mperature abbsorption annd the
inncrease in th
hickness of thhe chips prodduced causee the tool wear to increasse.

70
 100
89 90
90 83
78
80 73
70
Tool wear, VBave (μm)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.25 0.3 0.3
35 0.4 0.5
Feed (mm/rev)

F
Figure 4.25 Average
A flannk wear vs. feed
f for LAM
M (3,000 W)), cutting speeed= 300 m//min,
D
DOC= 0.25 mm.
m

Figure 4.26 shows

s magnified imagess of the flannk face of the tools usedd for the diffferent
feeed rates. Th
he improvem
ment made by m/rev can be seen
b increasingg the feed upp to 0.4 mm
onn the cuttin
ng edge. Feeed of 0.5 mm/rev
m monstrates a major incrrease in wear as
dem
coompared to 0.4 mm/rev. In general the most deesirable weaar is exhibiteed at 0.4 mm
m/rev.
A compared
As d to flank weear in the coaated carbide tool (shownn in Figure 4.14),
4 the cerramic
toool appears to
t display a more
m uniform
m flank weaar mainly beccause of its thermal
t and wear
reesistant prop
perties.

4.3.2.6 Effecct of Feed onn Surface Rooughness

Figure 4.27 shows

s the efffect of feedd on the surfface roughneess. Increasiing the feed does
not appear to
t generate a significaant change in the surrface roughhness, yet slight
s
mprovementts are observved up to a feed
im fe of 0.4 mm/rev.
m A siimilar trend was
w observeed for
thhe coated caarbide tool inn section 4.33.1.6. As expplained earliier, a faster feed rate redduces
thhe dulling efffect of the laser powerr on the sharp feed marrks on the machined
m surrface.
T low therrmal softeniing that occcurs at this feed is alsoo responsiblle for the drrastic
The
inncrease of su
urface roughhness at 0.5 mm/rev.
m

71
 0.5 mm 0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

(a) (b)

0.5millimeter
0.5 mm 0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

(c) (d)

0.5millimeter
0.5 mm

(e)

Figure 4.26 Average wear on the flank face of the tool for LAM (3,000 W), 300 m/min
and (a) 0.25 mm/rev (b) 0.3 mm/rev (c) 0.35 mm/rev (d) 0.4 mm/rev (e) 0.5 mm/rev
(magnification: 12X). Sliding distance= 30mm. (Refer to Figure 3.6)

72
 0.80

0.70 0.64

0.60
Surface roughness, Ra (μm)

0.50
0.42
0.40
0.34
0.32 0..32
0.30

0.20

0.10

0.00
0.25 0.3 0..35 0.4 0.5
mm/rrev

Figure 4.27 Surface rouughness values vs. feed for

f LAM (3,0000 W), cuttting speed= 300
m/m
min, DOC= 0.25 mm.

A a conclussion for the optimizatioon test for the KY15400 ceramic innsert under LAM
As L
coonditions, th
he optimum
m cutting conditions aree determinedd to be 3000 m/min andd 0.4
m
mm/rev for finishing
f opeerations (DO
OC= 0.25 mm).
m A full investigation
i n of tool lifee and
suurface integrrity of the workpiece
w unnder these optimum
o connditions is carried
c out in
i the
foollowing chaapter.

73
Chapter 5: Tool Life, Surface Integrity and Chip
………………Morphology under Optimum LAM
………………Conditions
5.1 Introduction

In this chapter a complete tool life analysis was performed for the optimum cutting
conditions obtained for both tools identified in section 4.3. Additionally, for comparison,
the tool wear progression was tested for the ceramic tool under conventional machining
conditions. Furthermore, tool failure and subsurface microstructural integrity of the
workpiece have been analyzed. To gain insight into the laser assisted machining process,
the morphology of the chips produced under various cutting conditions has been
evaluated.

5.2 Tool Life Analysis

The specifications and criteria for the tool wear experiments are indicated in section 3.6.
Regression analysis was used to obtain the tool life curves for all cases. Cutting tools
generally experience three phases of wear during the tool life. These three regions are
described as follows [16, 12]:

Initial (or run-in) wear region: The wear in this region is mainly caused by
micro-cracking, surface oxidation and loss of coating layer at the cutting tool tip.
When a new tool initiates cutting, the small contact area and the resulting high
pressure cause a high wear rate. This region is otherwise known as a highly
loaded system (HLS) [7].

Steady wear region: After the initial wear, the wear rate becomes relatively
constant. The workpiece roughness generally improves in this state. This regime
is known as a lightly loaded system (LLS) [7].

74
 Severe (or catastrophic) wear region: After the wear size has increased to a
critical value, the cutting force and the temperature increase rapidly. As a result,
the wear rate increases dramatically until the failure of the tool. Again, the tribo-
system behaves as a highly loaded system (HLS) in this region [7].

The three regions are schematically shown in Figure 5.1 for a typical tool life curve. The
dominant tool wear mode for all three conditions tested is observed to be flank wear, thus
the tool life curves are based on average flank wear (VBave). Due to variations in the
material removal rate MRR of each tool and the constant depth of cut, the tool wear is
measured as a function of “machined length”.

Machined Length

Figure 5.1 Variation of flank wear as a function of machined length, showing the three
regions of wear.

