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WRITING LAB REPORTS – A FIRST

.

YEAR GUIDE
Three general objectives are to be accomplished in Physics labs. First, is to gain insights into a variety of
Physics principles. Second, is to learn something about the process of scientific investigation and
verification. Finally, we need to learn how to communicate what we know or have seen. Your lab report is
the vehicle by which we can find out how well these objectives have been accomplished. To meet these
objectives the student must know:
1. How to use various measuring instruments and to estimate their reading errors
2. How to reduce/eliminate errors
3. How to calculate errors
4. How to use various common instruments
5. Methods of analysis and how to draw and interpret linear and curved graphs
6. To discuss results and draw intelligent conclusions
7. Laboratory technique and laboratory safety

STRUCTURE OF A LAB REPORT

(The whole report should be at least 15 pages (excluding graphs and drawing) hand written with minimum
spacing between lines and words.
Title
The title of a lab should be related to what was done in the lab. Its primary purpose is to make sure one does
not lose track of what the report would be about.
Objectives
Why was the practical done? What was the student trying to achieve? The objectives should be listed and
numbered. This will help in keeping the student in line and also important when drawing the conclusion. A
report without objectives cannot be considered complete.
Theory /Literature review
This section sets the background that the reader will need to understand the rest of the lab report. Here you
should discuss the Physics that the reader will need to know including equations if any. Explain the specific
concepts, laws/formula, and theories that are relevant to the experiment. This means explaining the terms in
the formula and how they are present or experienced in the experiment. This section helps clarify the ideas
that one needs to apply to the specific experiment at hand. (Make this at least two(2) pages)
Experimental procedure/Method
A detailed but concise discussion of the experimental setup, how you calibrated your measuring tools and
how you took your data must be stated in this section. A list of apparatus and sometimes diagram of the
apparatus and experimental setup/design is often given here.
Important to note is that the procedure should be in reported speech. You are reporting what you did and not
giving instructions on what should be done. Never write in first person. The following are examples on how
to write the procedure:
a) “The ball was dropped from a known height and the time it took to travel to a designated distance
was then noted”
b) “We dropped the ball from a known height and noted the time it took to travel to a designated
distance”

This is a very important part of any report and students should take it as such.
Data Presentation and Discussion
In this section (the most important part of the lab/report), you present your data, usually in graphical
or/and tabular form, and present a discussion which interprets the results for the reader. Experimental
values that are not consistent should not be included. The narrative of this section must lead the reader to the

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same conclusion as you reached rather than allow the reader to reach their own conclusions. When
presenting data you must remember to include the correct number of significant figures.
Calculations fall in this category for experiments that need calculations. These should be well detailed,
procedural and correct. Error calculation and discussion on how to correct them are also made here. The
student must explain and discuss anything that is in the experiment that they wish the reader to know.
If done well, this section will lead one to the obvious conclusion of the experiment.
Error analysis:
This is usually the uncertainty of the results. The analysis is usually derived from the reading error of the
raw data taken from the lab. There are many kinds of errors like random errors, systematic errors, absolute
errors and so on.
a) In most o the experiments, the initial readings are used to calculate out some quantity x. This will
have the same units the same as the quantity itself.
b) As the fractional error, dx/x.
c) As percentage error = ( dx/x)x100%. Detailed error analysis should be got from error analysis books
, internet and also from class lecture notes.
Source of errors:

There is usually no ideal results. The reality is that some physical restraints that affect the actual
performance of the experiment. In this section please indicate these physical restraints.
Precautions:
These are measures that you should take to protect the safety of oneself and the equipments.
Recommendations:
The part should entail how best the experiment should be done in order to achieve the desired aim
Conclusions
Draw a logical conclusion based on your results. The conclusions should answer the questions posed in the
objectives. If one was to read your conclusions they must see that you have responded to the set objectives
and answered them.
References
State your sources of information that assisted you in compiling the lab. One must have referred somewhere.
In writing the references we ask that you use the APA STYLE OF REFERENCING. The order in which
the reference is written is very important. Read and understand on how to reference using the APA format.
GENERAL COMMENTS
1. Each lab report must be written in English, following the usual rules of grammar and spelling.
Be sure that you use the proper punctuation, so that the narrative will have some logical flow.
Lab write-ups should be done in persuasive manner. You want to tell the reader what to see in
your data, lead the reader to the conclusions. Do not just present a bunch of data and expect the
reader to understand what it is all about. The reader should finish reading the lab having the
same interpretation of data as you do.
2. The lab write-up is not a journal of what you did and your thoughts while doing this experiment.
You do not discuss your frustrations or wrong paths you followed while you were moving to an
understanding of the experimental results.
3. Each figure or table needs to be numbered and have a caption with it. A figure or table that is not
discussed in the narrative section of the lab report is not needed and should be eliminated.
Figures and tables should be referred to by their number in the text e.g. Table 2 shows the data…
etc.
4. Labs should be written in third person and in the past tense; “the index of refraction of glass was
found by measuring the angle of deflection of… OR “We found the index of refraction of glass
by measuring the angle of deflection of…” (Even if only one person did the lab!)
5. Formulae should be presented on separate lines and numbered sequentially through the report.
You should refer to a formula its number e.g. …substituting Equation 3 into Equation 4 yields…
6. Do not forget to write your name, class, date, registration number and any other pertinent
identifying information.

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7. Grading: the lab reports will contribute 10 marks towards your final grade in the respective
units, and missing 2/3 of the lab work automatically disqualifies a student from proceeding with
the academic program in the University.
8. Basically your report should be divided into the following topics: Basically your report should be divided into the
following topics: Pearsonal details page, Title, Objectives, Literature Review, Apparatus/reagents/equipment, Method/procedure, table of
Results, data analysis and discussion, , error analysis, souce of errors, precautions,Conclusion, and Reference.
9. In writing the references we ask that you use the APA STYLE OF REFERENCING. The order in which the
reference is written is very important. Read and understand on how to reference using the APA format.

GENERAL COMMENTS
10. Each lab report must be written in English, following the usual rules of grammar and spelling.
Be sure that you use the proper punctuation, so that the narrative will have some logical flow.
Lab write-ups should be done in persuasive manner. You want to tell the reader what to see in
your data, lead the reader to the conclusions. Do not just present a bunch of data and expect the
reader to understand what it is all about. The reader should finish reading the lab having the
same interpretation of data as you do.
11. The lab write-up is not a journal of what you did and your thoughts while doing this experiment.
You do not discuss your frustrations or wrong paths you followed while you were moving to an
understanding of the experimental results.
12. Each figure or table needs to be numbered and have a caption with it. A figure or table that is not
discussed in the narrative section of the lab report is not needed and should be eliminated.
Figures and tables should be referred to by their number in the text e.g. Table 2 shows the data…
etc.
13. Labs should be written in third person and in the past tense; “the index of refraction of glass was
found by measuring the angle of deflection of… OR “We found the index of refraction of glass
by measuring the angle of deflection of…” (Even if only one person did the lab!)
14. Formulae should be presented on separate lines and numbered sequentially through the report.
You should refer to a formula its number e.g. …substituting Equation 3 into Equation 4 yields…
15. Do not forget to write your name, class, date, registration number and any other pertinent
identifying information.
16. Grading: the lab reports will contribute 10 marks towards your final grade in the respective
units, and missing 2/3 of the lab work automatically disqualifies a student from proceeding
with the Academic program in the University.

A1 PRECISION, ACCURACY AND ERROR

MEASUREMENTS:
Objectives:

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1. To study some of the instruments and methods used in precision measurements

2. To compute the volume and density of various items.
3. To compute for the voltages from the measured using appropriate instruments given.
4. To compute for errors in (volume and density of various items, voltages from the measured using.)

Apparatus: Metre rule, vernier callipers, micrometer screw gauge, electronic balance and traveling microscope, multimeter. Such
items as copper cylinder, aluminium wire, steel ball, resistor and glass capillary tube are also supplied.
METHOD: The experiment comprises measurement of the various objects supplied with the appropriate instruments. Where
feasible, at least two instruments should be used for each measurement and the precision obtained in each case compared. In
this way, the volume and density of at least two metal objects weightings should be done on the electronic balance.
In the second part of the experiment, some electrical circuits have been set up for you to measure the current and resistance of the
Resistor. Measure the current using an ammeter, a milli-Ammeter and a micro ammeter, and estimate the reading errors in each
case.

N.B. in all cases an estimate of the precision obtained should be, i.e. note the reading errors on all measurements. Where
appropriate note the zero error.

Record the data in appropriate work sheets, working out any calculations asked for. Answer the questions posed WORK YOU
MUST DO section:

WORKSHEET 1:
N.B. You must include in the tables the units of any measurements you take

MEASURING ITEMS
ITEMS
Meter rule Vernier calipers Micrometer Screw Gauge Balance

Reading error

Zero error

Copper cylinder: Its mass:

Its height:

Its Diameter (external):

Its Diameter (internal):

Steel Ball:

Diameter:

Aluminium wire: Its length

Its Diameter:

glass rod: Its diameter

Its length

WORK-SHEET 2:
Measuring instruments
Ammeter Milli-Ammeter Micro-Ammeter Multimmeter
Zero error
Reading error
Current Reading
Resistance measurement using multimeter

WORK-SHEET 3:
Measuring instruments

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Multimmeter Scope
Zero error
Reading error
Peak height
Peak to peak height
Sensitivity

WORK-SHEET 4:
Measuring instruments
Travelling microscope
Scale X Y Z
Zero error
Reading error

PART 1: WORK YOU MUST DO (OR DATA ANALYSIS)

1. Now analyse the
a) Volume of
i. Copper cylinder (both internal and external)
ii. Steel ball
iii. Aluminium wire
iv. Glass rod
2. Now analyse the
b) Density of
i. Copper
ii. Steel
iii. Aluminium
iv. Glass
3.
Now look for actual values of density of the materials given from a suitable table of physical and
chemical constants.
i. Copper
ii. Steel
iii. Aluminium
iv. Glass
4. Determine the value of voltage being measured using
i. Micro-ammeter
ii. Milli-Ammeter
iii. Ammeter

5. Determine the value of voltage being measured using the

iv. Scope (pk and pk-pk)
v. Multimmeter (pk-pk)
6. Why is their difference between voltage measured by scope and the multimeter?
7.
What is the accuracy and precision of the travelling microscope
8. Why is it appropriate to use the metre rule for measuring the length of the copper wire and
the micrometer screw gauge for its diameter?.
9. What is an error of error of a reading made by an instrument or calculated from a measurement?
10. Define repeatability and reproducibility?
11. What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
12.
How do accuracy, precision and error relate to each other?