Bhatt [12] conducted a full tool life test for the KC8050 triple layer, coated carbide tool
with the same insert geometry used in the present investigation, under conventional
machining conditions using a coolant. For the purpose of comparison, his data is included
in this study. The conditions used in [12] for the tool life tests were 100 m/min, 0.125
mm/rev and 0.25 mm DOC.

Figure 5.2 shows the tool life curves for all four conditions superimposed. As it is seen,
the ceramic tool under LAM conditions demonstrates a low and relatively more constant
wear rate in the steady wear region. This results in a more uniform and favorable surface
roughness on the workpiece. The ceramic tool under conventional machining fails the

75
fastest, while not showing a distinct steady wear region. This is due to the high workpiece
strength at conventional cutting temperatures combined with the effects of high friction
under dry machining conditions.

When compared to conventional machining, the ceramic tool under LAM conditions
demonstrates a significant increase in tool life. As the ceramic tool can withstand high
temperatures, the temperatures associated with LAM do not affect the ceramic tool
adversely. This is not the case for the coated carbide tool. Under LAM/dry machining
conditions, the carbide tool fails faster than under conventional conditions with coolant.
Carbides generally do not demonstrate an excellent resistance to temperature. Although
the coating on the carbide acts as a protective layer against heat, it does not withstand the
high temperatures involved in LAM. Albeit the lower strength of the workpiece at high
temperatures, the carbide tool fails faster than conventional machining, but is capable of
producing a remarkably higher volume of material removal within this period.

700
WC KC8050, Conv., 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev Flood Coolant
WC KC8050, 3KW LAM, 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev, DRY
600
Ceramic KY1540, Conv., 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev, DRY
Ceramic KY1540, 3KW LAM, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev, DRY
500 Failiure Criterea 300 micron
Flank wear, VBave (μm)

400

300

200

100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Length of Cut (mm)

Figure 5.2 Tool life curves super imposed for all four cases

76
The surface roughness profile changes with the progression of tool wear. Initially after
the first region of wear, the sharpness of the cutting edge is decreased. This results in
improvements in surface roughness, as a sharp tool would create more distinct feed
marks. The change in surface roughness as a function of tool wear progression is shown
in Figure 5.3. From the graphs it is clear the ceramic tool under LAM conditions
generates the lowest roughness. The coated carbide tools shows similar roughness
profiles, showing slightly lower roughness with LAM. However, the surface roughness
increases more rapidly as the tool wear increases. The low levels of surface roughness
seen in LAM with the ceramic tool are a result of low tool wear while machining a softer
material at high temperatures. Even though ceramic tools have generally been associated
with poor surface quality when compared to carbides [28, 30], it can be seen that
ceramics demonstrate superior surface quality under LAM conditions.

1.2

1
Surface roughness, Ra (μm)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2 WC KC8050, Conv., 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev, Flood coolant

WC KC8050, LAM 3KW, 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev, DRY
Ceramic KY1540,Conv., 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev, DRY
Ceramic KY1540, LAM 3KW, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev, DRY
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Length cut (mm)

Figure 5.3 Surface roughness as a function of machined length.

The ceramic tool under conventional cutting conditions shows a similar surface
roughness values compared to the coated carbide tool. However, the surface conditions
deteriorate rapidly as a result of a highly increasing wear rate.

77
5 Tool Failure Modes
5.3 M
T further un
To nderstand thhe modes off tool failuree and tool wear
w mechannisms involvved in
L
LAM, an SEM
M analysis of
o the failed tools
t was caarried out forr all conditioons tested.

5
5.3.1 Triplle Layer Coated
C Caarbide
Figure 5.4 shows SEM im
mages of the rake and flaank face of the
t failed coaated carbidee tool.
T dominatting tool faiilure mode is average wear on thhe flank face. Crateringg and
The
notching werre not obserrved for thiis tool. Thee main weaar mechanism
ms observedd are
abbrasion and
d adhesion on
o the tool flank face. Abrasion wear
w is maiinly due to hard
prrecipitates and
a particless within the workpiece material. Addhesion is mostly
m causeed by
high temperaatures and prressure durinng the cuttinng process. This
T causes welding to occur
o
between the fresh
f surfacee of the chip and the rakee face.

Rake facee

b
Flank face

(a)

Addhesion

Chipp
ping

Flakin
ng Abrasion

(b)

Figure 5.4 SEM

F S images of the failedd coated carbbide tool at LAM
L (3,0000) W, 200 m//min,
0.25 mm/reev LAM, (a) magnification: 23X (b) magnificatioon: 60X (areea noted as b in
Figure a))

78
X-Ray chemical spectroscopy performed on the tool showed evidence of workpiece
material adhering to the rake face and the cutting edge of the tool, as seen in Figure 5.6.
For the case of the coated carbide tool, other wear mechanisms were observed. In
addition to flank wear, there is evidence of the chipping of the cutting edge and the
flaking of the coating. High temperatures applied to the cutting edge during LAM result
in damage and flaking of the tool coating. Without the protective layers the cutting edge
is prone to breaking rather than wearing under such high pressure, temperatures and
cutting speeds.

Bhatt [12] performed a complete tool analysis for the triple layer, coated carbide at 100
m/min and 0.125 mm/rev under conventional machining conditions. Figure 5.5 shows an
SEM image obtained for the failed tool [12]. It is important to note that sever crater wear
on the rake face was observed. This cratering is mainly caused by hard workpiece
particles causing a grinding action on the rake face at high temperatures, i.e., abrasion, as
well as diffusion as a result of high temperatures [12, 5]. Under LAM conditions the
thermal softening reduces this phenomena and no crater wear is observed.