(ERROR ANALYSIS SECTION)

1. Now analyse the error in

c) Volume of

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v. Copper cylinder (both internal and external)

vi. Steel ball
vii. Aluminium wire
viii. Glass rod
ix.
2. Now analyse the error in
d) Density of
v. Copper
vi. Steel
vii. Aluminium
viii. Glass
ix.
3. Determine the value of error in voltage being measured using
vi. Micro-ammeter
vii. Milli-Ammeter
viii. Ammeter

CONCLUSION: CONLUDE AS FOLOWS:

1. The volume of the copper cylinder was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its
density was found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
2. The volume of the steel ball was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its density was
found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
3. The volume of the glass rod was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units, and its density was
found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
4. The volume of the alluminium rod was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units,and its density
was found to be......... (units)±....... (units .
5.
The voltage using the milli-Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
6.
The voltage using the Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
7.
The voltage using the micro-Ammeter was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
8.
The peak voltage using the scope was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)
The peak-peak voltage using the scope was found to be ......... (units)±....... (units)

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM I SPH 2101

EXPERIMENT C11: OHM’S LAW and Diode characteristics

Objectives
To verify or prove experimentally that these statements are true
a) Ohm’s law for a metallic conductor

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b) R = R + R + R for resistances in series

1 2 3
c) 1/R = 1/R + 1/R + 1/R for resistances in parallel
1 2 3
d) Ohm’s law is not obeyed by a semiconductor

Apparatus

Theory
Ohm’s law for a metal conductor states that potential difference, V, between two ends of the conductor is directly proportional to the current, I, flowing through it, at a constant
temperature. i.e. V = RI, where R is a constant known as resistance (in ohms)

Method A
1. Determine the resistances R , R and R separately as above.
1 2 3
2. Determine the resistances R , R and R in series.
1 2 3
3. Determine the resistance of the three (R , R and R ) resistors in parallel.
1 2 3
Record all values on the worksheet and test to see if the relationships for resistors in series and in parallel hold. Use your experimental values of V and I to plot graphs of V versus I. A
straight-line graph proves ohm/s law. Find R from the slope of your graphs.
s
Method B
Repeat the first part of the experiment using a semiconductor and draw the graph of V against I. Set the potentiometer R so that the voltage in V and the current in A are zero. Adjust R so that
voltage V increases in suitable small steps such as 0.2V from 0 to the maximum such as IV, and record the values of V and I from the meters. Reverse the diode D in the circuit. Record the
value of I at a reverse voltage of IV.

R R R Series Parallel
1 2 3
V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (v) I (A) V (A) I (A)

From graphs From formula % Difference

R (series)

R (parallel)

Compare your experimental results with those obtained using the formula. Read the actual values of the resistors using the colour code and compare with your experimental values.
Discuss the sources of errors in these measurements on resistance. Is this the most accurate way of measuring resistance? If not, what would you use and why? Comment on your graph. Is
ohm’s law verified? Use a resistance meter to check your values for Rs. Comment
a) Semiconductor

Forward bias Reverse bias

(volts) I (amps) V (volts) I (amps)

Calculation:Using the graph of forward bias (fig below), calculate:

1) The reciprocal, V/I, of the gradient of the graph at V=0.7v (this gives the a.c resistance of the diode at this voltage)
2) The ration V/I at V = 0.7, the D.C. resistance at this voltage.

a.c. resistance at 0.7v = … I

D.C. resistance at 0.7v =…

V I
O v
Use the chart below to determine the values of the resisances using the colour bands or codes.

color 1st – significant figure 2nd – significant figure 3rd - multiplier 4th - tolerance

Black 0 0 100 + 0%

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Brown 1 1 101 + 1%

Red 2 2 102 + 2%

Orange 3 3 103 -

yellow 4 4 104 + 5%

Green 5 5 105 + 0.5%

Blue 6 6 106 + 0.25%

violet 7 7 107 + 0.1%

Grey 8 8 108 + 0.5% (+10%)

white 9 9 109 -

Gold - - 10-1 + 5%

Silver - - 10-2 +10%

None - - - +20%

Use now the resistance meter to determine the actual values of the resistances.
Conclusion:
For Resistors Colour code Resistance meter comparison plot your six graphs on the same axis. Discuss the
resistance of the junction diode in forward and reverse bias and
R
1
whether the diode is an ‘ohmic’ or ‘non-ohmic’ component.
R
2
R
3 Now write a independent lab report following all the step

C14- HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF THE

EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
Objectives : 1. To determine the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field
2. Calculate the magnetic moment of the bar magnet
Apparatus: magnetometer and scale ruler
Theory

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The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field Bo can be found from the measurement of mass,
length and time. A small magnet pivoted at it’s center to rotate in a horizontal plane will be deflected through
an angle  when acted on by only one other field B at right angles to Bo. Thus from fig. 1 below
Bo

B=BOtanɵ
This is the principle behind the deflection magnetometer. For a magnet of moment M which is suspended at
the center in the earth’s horizontal field, it will experience a couple C if it is displaced by small angle  from
the equilibrium position.
Thus C=M Bo  (for small )
We can write the equation of motion as
I d2  / d t2 = - M B.  ……………………...................................................................................................(1)
Where I is the moment of inertia of the magnet about an axis through it’s center. Equation (1) describes a
simple harmonic motion with a period T given as
T = 2 [ I / MBo]
This is the principle of the vibration magnetometer.
ɵ
2a
m m