Figure 5.5 SEM image of the triple layer, coated carbide at failure point. At 100 m/min,
0.125 mm/rev, 0.25 mm DOC, Flood coolant. [12]
Ti C

N
Ni
C Al O
Cr
O Mo Fe
Ni
Cl Al K Ti
Co
K

(a) (b)
Figure 5.6 X-ray chemical analysis on coated carbide tool. (a) before machining (b) after
machining. (LAM 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev, 3000 W)

79
A is illustratted from the chemical annalysis in Fiigure 5.6 (b)) after machiining elemennts of
As
thhe workpiecee material arre present onn the tool. Also
A flaking is evident from
fr this anaalysis
ass elements of
o the coatinng such as Ti,
T Al, Cl or N, appear inn smaller quuantities, if at
a all,
onn the used to
ool.

5
5.3.2 Cera
amic Tool
T ceramic tool
The t demonsstrates similaar wear mechanisms as the
t coated carbide tool under
u
L
LAM and con
nventional machining
m coonditions. Average
A wearr on the flannk face causeed by
abbrasion and adhesion is the dominaant cause of wear for both types of tool.
t Evidennce of
addhesion can be seen from
m the X-Rayy chemical spectroscopy
s y performedd on the rakee face
of the tool. Fiigure 5.7 andd Figure 5.8 show the SE
EM images taken
t from the
t failed toools.

Flank
k face

Flank
k face
b

(a)

Adhesion
Abrassion

(b)

Figure 5.7
5 SEM im mages of the failed cerammic tool. At 300
3 m/min, 0.40 mm/rev
conventional machining, (a) magnificcation: 23X (b) magnificcation: 60X: (area notedd as b
in Figure a)

80
 Flank
k face

Flank
k face
b

(a)

Adhesion
Abraasion

(b)

Figure 5.8 SEM

S imagess of the failed ceramic toool. At 3000 W, 300 m/m min, 0.4 mmm/rev
LAM, (a)) magnificatiion: 23X (b)) magnificatiion: 60X (areea noted as b in Figure a)
a

Itt is importan
nt to note thhat in order to perform SEM analyssis, non-condductive mateerials
need to be coated with a layer
l of goldd (Au) and palladium
p (Pd) in order to be visible.. This
exxplains the Au
A and Pb spikes observved in the chhemical anallysis of the ceramic
c toolls. As
coompared to LAM, the tool that haas failed unnder convenntional machhining condiitions
exxhibits a mo
ore aggressivve and non--uniform flank wear. A more sever adhesion iss also
obbserved in the
t conventiional machinning conditiion. This caan be observved in Figurre 5.9
annd Figure 5.10.

O of all thee conditions tested, it caan be summ

Out marized that the
t ceramic tool under LAM
L
coonditions ap
ppears to dem
monstrate a more uniforrm wear. Thhis results inn a lower suurface
rooughness as was seen in Figure 5.3 for
f this tool.

81
 Si Si

C C
Nb
Ni Al
O
Al Ti Cr
Pd Ni
Fe
O Au Pd Fe

(a) (b)
Figure 5.9 X-ray chemical spectroscopy on the ceramic tool. (a) before machining (b)
after machining. (LAM 3,000 W, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev).

Si Nb
Ni
Cr Ni

C Si
Al Pd
C Fe
Ti
OFe
Al

O Au
Pd

(a) (b)

Figure 5.10 X-ray chemical spectroscopy on the ceramic tool. (a) before machining (b)
after machining. (conventional machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev).

5.4 Microstructure Analysis

As explained in section 2.3.1, Inconel 718 attains its high temperature strength from
precipitations within its microstructure. The main hardening phases in the microstructure
are the γ΄ and γ˝ precipitates dispersed in the γ matrix. In addition, various metallic
carbides form mainly in the grain boundaries. Table 2.2 shows the precipitates and their
corresponding stability temperatures. At high temperatures, the precipitates lose their
coherency and the material loses strength. Workpiece samples that correspond to the
point of failure of the tool were sectioned and analyzed. This provides the worst case
scenario in terms of surface integrity. In order to observe the precipitates, SEM analysis
was carried out on the samples.

82
5.4.1 Bulk Material

The bulk section of the workpiece that was not affected by the machining process was
found to have a micro-hardness rating of 27.5 HRC. Figure 5.11 (c) shows an optical
micrograph of the bulk material showing the austenitic microstructure. Grain boundaries
are clearly visible within the FCC matrix. Figure 5.11 (a) and (b), shows SEM imagery.
Visible phases were identified on the image. To study phase changes within the
microstructure, X-ray chemical spectroscopy was performed at several points. Figure
5.11 (d) illustrates the constituent elements observed in the microstructure. The γ˝
appears to form mainly on the grain boundaries. The γ΄ precipitates, although present, do
not appear in the SEM image due to their extremely fine dimensions. These precipitates
are dispersed within the matrix having a size in the order of 10-30 nanometers.