Calculation of the Horizontal component, Bo

The induction field B is calculated as follows
The bar magnet can be considered as a permanent dipole which can be replaced by two poles separated by a
distance 2a and having a pole strength m given by M= 2ma (where M is the magnetic moment of the
dipole).
From the inverse square law and adopting sommerfield system, the induction field B at a point o distance d
from the magnet due to the bar magnet (dipole) is given by:
B={[ o/4] [m / (d-a)2 ] – [m / (d+a)2) ]}= {[o/4] [4mad /(d2-a2)2 ]}=[oMd / 2 (d2 –a2)2 ]
B= Bo tan  , so (d2-a2)2/d =[M / Bo][o/2] cot
A graph of (d2-a2)2/d against cot  is a straight line with slope (M / Bo) (o/2) from which (M / Bo) can be
calculated.(Note that a is half the magnetic length of the bar magnet. Thus the length 2a is
Approximately 7/8 of the physical length).
1. Experimental procedure:
The field B due to a bar magnet at various points along its axis is first determined from the deflections
produced in the deflection magnetometer. Remove the bar magnet and any other magnetic materials from the
vicinity of the magnetometer and adjust it until its arms are in the east-west direction and the aluminium
pointer reads zero. Place the magnet on one arm of the magnetometer to give a deflection of about 70. Read
the distance, d, of the center of the magnet on the arm (which is calibrated with the center of the
magnetometer magnet as the zero point) and note the deflection of the two ends of the pointer.Reverse the
bar magnet and note the deflections again.Repeat with the magnet on the other arm at the same distance.
Determine the mean of the eight readings of the pointer which give the deflection  at the distance, d.
Repeat the experiment at least for 5 other different values of d so that  varies between 30 and 70.
2. The vibration magnetometer
Suspend the bar magnet on a stirrup so that it can oscillate freely in a horizontal plane. Displace it by
a small angle from its equilibrium position and determine the time taken by 10 oscillations.

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Repeat thrice and calculate the period. The period is given by

(M Bo) = [(4 2 I) / T)]
Where I is the moment of inertia of a bar magnet of length l and breadth b and is given by
I = [m (l2 + b2) / 12] m’ is the mass of the magnet)
From the value of M/Bo (in experiment 2) , the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field Bo can
be calculated. Calculate the magnetic moment of the bar magnet also.
Table of results:

cotɵ
ɵ Eastern arm Western arm Mean

d North pole facing east ɵ

North pole facing west North pole facing east North pole facing west

0
30

0
35

0
40

0
45

0
50

0
55

0
60

0
65

0
70

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

C ~ Kirchhoff’s Laws
20
Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff’s Laws by comparing voltages and currents obtained from a real circuit to
those
Predicted by Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Loop law
 Junction law

Introduction:
A simple circuit is one that can be reduced to an equivalent circuit containing a single resistance and a single
voltage source. Many circuits are not simple and require the use of Kirchhoff’s Laws to determine voltage,
current, or resistance values. Kirchhoff’s Laws for current and voltage are given by equations 1 and 2. In
this experiment, we will construct two circuits with 4 resistors and a voltage source. These circuits will not
be simple, thus Kirchhoff’s Laws will be required to determine the current in each resistor. We will then use
a digital multi-meter to obtain an experimental value for the voltage across each resistor in the circuits.
Kirchhoff’s Laws will then be applied to the circuits
to obtain theoretical values for the current in each resistor. By applying Ohm’s Law, we can then obtain a
theoretical value for the voltage across each resistor. The experimental and theoretical voltages can then be
compared by means of % error.
Equation 1: Σ junction I=0 junction law

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Equation 1: Σ loop I=0 loop law

Equipment:
Proto-board
4 resistors: (R1=....kΩ, R2=....kΩ, R3=.....kΩ, R4=1.....kΩ)
Digital multi-meter Variable power supply Wire leads and alligator clips

Experimental Procedure Part 1: figure 1

1. Using the proto-board, the 4 resistors, the variable power supply, and the wire leads and alligator clips;
construct the circuit shown in Figure 1. First ascertain the values of the resistance of the resistor.
2. Turn on the power supply. Connect the multi-meter across the power supply and adjust the voltage to
suitable D.C. voltages {Get guidance from the lab INSTRUCTOR}
3. Connect the multi-meter across each ofA the 4 resistors Put the multi-meter in series to each resistor and
I
record the current through each. Record these 4 values
3
of voltage and current in the data table.
4. Turn the power supply off and
I
disconnect the circuit.
1
I
2
R
Experimental Procedure Part 2: figure 2 1
1. Add a second power supply to the circuit as shown in Figure 2.
2. Turn on the power supplies. Adjust the voltages V1 and V2 to 4.0 volts.
3. Connect the multi-meter across each of the 4 resistors Put the multi-meter in series to each resistor and
record the current through
V
each. Record these 4 values of voltage and current in the data table.
R
4. Turn the power supply off and disconnect 2
the circuit.
Analysis:
1. For the first circuit, use equations 1 and 2 to write a system of linear equations that may be solved for the
current in each branch of theR3circuit. Then, solveH the system toR4obtain a theoretical value for each current.
Show your work!
2. Using the currents
Figure 1 obtained in step 1Bof the analysis; apply Ohm’s Law to determine the theoretical
I
voltage across each resistor. 6
3. Compare the theoretical voltages
I
obtained in step 2 of the analysis to those measured in the actual circuit
in Figures 2 and 1. 4
I
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3 for the second circuit. 5
R
5. Record the theoretical voltages, the 1
experimental voltages, and the % errors in the results table.
Challenge: figure 3
Repeat experimental steps 1-4 and the analysis for the circuit in Figure 3 with resistors and a power supply:
(R1=.....kΩ, R2=......kΩ, R3=......kΩ, R4=......kΩ, R5=.......kΩ) V
y
V R
x 2

R R
3 4

G
Figure 2 C
I
9

I
7
I
8
R
1

I R
10 5 E
D
I
I
12
11 V
R
z 2

R R
3 4

Figure 3 F
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Table of results:

Figure 1 V (theoretical) V Percent error

(experimental)
R1
R2
R3
R4

Figure 1 I (theoretical) I Percent error

(experimental)
R1 I2 = I2 =
R2 I2 = I2 =
R3 I1 = I1 =
R4 I3 = I3 =

Figure 2 V (theoretical) V Percent error

(experimental)
R1
R2
R3
R4

Figure 2 I (theoretical) I Percent error

(experimental)
R1 I5 = I5 =
R2 I5 = I5 =
R3 I4 = I4 =
R4 I6 = I6 =

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Figure 3 V (theoretical) V Percent error