γ΄ precipitates
dispersed
within the γ γ˝ and carbide
matrix. precipitates forming
at the grain boundary

(a) (b)

Ni

Cr Ni

Fe Cr
Mo
Nb
C
Ti Si Mo
Ti Cr
C Ti Fe

(c) (d)
Figure 5.11 IN718 Bulk material (a) SEM image (b) magnified SEM image of area b
(c) optical micrograph (d) X-ray chemical spectroscopy.
83
5.4.2 Machined Surfaces
Microstructure samples for all three conditions tested for tool life were analyzed. Figure
5.12 shows optical micrographs for all three conditions, namely conventional machining
for the coated carbide tool as well as LAM and conventional machining for the ceramic
tool. A plastic deformation zone in the form of elongated grains in the direction of cut
near the machined surface is observed in all three cases. As observed in Figure 5.12 (a)
and (b), the ceramic tool under LAM conditions exhibits a deeper layer of plastically
deformed grains when compared to conventional machining conditions. Also, a more
uniform deformation is observed. The coated carbide tool under LAM conditions
demonstrated the largest region of plastic deformation with longer grain elongation as
compared to the other cases. This plastic deformation is a result of localized heating in
combination with high levels of stress produced. The combined action of increased
cutting force and higher levels of tool wear produces compressive and shear stresses in
excess of the material’s yield strength which leads to severe plastic deformation. In the
case of conventional machining, the deformation layer corresponds to the layer softened
by only the heat generated as a result of the machining process. For the cases of LAM,
the surface is additionally softened by the heat supplied by laser radiation. So, it is
expected to see a deeper deformation layer for LAM. Deformation occurs primarily by
grain boundary rearrangement [7]. This can be further verified by the material’s
constitutive law, as explained in section 2.3.2.

Furthermore, as explained in section 5.3, the chipping and flaking of the cutting edge of
the coated carbide tool near failure causes rubbing to occur between the tool and the
workpiece surface. This causes extremely high levels of cutting forces to be generated
due to higher friction, thus causing a more pronounced plastic deformation layer. Figure
5.13 shows the cutting forces for all three conditions at the tool failure cut.

84
 Depth of plastic Depth of plastic
deformation: 63μm deformation: 75μm
Workpiece smearing

Unetched material

(a) (b)

Depth of plastic
deformation: 126μm

(c)
Figure 5.12 Optical micrographs of the machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool, conventional
machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) ceramic tool, LAM 3,000 W, 300 m/min, 0.4
mm/rev (c) coated carbide tool. LAM 3,000 W, 200 m/min, 0/25 mm/rev

The ceramic tool under conventional machining demonstrates signs of heavy workpiece
smearing, as shown in Figure 5.12 (a) and further analyzed in Figure 5.14 and 5.15. This
is a condition where a burr is created on the machined surface. The reason for this
phenomenon is increased flank wear and hard surface particles. When a reduced
clearance angle, as a result of wear, encounters hard workpiece material, chip formation
does not take place. Instead the material begins to shear, but before the process is
completed the tool moves over the material leaving a lump on the machined surface [28].
In general, LAM conditions demonstrated a superior surface integrity.

To determine whether the LAM process constitutes a phase change on the workpiece
subsurface, SEM analysis was performed on the samples. Figure 5.14 shows the SEM

85
im
mages for all
a three connditions. Thee SEM images show no
n change inn precipitatee size
w
within the matrix
m as com
mpared to thhe bulk matterial (Figuree 5.11). Thee grain bounndary
prrecipitates are
a now elongated as a reesult of the plastic
p deform
mation; yet, do not show
w loss
of coherency
y. A much more
m favoraable surface is observedd under LA
AM conditionns as
coompared to conventiona
c al machiningg which exhibbit workpiecce smearing as noted earrlier.

600

500 467
401 3
393
Cutting force (N)

400

300

200

100

0
Ceramic, Conv. Mach. Ceram
mic, LAM C
Coated Carbide
e, LAM

Figure 5.13 Cuttingg forces corrresponding to

t the last paass of the toool life tests.

Figure 5.15 shows the X-ray chem

mical analyssis of the three
t surfacces. There is
i no
siignificant ch
hange in the chemical coonstitution off the surfacees when com
mpared to thee bulk
m
material (Figu
ure 5.11 (d))). This meaans that theree is no eviddence of phaase change taaking
place within the machineed surface. Figure
F 5.15 (d)
( correspoonds to the chemical
c anaalysis
performed on
n the protubeerance resulting from suurface smearring as show
wn in Figuree 5.14
(bb). This veriffies that the lump is from
m the workpiece materiaal.

86
 b

Surface Smearing

(a) (b)

γ˝ and carbide Precipitates

at the grain boundaries

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Figure 5.14 SEM images of machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool, conventional machining,
300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) x1000 mag. of area b (c) ceramic tool, LAM, 300 m/min, 0.4
mm/rev (d) x1000 mag. of area d (e) coated carbide tool. LAM. 200 m/min. 0/25 mm/rev
(f) x1000 mag. of area f

87
 Ni Ni (b)
(a)

Cr Ni Cr Ni

Fe Fe
Fe Cr Mo Fe
Cr Nb
Mo Nb
Ti Ti
Si Si Nb
Nb Ti Ti Cr Ti Ti Cr Fe
C Fe C Mo

Ni (c) Ni (d)

Cr Ni Cr Ni
Fe Fe
Cr Nb Cr Nb Fe
Fe Mo
M Ti
Ti Si Si Nb
Nb Ti Ti Cr Nb Mo Ti Ti Cr Fe
C Fe C

Figure 5.15 X-ray chemical spectroscopy of the machined surfaces (a) ceramic tool,
conventional machining, 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (b) ceramic tool, LAM 3,000 W, 300
m/min, 0.4 mm/rev (c) coated carbide tool, LAM 3,000 W, 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev (d)
surface protrusion shown in Figure 5.14 (b).