(experimental)
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5

Figure 3 I (theoretical) I Percent error

(experimental)
R1 I8 = I8 =
R2 I12 = I12 =
R3 I11 = I11 =
R4 I9 = I9 =
R5 I10 = I10 =

Now get the summation,Σ, of currents at the following junction:

At junction A, Σ (I1,I2,I3)=, At junction B, Σ (I4,I5,I6)=
At junctionC, Σ (I7,I8,I9)=, At junctionD , Σ (I11,I10,I7)=
At junction E, Σ (I10,I12,I8)=, At junction F, Σ (I11,I9,I12)=
At junction G, Σ (I4,I5,I6)=, At junction H, Σ (I1,I2,I3)=

now solve for v, vx, vy, vz and vw using appropriates loops. measure the actual input voltages and
account for the difference.Is the kirchoffs law verified? Comment and recommend

C12- WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Aim: to find the values of resistances
 X1 , X2 and X3
 To find out whether the formulas of 1. Resistances in series 2. And parallel are true.
 To find the resistivity of the material of the wire given
Theory
When resistances are connected as shown in Fig. 2 below, they constitute a wheatstone network. If P, Q and
R are known resistances adjusted in such away that the galvanometer G reads zero, the points B and D will
be at the same potential and no current flows between them. The network is said to be balanced. Thus:If the
current through the meter is Ig = 0 , I1 =I3 and I2=I4.Or I2/I1=I4/I3 also PI1/RI2 =QI3 =XI4. Hence X = QR/P. If
the above condition is satisfied then it is possible to use the network to determine the value of the unknown
resistance X

Apparatus: Decade resistance box, wheat stone bridge, dry cell, three assorted resistors, galvanometer,
resistivity wire, galvanometer and assorted wires.
Procedure/method: In Fig. below , P and Q are resistances of the portions AB and BC respectively, of a wire
of uniform resistance. Commonly, this wire is 50 or 100 cm long. The point B on the wire is where the
galvanometer G shows no deflection. P and Q will be proportional to the lengths AB and BC of the wire,
respectively. R is a standard resistance (decade resistance box). Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. 1 above. Find
an approximate balance point with the protective resistor in the circuit (NB: this resistor limits current flowing
in the galvanometer). Now obtain the accurate balance point by shorting this protective resistor. Reverse the
terminals of the accumulator E and repeat the measurement. Interchange R and X, and repeat the procedure.
How does the balance point change? Repeat the experiment for two other resistors X and tabulate your results
with errors.Measure the resistances of the unknown resistor X and compare the values with those from your
experiment. Use the chart below to determine the values of the resisances using the colour bands or codes.

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Color 1st – significant figure 2nd – significant figure 3rd – multiplier 4th – tolerance
Black 0 0 100 + 0%
Brown 1 1 101 + 1%
Red 2 2 102 + 2%
Orange 3 3 103 -
yellow 4 4 104 + 5%
Green 5 5 105 + 0.5%
Blue 6 6 106 + 0.25%
violet 7 7 107 + 0.1%
Grey 8 8 108 + 0.5% (+10%)
white 9 9 109 -
Gold - - 10-1 + 5%
Silver - - 10-2 +10%
None - - - +20%

Part 2: Resistivity of the wire

Now use the bridge to measure the resistance of each of the wire given. Before connecting the battery to the
bridge, carefully check that all the connections are correct. Get the wire, attach it to the bridge, and set the
decade box resistance Rk to be as near to Rx as possible(you know Rx roughly from your DMM
measurements). Balance the bridge by moving the sliding contact along the wire while watching the
galvanometer. With the bridge balanced, measure L1 and L2, and compute

(11) .Repeat this procedure as the table below shows.From the results from
the table , compute the average resistivity, and the uncertainty of the average ( ). Compare your
average value with the known value.

I I
4 2

I
g

I I
1 3

Now use the resistance meter to determine the actual values of the resistances.

Test R and X not

resistors to Average of Actual
interchanged R and X interchanged
give Value of Resistance
Terminals Terminals Terminals Terminals lengths P
Length (P standard Un-reversed reversed Un-reversed reversed value
and Q) resistor R and Q.
P Q P Q P Q P Q Paverage Qaverage

X1

X2

X3

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X1 , X2and X3
series
X1 , X2 and
X3 parallel

The given wire Measure its length: Measure its diameter:

____ cm = ______m ____ mm = ______m

C18 Charging curves of a capacitor and oscilloscope

AIM:
1. To learn how to use the oscilloscope
2. To find out the values of capacitors given.
3. To find out of the formulas for capacitors in 1. Series 2. Parallel are collect
4. Explain how the current of capacitor voltage in a series C-R circuit which is connected to a D.C
source varies with time.
5. Draw graph for variation of voltage with time for each of the component in C-R circuit when
the capacitor is
 Charging
 Discharging
6. Define the time constant of a C-R circuit
7. Determine the growth and decay of the component voltage on current in a series C-R circuit,
seconds after the commencing of
 Charging
 Discharging

THEORY:
heated filament cathode

Focussing anode
electron beam

accelerating X-plates
Y-plates anode

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NB. Disposition of control varies depending on the make of oscilloscope.