To assess the hardness levels beneath the surface, micro-hardness tests were performed
on the samples as explained in section 3.9. Figure 5.16 shows the results of the micro-
hardness tests. All cases demonstrated that higher hardness levels decreased with depth
until the bulk material nominal hardness value (27.5 HRC) is reached. This is caused by
the high pressure and temperatures generated during machining, by the prolonged
machining which leads to increased plastic deformation in the surface layers, and by the
rapid cooling action that occurs when the hot machined surface cools down to room
temperature [58].

It is observed that the coated carbide creates a harder surface when compared to the
ceramic tool. This is due the higher levels of strain rate hardening that occur when using
this tool at high temperatures. As was seen from Figure 5.12, the coated carbide tool

88
demonstrates a larger deepth of plasttic deformattion. In adddition, increaased stressess that
reesult from unfavorable
u cutting edge conditionss near failurre, produce a very harddened
suurface [31]. When compparing the coonditions ussed for the ceramic
c tool,, it was obseerved
thhat the LAM
M condition produced
p sligghtly less woork hardeninng on the surrface layers.

50
LAM WC (20
00 m/min 0.25
5 mm/rev)
LAM Ceram
mic (300 m/min 0.4 mm/rev)
45 Conv. Ceram
mic (300 m/min 0.4 mm/rev)
Bulk hardneess

40
HRC

35

30

25
0 50 100 150 200 250
0 30
00
D
Depth from su
urface (μm)

Figuree 5.16 Workkpiece hardneess as a funcction of distaance from thhe surface.

5 Produ
5.5 uctivity Analysis
A
T
This section aims at asseessing the economic bennefits of LA
AM in termss of producttivity.
T
Table 5.1 sho
ows the mateerial removall rates and machined
m lenngth associatted with the cases
discussed. Fo
or comparisoon purposes, tool life tessting perform
med by Bhattt [12] is inclluded
inn this table as the refeerence case. The optimuum cutting conditions for conventtional
m
machining ussing the coatted carbide tool were iddentified in [12] as100 m/min
m and 0.125
0
m
mm/rev with a depth of cut of 0.25 mm as refeerred to in section 5.1. It
I is importaant to
note that the tool lives and
a the MR
RR reached under
u conveentional macchining by Bhatt
B
w only rep
were ported for floood coolant condition.
c

89
 Length Time Ra av. (μm) Volume MRR
Cutting Machining
Tool machined to cut sharp tool / removed mm3/sec
Condition Condition
(mm) (s) failing tool (mm3) (Increase%)
Triple
100 m/min
layer Conventional, 57.43
0.125 543 458 0.43 1.1 26761.1
Carbide Coolant (ref. case)
mm/rev
[12]
Laser
Triple 200 m/min
Assisted 220.53
layer 0.25 390 69.1 0.25 0.66 15238.7
machining, (284%)
Carbide mm/rev
Dry
Sailon 300 m/min Conventional, 516.72
299 26.7 0.77 0.89 13796.5
Ceramic 0.4 mm/rev Dry (797%)
Laser
Sailon 300 m/min Assisted 516.72
444 39.7 0.34 0.72 20487.1
Ceramic 0.4 mm/rev machining, (797%)
Dry

Table 5.1 MRR and machining specifications corresponding to the optimum conditions
for a single cutting edge up to the point of failure.

For the coated carbide, the volume of the material removed before tool failure is higher
when conventional machining is used, as a result of the coolant. Under LAM conditions
as previously discussed, the coatings of the tool fail and lead to premature tool failure
under dry conditions. The rise of absorptivity issues restricts the use of coolant under
LAM. If coolant is used under LAM, the laser radiation will be absorbed by the coolant
leading to lower workpiece temperatures and evaporation of the coolant fluid. Even
though there is less material removal with LAM, there is a 284% increase in material
removal rate, which is remarkable. Also significant improvements in the surface
roughness are obtained even with a worn out tool, which is an attractive feature for
industry usage.

For the ceramic tool under conventional machining and LAM, there is a 48.5% increase
in the volume of material removed with a single tool. LAM also achieves significant
improvements in terms of surface roughness. The cutting parameters used for the ceramic
tool demonstrate an almost 800% increase in the MRR when compared to conventional
machining using the coated carbide tool.

Furthermore, using LAM eliminates the need for coolant when machining with coated
carbide tools due to softer surfaces encountered by the cutting edge. Elimination of the

90
cooolant is an important factor
f both economically
e y and enviroonmentally, as cutting fluids
f
arre hazardou
us materials that requiree proper waaste manageement and are
a expensivve to
handle [59]. For further demonstrattion, under the
t cutting conditions discussed
d inn this
seection, the tiime requiredd for machinning 100 cm3 of Inconel 718 is show
wn in Figure 5.17.
Itt can be seen
n that laser assisted macchining usinng the ceram
mic tool resullts in a 4-5 times
t
im
mprovementt in productivvity when coompared witth conventionnal machininng using a cooated
caarbide tool. Only one extra
e tool change
c will be requiredd. In additioon, better suurface
quuality is geenerated. LA
AM using a ceramic toool also dem
monstrates improvemen
i nts as
coompared to conventiona
c al machiningg using ceram
mics, as it redduces the reqquired numbber of
toool changes by
b almost haalf.

35
Too
ol change
31.52
Cutting Time
30 3

25
Time to machine (min)

20

13.55
15
28.52

10.2
10 6 
7.2
7
5 4
7.55
3.2 3.2
0
Conven. Coatted  LAM Co
oated carbide Conven. Ceeramic LAM Ceramic
carbide

7 Time requiired to machhine 100 cm3 of Inconel 718.

Figure 5.17 7 Averagge time per toool
change = 1 min
m

91
5.6 Chip Morphology
To obtain insight into the effect of LAM on the machining process, chips were collected
under various conditions. This section aims at analyzing the chip formation mechanism
under these conditions.

Figure 5.18 illustrates how the cross section of the predicted undeformed chip looks like
in the turning operation using a round insert. The equation given below calculates the
maximum undeformed chip thickness for this cutting process [5]:

2 1

where is the depth of cut in mm, d is the insert diameter in mm and is the feed in
mm/rev.

fz
hmax
ae

Figure 5.18 Diagram showing the predicted undeformed chip using a round insert

In such an operation, increasing the feed will generate thicker chips. The non-uniform
generation of chip thickness gives rise to issues in measuring the average value. For this
reason the maximum chip thickness is the point of comparison. Generally, turning of
Inconel 718 has been known to create shear localized chips at high cutting speeds due to
its high strain, strain rate and poor thermal properties. The formation of such chips has
been explained in section 2.4.4.

92
5.6.1 Triple Layer Coated Carbide Tool

The coated carbide tool is used at lower cutting speed and feed and is thus associated
with thinner chips. Figure 5.19 (a) shows the chip formation under conventional
machining. It is seen that the chips are of the loose elemental type [16]. Figure 5.19 (b)
shows the chips under identical cutting conditions when LAM was used. It can be seen
that the chips produced under LAM have a more continuous appearance. Also a change
in the color of the chip was observed as a result of high temperatures. As the speed
increases there is no significant change in the type of chips produced, but with increasing
feed the chips start to retain a more continuous and helical forms (Figure 5.19 (c) and
(d)).

Change in color as a
result of high temperature
caused by the Laser

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 5.19 Chip types produced with the coated carbide tool (a) conventional machining,
100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (b) LAM, 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (c) LAM, 200 m/min,
0.175 mm/rev (d) LAM, 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev

93
Table 5.2 shows the maximum undeformed and deformed chip thicknesses for the coated
carbide tool. It can be seen that under similar conditions, the chips produced under LAM
are thicker than those obtained in conventional machining. This is due to higher strain
that the material displays at higher temperatures, as in LAM [7]. As it is seen in the table,
increasing the speed results in a thinner chip. This is because an increase in cutting speed
increases the temperature at the tool-chip interface and reduces friction, thus resulting in
thinner chips [42].

Cutting condition hmax Undeformed hmax Deformed

(mm) (mm)
Conv. Mach., 100 m/min 0.125 mm/rev 0.036 0.05
LAM 100 m/min 0.125 mm/rev 0.036 0.07
LAM 200 m/min 0.125 mm/rev 0.036 0.06
LAM 250 m/min 0.125 mm/rev 0.036 0.05
LAM 200 m/min 0.175 mm/rev 0.050 0.075
LAM 200 m/min 0.25 mm/rev 0.071 0.110
LAM 200 m/min 0.5 mm/rev 0.143 0.180

Table 5.2 Chip thickness measurement for the coated carbide tool.
Standard error= ±0.011 mm
Figure 5.20 shows etched and polished longitudinal sections of the chips produced under
similar conditions with LAM and conventional machining. The conventional machining
chip shown in Figure 5.20 (a) is of the steady state morphology showing no sign of
catastrophic shear. Figure 5.20 (b) demonstrates a more segmental morphology with less
homogenous dislocations. This indicates that the high temperatures generated in LAM are
causing a transition from steady state chips into shear localized or sawtooth chips. In
sawtooth chips, chip deformation is concentrated in narrow shear bands and most part of
the chip segment is formed under relatively low strain. Shear localized chip formation
tends to start above a critical speed [60]. As mentioned earlier, the chips produced with
the coated carbide tool are relatively thicker. For shear localization to initiate, a thick
enough chip needs to be produced. As seen in Figure 5.20 (c) at higher chip thicknesses,
this transition is much more pronounced, yet still fails to completely shift to shear
localized chip type. Table 5.3 shows the morphology of the conditions tested. It can be

94
observed that chip thickness and higher cutting speeds contribute to the formation of
sawtooth chips.
(a) (b)

(c)

Signs of
Catastrophic
Shear Bands
appearing

Figure 5.20 Chip morphology for the coated carbide tool (a) conventional machining, 100
m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (b) LAM, 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev (c) LAM, 250 m/min, 0.5
mm/rev. (magnification: 500X)

To study the effect of strain hardening on the chips, microhardness measurements were
recorded. As explained in section 3.9 the hardness value is the average of three points of
measurement. Figure 5.21 shows the results of the microhardness measurements for the
coated carbide tool. It can be seen from this figure that increasing speed results in
decreasing hardness values. However, as the feed increases the increased chip thickness
causes a more severe plastic deformation of the grains which results in increasing
hardness.