Operation of oscilloscope
The oscilloscope can be used to give an image of a repetitive signal as a function of time. The signal as a
voltage, is applied to the Y-plates (vertical movement) and internally generated wave sweeps the electron
beam (seen as a spot on the screen) horizontally at some pre-determined rate. This rate is set using the
“time/division” control.
The “time/division” control is calibrated such that when it is operating at 50 cps, 1 cycle occupies 20 ms. All
the other ranges on the switch are direct multiples of this. The time calibration is only valid at the minimum
setting of the “X-pos” control. The X-shift control moves the whole trace horizontally
The trace may also be controlled vertically using the “volt/div” control. This switch inserts a series of
resistances between the input socket and the vertical amplifier. It is used either to obtain a picture of
convenient height or to obtain direct readings of the input voltage (provided the “Y-pos” control is at its
minimum setting).
To take measurements, a steady trace is required, and the “trig-level” control may be adjusted. You will be
using the internal trigger where the applied, i.e. unknown, signal is used to start the time base. The “trig-
level” switch controls the signal level at which the time base is triggered.
The “d.c. /a.c.” switch is normally set to the a.c. position. This inserts a block capacitor in series with the
input of the vertical amplifier to remove the d.c. Component of the signal.

Method A
1. Connect the signal generator up to the oscilloscope. Set the generator to output sine waves at a frequency
of 500 Hz
2. You should see a steady sine wave on the screen. If not, press in the trigger level button. Adjust the
intensity and focus controls to give a sharp, but not too bright image.
3. Now try the effect of the following controls: X pos Y pos time/div volts/div
4. Measure the wavelength of the wave seen on the screen and calculate the frequency of the wave.
5. The oscilloscope can also be used to measure voltage, the voltage output of generator to 2.
6. Measure the voltage from the oscilloscope screen.
7. Now set the generator to give out square waves at 500 Hz and voltage output setting 2.
8. Measure the frequency and voltage of the wave.
9. Record all data on the worksheet. Comment and compare your results from the sine and square waves.

Method B:
1. When a capacitor is charging through a Resistor R1 ; The rate of charge of I or voltage VC at a
particular instant depends on the value of I or voltage VC at that instant. Follows an exponential
curve and the mathematical equation is
VC = E (1-e-t/CR1) and I = (E/R1)e-t/CR1
2. When the capacitor is discharging the current I flows opposite to the charging
Current I through R2. VC starts to decay. The curve is an exponential as above
VC = Ee-t/CR2
And I =-(E/R2)e-t/CR2

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E/R
1
V
C

Charge

Discharge I

t
E/R
1
2

3. The rate of charging or discharge at any particular time is shown by gradient or Slope of VC /time
graph at that time. A tangent drawn on the graph at any
Point indicates the slope and thus the rate of charge or discharge. If the rate of
Charge /discharge were not to charge but remain constant then the capacitor
Were to charge/discharge in a time = CR in seconds. This is called time constant T.
T = CR
APPARATUS:
1. Power supply
2. High resistance values R1
3. 5 unknown capacitors C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5
4. Discharging resistors RO
R1
1M

S2

+ E
10V
TP1 C1
10uF
R2
100

PROCEDURE I

 Using the lowest value of C1; connect the circuit as shown in the above figure
 Use the oscilloscope to determine the P.d across the capacitor as it charge through R1 with time.
 Table this in a suitable table C1.
 Make the capacitor to discharge through R2 and record the P.d across it with time.
 Table this in table C1.

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 Repeat this for other values of capacitor C2, C3, and each time record P.d across the capacitor with
time in a suitable table.
 Draw on the same axis the graphs of P.d across capacitor against time (charging and discharging) for
all the capacitors.

Worksheets

Sine wave
Generator Length on Time / div Time (secs) Oscilloscope
Frequency (Hz) Screen (cm) (secs) Frequency (Hz)
500

Voltage setting Height on screen Volt / div (volts) Voltage (volts)

(cm)
2

Table C1 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C2 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C3 E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C1, C2and C3 SERIES: E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 = _________________

Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Table C1, C2and C3 PARALLEL: E = ______________ R1 = ___________ R2 =

_________________
Charging V (volts) Time in s
Voltage in v

Discharging V Time in s

(volts) Voltage in v

Work to do:
1. Determine the value of the capacitors from the graph
 C1 =

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C2 = 
 C3 =
 C1 ,C2 and C3 series
 C1 ,C2 and C3 parallel
2. What can you deduce from the graphs?

Questions you must answer:

Questions:
1.
A 0.5µF capacitor is connected to a 200V supply via a supply a 150 capacitor. Ignoring lead
resistance, calculate the circuit time constant and the capacitor and the capacitor voltage after a time
equal to the time constant.
2. A 10µF capacitor is fully charged via a total resistance of 22KV to 250V.
Calculate the capacitance voltage 10ms after charging commenced. How long did it take for the
capacitor to be fully charged?
3. Determine the value of time constant when charging for each capacitor.
4.
A capacitor is fully charged to a p.d of 200V. When discharged through a 250 resistor the
capacitor voltage falls to 45V in 0.3s. calculate the Capacitance of the capacitor and its time
constant.

WAVES AND VIBRATION / MOTION AND WAVES 2103/2105:

B
15 Vibrating string
Aim:

 Determine linear mass density of the wire, µ.

 Determination of the frequency of the Local A.C. mains.

 Determination of the velocity of the wave in Vibrating wire at the frequency of the Local A.C. mains

Apparatus
Sonometer S with 24 s.w.g, wire X, ‘horseshoe’ magnet G, small masses mains transformer Y [240V-6V],
weighing balance.

Method L
X
Determine linear mass density of the wire, µ. P

 To find theA mass per

S meter,B µ, of the wire
M cut a known length X [at least 20cm] of the wire and weighs it
carefully. If more convenient, µ ,can be found by measuring the diameter of the wire at three different places
in perpendicular directions to the length of the wire and obtaining the density of the material from physical
tables. R
Y

240V

1 2 3 mean

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Length of wire X (m)

Mass, m, of X meters of wire, (kg)

Diameter of the wire (m)

 Using appropriate formulae and method determine the, µ, of the wire.

Measurement of the frequency ,f, of the Local A.C. mains

 Clean the wire X where it passes over the metal pulley P and at the far end where it is attached to sonometer
S. Connect the wire, taking one lead from the pulley in series with the rheostat R and the 6V secondary of the
mains transformer Y.Place the magnet G so that the wire passes between its poles and adjust the current
[which may be checked with an ammeter] until the wire can be felt to vibrate slightly without becoming
appreciably heated.Weigh the scale pan on the weighing balance and hang it on the wire. Adjust the
positions of the bridges A and B until the wire between them resonates in its fundamental mode the magnet
being at the center of AB. Measure the length L of the vibrating wire between A and B and record. Then
Place a load of about 20g in the scale pan and get the combined mass M of the load and scale pan and
repeat the above steps.Vary the load to about 120g in steps of 20g and each time measure the new
resonating length.
Li near mass density of the wire,µ, =………………..g/m
Mass Tension ,T. Length of fundamental L2
mode ,L.
Scale pan


Draw a graph of T against L2
 Using the graph determination of the frequency of the Local A.C. mains.

of the velocity of the wave in of vibrating wire at the frequency of the Local A.C. mains

Now Hang a single mass of approximately 20g on the the wire

 Adjust the positions of the bridges A and B until the wire between them resonates in its fundamental mode
( 1 loop) the magnet being at the center of AB. Measure the length L of the vibrating wire between A and B
and record. Then move the bridges A and B to get the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ….. loops. Each
time measure the length L of the vibrating wire between A and B and record.
Tension on the wire=………….N linear mass density of the wire,µ, =………………..g/m
frequency of the wave=………….. Hz.
No. of loops, N, Resonating length,L.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Draw a graph of L against N
 Using the graph determination of the velocity of the wave in the vibrating string at Local A.C. mains.

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E WAVE INTERFERENCE
43
AIM:
 Determination of the radius of curvature of a lens using a spherometer.

 Measurement of wavelength of sodium light using Newton’s rings

CAUTION: HANDLE THE APPRATUS WITH A LOT OF CARE ANY MISHANDLING WILL BE MET WITH EQUIVALENT PENALTY:

Apparatus: Long- focus lens L of about 100cm, glass block G, thin glass sheet S, traveling microscope M, sodium lamp F, spherometer.

Method
 Thoroughly clean the lens L and glass block G both of which should be free from scratches and of good optical quality.

 Place L on top of G near the edge of the bench B and fix a sodium lamp near L as shown in figure above.

 .Arrange the base A of the traveling microscope M so that the microscope is vertically above the center of the lens.

 Focus the microscope onto the upper surface of G. (A slip of paper inserted between L and G will assist in this.)

 Fix the sheet of glass S in a clamp (not shown) at about 45o and insert the sheet between L and M.

 Looking into the microscope; vary the position and angle of S until the field of view is as bright as possible.

 If rings are not now visible slightly raise or lower M until they appear and focus as sharply as possible on them.

 Move the microscope sideways until the rings are central in the field of view.

 Set the crosswires on the center of the rings and use the vernier screw to move the crosswires out to say the 10th dark ring.

 Read the vernier with the crosswires set on the 10th ring and then bring the microscope back stopping on each ring and reading the vernier.

 Continue past the center and take the readings on the opposite side until the 10th ring is again reached.

 Using the spherometer provided, measure the radius of curvature of the lens.
Using the spherometer to measure the radius of curvature of the lens:

 Measure the distance between two adjacent legs making the equilateral triangle, a.

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 Make the spherometer to stand on top of the lens and turn the dial such that all the four points are touching the surface of the lens.

 Determine the height/depth,h, on which the moving center point has been raised /lowered.

 Note; r can be calculate from the side a of the equilateral triangle formed by the spherometer feet, according to the equation.

 Radius of curvature, R, the lens can found from the equation.

Radius of curvature of lens R =…mm

No. of dark rings,n. Micrometer reading /mm Diameter d/mm d2/mm2

(1) (2) (1) (2)

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

Calculation
Subtract the micrometer readings corresponding to each ring to obtain the diameters d of the rings and enter these in the table of measurements together with d2
Graph d2

Plot a graph of d2v.n

For a dark ring if r is the radius of the ring,r2 = Rnλ. Where R is the radius of the lens face and λ is the wavelength of sodium light, d2 = 4Rλn. And so the graph is a straight line, passing
0
through the origin of slope 4Rλ. Calculate from the slope the value of λ using the measured value of R.
a

Conclusion
The wavelength of sodium light was found to be…m or …nm m = a/b
b
Errors
1. There is error in setting the crosswires on the rings and in reading the vernier
2. The screw may suffer from ‘backlash’ but the method described will tend to eliminate this error
3. Errors occur in the measurement of R.
n
Order of accuracy
Find the variation possible in the slope by drawing lines of greater and lesser slope that just intersect most points. If the slope is m and the estimated error in it is δm,
Then

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δλ/λ x 100% = [δm/m + δR/R] x 100%

W4 THE RIPPLE TANK

AIMS: The aims of this experiment are:
1. To observe the characteristics and behavior of water waves.
2. To show the analogy between water waves and light waves.

APPARATUS
Water ripple tank, Metal reflectors , Low voltage power unit (3.0 V D-C) ,Ammeter ,Variable resistor, Motor Vibrator, Lamp, Level.