95
 Conventional Machining LAM LAM LAM
100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev 100 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev 200 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev 250 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev

LAM LAM LAM LAM

200 m/min, 0.125 mm/rev 200 m/min, 0.175 mm/rev 200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev 200 m/min, 0.5 mm/rev

Table 5.3 Chip morphology for the coated carbide tool (magnification: 200X)

96
 60

50.1
50 46.7 45.7
41.3 42
2
39.2 37.9
40

30
HRC

20

10

0
(Conv..) 100  (LAM) 100  (LAM) 2
200  (LAM) 2 175  (LAM) 0.2
250  (LAM) 0.1 25  (LAM) 0.5
5 
m/mmin m/m
min m/min m/min mm/reev mm/revv mm/rev

Feed: 0
0.125 mm/rev;  speed:  200 m//min; 
Increassing speed Increasing feed
d

Figure 5.21 Microhaardness of the chips for thhe coated caarbide tool under
u variouss
conditions.

5
5.6.2 Cera
amic Tool
T cutting conditions
The c ussed while maachining witth the ceram
mic tool resullt in thicker chips
duue to the hig
gher feeds uttilized. The main
m conditiions that conntrol sawtootth chip form
mation
arre identified
d [7] as:
• Materrial propertiies (mainly hardness):
h H
Harder mateerials have a higher tenddency
to form
m shear locaalized chips.
• Undefformed chipp thickness: Shear locallized chips only
o begin to form aboove a
certain
n value of unndeformed chip
c thicknesss.
• Cuttin
ng speed: Higher cuttting speed moderatelyy promotess sawtooth chip
formaation.
• Rake angle:
a Negaative rake anngles are gennerally assocciated with sawtooth
s chipps.

97
For the ceramic tool, the undeformed chip thickness (Table 5.4), cutting speeds and the
negative rake angle of the tool all create a more favorable condition for the formation of
sawtooth or shear localized chips.

Cutting condition hmax Undeformed hmax Deformed

(mm) (mm)
Conv. Mach., 200 m/min 0. 25 mm/rev 0.069 0.12
LAM 200 m/min 0. 25 mm/rev 0.069 0.16
LAM 300 m/min 0. 25 mm/rev 0.069 0.13
LAM 500 m/min 0. 25 mm/rev 0.069 0.11
LAM 300 m/min 0.35 mm/rev 0.097 0.15
LAM 300 m/min 0.4 mm/rev 0.11 0.18
LAM 300 m/min 0.5 mm/rev 0.138 0.2

Table 5.4 Chip thickness measurement for the ceramic tool. Standard error= ±0.011 mm
Generally, the chips produced with this tool are ribbon-like and continuous. At higher
cutting speeds, the chips show complete transition to shear localized structure, as can be
seen in Figure 5.22 (b). In this figure it can clearly be seen that there are narrow shear
bands with high plastic deformation and large regions of relatively low deformation.

(a) (b)

Shear
bands

Figure 5.22 Chip produced under LAM at 300 m/min, 0. 5 mm/rev (a) appearance (b)
morphology showing localized shear structure (magnification: 500X).

Figure 5.23 shows the result for the microhardness tests performed on these chips. Table
5.5 shows how the chip morphology changes with increasing speed and feed. Where the
laser was used, lower temperatures resulted in a less distinct sawtooth chip. This is in

98
aggreement wiith the adiabatic shear thheory (see seection 2.4.4).. Increasing the feed andd thus
thhe undeform
med chip thhickness apppears to haave the mosst significannt affect onn the
foormation of this
t kind of chip.

60

48.9
50 47.1
45..1 43.7
41.2
39.1
1 39
40

30
HRC

20

10

0
(Conv.)) 200  (LAM) 200  (LAM) 3
300  (LAM) 5
500  (LAM) 0
0.35  (LAM) 0
0.4  (LAM) 0.5 
m/mmin  m/m
min  m/miin  m/min  mm/reev mm/reev mm/rev
Feed: 0..25 mm/rev;  speed: 300 m m/min; 
Increasing speed Increasing feeed

Figure 5..23 Microharrdness of thee chips for thhe coated ceeramic tool under
u variouss
conditions.

A
Again, as wiith the carbide tool, inccreasing speeed generatees higher teemperatures, thus
reesulting in less
l hardeneed chips. Thhe results here
h seem too be in agrreement withh the
addiabatic sheear theory. Under idenntical cuttingg conditionss, chips prooduced by LAM
L
exxhibit more tendency to show shear localizationn. This meanss that temperature is inddeed a
determinant factor
f in the formation of such chips.

99
Conventional Machining LAM LAM LAM
200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev 200 m/min, 0. 25 mm/rev 300 m/min, 0. 25 mm/rev 500 m/min, 0. 25 mm/rev

LAM LAM LAM LAM

200 m/min, 0.25 mm/rev 300 m/min, 0. 35 mm/rev 300 m/min, 0.4 mm/rev 300 m/min, 0.5 mm/rev

Table 5.5 Chip morphology for the ceramic tool (magnification: 200X)

100
Chapter 6: Conclusion and Future Recommendations

6.1 Conclusions
The conclusions drawn from the presented study are summarized in this section as
follows:

1. Finishing experiments for the laser assisted machining of Inconel 718 were carried
out using triple layer, coated carbide (TiCn/Al2O3/TiN) and Sialon ceramic tools. In
both cases the optimum cutting conditions that would result in improvements in terms
of tool life, surface roughness and cutting forces were established. The summary of
the optimum conditions are listed in Table 6.1. Under these conditions the surface
finish was improved by almost 60% for the coated carbide tool and 26% for the
ceramic tool. LAM demonstrated a significant drop in the forces generated when
compared to conventional machining for both tools.

Cutting Laser spot

Feed Depth of Cut Laser power
Cutting tool speed diameter Ø
(mm/rev) (mm) (W)
(m/min) (mm)
WC 200 0.25 0.25 3000 2
(TiCn/Al2O3/TiN)
Ceramic 300 0.4 0.25 3000 2
(Sialon)

Table 6.1 Optimum conditions identified for each tool

2. A full tool life analysis was performed for the above mentioned optimum conditions
for both tools. Each tool was compared to the reference case of conventional
machining. Results showed improvements in terms of material removal rate, surface
roughness and tool wear mechanism under LAM conditions. Table 6.2 summarizes
the tool wear mechanisms involved in LAM and conventional machining of each tool.
3. Microstructural analysis showed that LAM improves surface quality. The ceramic
tool under conventional machining demonstrated severe workpiece smearing, while
under identical conditions LAM showed no signs of smearing on the machined
surface. None of the cases showed signs of phase change in the microstructure.
Surface roughness also showed significant improvements under LAM.

101
4. Generally, the surface layers affected by the machining process demonstrated a higher
level of hardness, with values gradually reaching the nominal bulk material hardness
value below the surface. The coated carbide tool generated a thicker and more
hardened sub-surface layer affected by the LAM process when compared to the
ceramic tool.
5. Furthermore, under LAM conditions remarkable increase in MRR was observed.
Almost a 300% improvement in MRR was observed for the coated carbide tool under
LAM compared to conventional machining tests performed by researchers [12], using
an identical tool. The ceramic tool demonstrated nearly 800% increase in MRR as
compared to conventional machining with the coated carbide tool, and 50%
improvement in tool life as compared to conventional machining using the same
ceramic tool. LAM, using the ceramic tool under the given conditions, yielded the
most favorable results despite previous research associating ceramic tools with poor
surface quality. The coated carbide tool under LAM was slightly more favorable only
in terms of surface roughness (17% lower than the ceramic tool with LAM).

Cutting Tool wear mechanism

Cutting tool
condition Abrasion Adhesion Flaking Cratering Chipping Notching
WC Conv./
9 9 9 9 9 8
(TiCn/Al2O3/TiN) coolant
WC LAM/dry 9 9 9 8 9 8
(TiCn/Al2O3/TiN)
Ceramic Conv./dry 9 9 8 8 8 8
(Sialon)
Ceramic LAM/dry 9 9 8 8 8 8
(Sialon)

Table 6.2 Tool wear mechanisms involved in LAM

6. To achieve insight into chip formation in LAM, chips were collected under different
conditions and analyzed. The chip analysis revealed that at low feeds and speeds the
chips are of the steady state structure. Under identical cutting conditions, chips
produced with LAM show more tendency to form sawtooth chips than chips produced
under conventional machining. High temperature and large undeformed chip
thickness (feed) seemed to be the dominating factors that dictate a threshold between
steady state and shear localized chips. It is observed that above a maximum
undeformed chip thicknesses of around 140 μm, and high temperatures caused by the

102
 laser (above 650 ºC), the chips show transition to shear localized morphology. The
fact that conventionally produced chips (lower temperatures) showed little or no
tendency to form sawtooth chips, while chips produced under LAM (higher
temperatures) demonstrated increased tendency into the sawtooth structure, confirms
the adiabatic shear theory as the cause of sawtooth chip formation.

6.2 Recommendations for Future Work

The author’s recommendations for future work are as follows:

• In the preset study, LAM was applied to finishing operations. The main reason was
that the small depth of cut results in good laser absorption within the depths utilized
for this operation. Numerical modeling of the LAM process can give insight into the
depth of temperature penetrations [61, 62]. This can result in applying LAM to deeper
cuts associated with semi-finishing and even roughing operations. It is recommended
that a finite element simulation of the cutting operation be carried out for process
optimization under untested conditions.
• The significant benefits in terms of machinability of Inconel 718 using LAM have
been demonstrated in this research. Another issue that is recommended for further
exploration is the generation of residual stresses on the machined surface. The high
temperatures achieved in LAM could affect the tensile residual stresses that are
generally known to result when turning Inconel 718 [30, 63, 61].
• Investigation of the effect of temperature on the morphology of shear localized chips
vs. steady state chips is recommended to provide insight into the causes of the
formation of such chips and their effects on tool wear and surface integrity.
• A detailed life cycle analysis of the dry LAM is recommended to assess the
environmental impact of this process on human health, resources and the quality of
the eco-system.
• Although it has been demonstrated that LAM eliminates the use of cutting fluid,
which is known to compromise up to 17-20% of the total machining expenses [59],
an economical analysis is recommended to reveal the feasibility of this process in
terms of other associated costs, e.g., initial capital cost as well as operating and
maintenance.

103
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4. Pfefferkorn F. E., 2002, “Laser Assisted Machining of Zirconia ceramics” Ph.D

Thesis ,Purdue University.

5. Idereklam, Modern Metal Cutting: A practical handbook, 1996, Sandvik Coromant

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7. Shaw M. C., Metal Cutting Principles, 2005, Second edition, Oxford Press.

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