INTRODUCTION
The ripple tank is an apparatus for studying the phenomena of water waves. The wave generator is a vibrator set into motion by a 3V.D.C Motor. A variable resistor in series with the motor
varies its speed and therefore the frequency of vibrations. A lamp illuminates the wave pattern. The wave pattern is projected on the table through the transparent bottom of tank. If one
wishes to copy a wave pattern on paper the paper can be spread out on the table under the ripple tank. When measuring wavelengths or other distances remember to measure these lengths
as they are in the ripple tank. For calibration place an object of known length on the bottom of the ripple tank and measure the length of its image.The ripple tank should be leveled using
the spirit level. Use so much water that it stands midways on the sloping walls. The wave generator with wooden plate and motor has to be raised or lowered so that the wave source just
touches the water surface. The wave pattern can be ‘stopped’ by viewing through stroboscope.

Single point source

1. Screw the bent metal rod onto the front of the place of the wave generator so that the rod points forwards. Switch on the power and let the motor run slowly observe and draw
a fig.1.
2. Place small pieces of paper on the water and see if they move. Are the pieces of paper displaced at the wave speed? If not explain your observations.
3. Switch off the power and remove the bent metal rod. Lower the plane generator to touch just touch the water surface.
4. Place the plane reflector at a small distance in front of the generator.
5. Observe the reflected pulse and draw a fig.2. Where is the center from which the reflected pulse seems to diverge? Compare your observations with the plane mirror image
of a light source.
6. Repeat step (3) using the two reflectors with a gap of 1-2cm between them observe and draw a fig.3 . Where is the source from which the transmitted pulse seems to diverge?
Compare your observation with Huygen’s principle.
7. Place the metal parabolic reflector (convex side) so that the point source is at its focus. Give a single push to the generator to produce a wave pulse. Observe (and draw a
fig.4 ) the reflected pulse and compare with the effect of a parabolic mirror when a light source is placed at its focus.
8. Repeat 7 metal parabolic reflector (concave side) observe and draw a fig.5

Two Synchronous point sources

Attach the two bent metal rods to the plate of the wave generator. Start the vibrator. Observe and observe and draw a fig.4 the curves where the two waves interfere so that the water is at
rest. Vary the frequency of the waves by increasing the speed of the vibrator and observe observe and draw a fig.6 then explain the effect on the interference pattern.

A Plane Wave
1. Use the plate of the wave generator itself as a source of waves. Produce waves with a wavelength about 2.5cm or to do this move the plate to and fro by hand.
2. Place the long reflector diagonally in the tank and observe reflected waves. Compare your observation with the law of reflection for light observe and draw a fig.7.
3. Replace the long reflector by the two shorter reflectors parallel to the wave fronts 5-6cm away from the wave generator and as far as possible from each other. Generate waves
by hand or with the motor (about 2cm)observe observe and draw a fig.8. Decrease the distance between the two reflectors until about 1cm. Observe the wave fronts observe
and draw a fig.9 then compare this with Huygen’s principle.
4. Place the very short reflector between the two reflectors so that two open spaces of 1cm or less are left between the reflectors. Observe (and draw a fig.10) the interferences
pattern and compare with the results of experiment W4.2 and the experiment of Young.
5. Now remove the reflectors and put the rectangular plane block in the ripple tank at about 5cm from the plane wave generator. The length of the block should parallel to the
wave fronts observe and observe and draw a fig.11.
6. Repeat 5 above with the block length about 450 to the wave front observe and draw a fig.12

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The Report
The report should include the observations with carefully drawn neat figures and explanation where applicable as well as answers to every question.

WAVES AND VIBRATION 2103:

B
14 THE SOUND AS A LONGITUNDINAL WAVE:

EXPERIMENTAL AIM: To determine the fundamental and overtone resonance frequencies of a resonance tube (both open and closed) of a fixed length using a loudspeaker
and a variable frequency signal generator and to deduce the velocity of sound.
APPARATUS: The resonance tube, of length 0.5 to 1.0 m, and of approximately 3-5 cm diameter with a lid to fit over one end. Audio signal generator and loud speaker, Meter rule.
METHOD:

 Measure the length l of the resonance tube and then set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
The tube should be open-ended.
 Beginning with the lowest available audio frequency, gradually increase the frequency supplied to
the signal generator until the resonance tube open at both ends responds markedly to the waves
coming from the loud speaker (until resonance occurs).
 Make further small variations of frequency to obtain the resonant frequency as accurately as possible
and record the resonant frequency, which is the fundamental frequency.

 Increase the frequency and obtain the second, third and higher resonance frequencies.
 Observe their ratio n (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8) to the fundamental frequency.
 Obtain second (confirmatory) readings for all the resonance frequencies as the frequency supplied to
the loud speaker is decreased.
 Repeat the whole experiment with the upper end of the resonance tube closed by the lid or cap
supplied.
 Note particularly the different rations (3, 5, 7, 9) of the second, thirdLoudand higher resonance
speaker
frequencies to the fundamental frequency.
 Record the room temperature.
 Fill in the table below. Now repeat the whole procedure with the tube of about 40-50cmSignal long. Fill in
generator
another set of table as in the procedure above.
pen ended/ closed ended resonance tube wave diagrams.
```````````````````

Length of resonance tube = l = ………. M

Room temperature = ……….0C = ………. K

Open tube Closed tube

Resonance frequency Overtone ratio , n Resonance frequency Overtone ratio, n

f /HZ f /HZ Mean f /HZ F /HZ F /HZ Mean F /HZ

1 2 1 2

1 1

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2 3

3 5

4 7

5 9

Work to do. Draw graphs of frequency versus overtone ratio.

From the 4 line graphs in the same axis, and in each get the fundamental resonance frequency.Hence,
calculate the velocity of sound from each line graph, at the experimental temperature.Get the mean velocity
of sound..What is the end correction? Discuss how they affect your calculations. Give suitable formulas
where applicable.

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