ROCK PHYSICS: SEISMIC

INTERPRETATION
 Introduction
Velocity and density of sedimentary rocks (particularly clastic
rocks) depend primarily on porosity and the properties of the
pore fluid. Gas within the pore space of a clastic rock lowers
Vp substantially but leaves Vs relatively unaffected. Thus gas
entering the pore spaces of a reservoir affects the reflection
coefficients at the top and bottom of the reservoir. These
effects can be used as direct hydrocarbon indicators (DHI's).
Confidence in the accuracy of DHI identification can be
increased by modelling.
Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators
(DHI)

•A hydrocarbon indicator (HI) or Direct Hydrocarbon

indicator (DHI), is an anomalous seismic attribute value or
pattern that could be explained by the presence of
hydrocarbons in a oil or gas reservoir.
•DHIs are particularly useful in hydrocarbon exploration for
reducing the geological risk of exploration wells.
1. Terminology
2. Seismic data quality
3. Rock data – quantity and quality
4. Use all geophysical tools (there are not “silver bullets”)
5. Integrate with geology interpretation
 AMPLITUDE TERMS
Bright spot: local increase in amplitude on a
seismic section (presumably caused by a
hydrocarbon accumulation); due to the increase in
reflection coefficient at top and bottom of a
reservoir caused by gas in the pore space.

Direct hydrocarbon indicator (DHI);

Hydrocarbon indicator (HCI): measurement
which indicates the presence or absence of a
hydrocarbon accumulation (bright spot, dim spot,
flat spot, shadow zone, etc.).
Amplitude variation with offset (AVO): the
variation in amplitude of a seismic reflection
within a trace source-receiver gather.
 AMPLITUDE TERMS CONTI….
• Flat Spots- nearly horizontal reflectors that cross existing
stratigraphy, possibly indicating a hydrocarbon fluid level
within an oil or gas reservoir.

• Dim spots- low amplitude anomalies.

• Polarity Reversal- It can occur where the capping rock

has a slightly lower seismic velocity that the reservoir and
the reflection has it sign reversed. It primarily results from
the change in polarity of the seismic response when
a shale (with a lower acoustic impedance) overlies a brine-
saturated zone (with a high acoustic impedance), that
becomes invaded with an oil/gas sand (with the lowest
acoustic impedance of the three). This changes the acoustic
impedance contrast from an increase to a decrease,
resulting in the polarity of the seismic response being
reversed - as per the normal convention adopted by
the SEG.
Seismic Acquisition Geometry

Terms:
Near offset
Far offset

Common Midpoint
or Reflection Point
Gather

Proper NMO
Correction

Schlumberger, 1990
Seismic data and AVO analysis typically involves
the management and interpretation of large
volumes of seismic data gathers

anomaly

Correctly processed gathers are stacked and migrated.

AVO – Study gathers and offset and/or angle stacks.
Compare changes of anomaly to wet sand model and adjacent traces.
Russell, 1995 AAPG Explorer
 “Positive AVO”

• A prospect with “Positive AVO” means

the interpretation of the AVO is
favorable for the presence of HC at the
anomaly level and not just an increase
in negative amplitude with offset.

• A prospect with “Negative AVO”

means the interpretation is unfavorable
for the presence of HC.
Aki- Richards Equation-
 Mean scaling: input (ideal)

Event
with
AVO

1500 0
Offset (m)
 Hydrocarbon Indicators

Gas or oil replacing water in a reservoir will

always cause a change in seismic reflection
coefficient and AVO, and the change ranges from
“too subtle to recognize” to “dramatic” on seismic
data

Factors: rock physics

signal-to-noise ratio
geology vs. seismic resolution
 Rock Property Variations vs. Seismic Data
Wide disparity between the two data types

Seismic Trace
Wavelet

Reflectivity

Noise
Rock Properties
Variations (Log Data) Seismic Data

Layered earth with jumps Smooth & oscillatory

(thousands) (hundreds)
Point measurements Complexly interdependent
Easy to interpret layers Difficult to assign layering
Infinite bandwidth Band limited
Depth domain Time domain
Partyka et al, TLE, 1999 Bork, Offshore, 2002
 Polarity Convention
Minimum Phase Wavelet

Zero Phase Wavelet

SEG Polarity Standard for a positive reflection

The SEG standard for causal seismic data
specifies that the onset of a compression from an
explosive source is represented by a negative
number, that is, by a downward deflection when
displayed graphically Sheriff, 2002
 Elastic Constants: The Bounce
Velocity of seismic waves depends on the
elastic constants and density of the rock.

Elastic constants or moduli define the properties of a material

as it undergoes stress, deforms, and then recovers to its
original shape after the stress ceases.

Elastic Constants:
Bulk modulus
Lame constant
Shear modulus
Young's modulus
Poisson’s ratio
 Poisson’s Ratio

• Poisson’s Ratio (σ) a measure of compressibility of material

the ratio of latitudinal to longitudinal strain

• Poisson's ratio (σ) for AVO analysis can be expressed in

terms of velocities of P-waves and S-waves.
σ = 0.5 – (Vs/Vp)²
1 – (Vs/Vp)²
Often referred to as (Vp/Vs)² or Vp/Vs

• Typical values of Poisson's ratio:

0.30 to 0.40 for shale
0.20 to 0.30 for sandstones
0.15 to 0.20 for gas sands
 Rc vs Depth
Sands Beneath Shale
-0.4 0.0 0.4
Wet
Sand

Bright Spot
(AVO Class 3 Gas Sand)
5000 ft
Clean
Gas Sand
Polarity Reversal
(AVO Class 2)
10,000 ft

Dim Spot
(AVO Class 1)
Gas Sand Range

Hilterman, Liang & Verm, The Leading Edge, 1998

Classes of AVO Gas Sand Anomalies

Class 1 – high-impedance sands

Class 2 – near-zero impedance contrast sands
Class 3 – low-impedance sands

Rutherford and Williams, 1989

SAND
CLASS

I
II
III
IV

Castagna et al., 1998

 Definition of AVO Class 3 Gas Sand
(Bright Spots)
• Unconsolidated reservoir – usually Tertiary age
• Gross interval velocity usually < 8500 feet/sec (2650
meters/sec)
• Typically a low impedance sand encased in a high impedance
shale
• HC zones are Bright Spots on the stack section and on all offset
(angle) stacks
Can “separate” wet vs. HC sands using stack data –
works best with rock physics calibration
• AVO: The HC reflection amplitude, with respect to background
reflection amplitude, increases (at times slightly) with
increasing offset (angle)
Class 3 Sand AVO Response
.

Reflection Amplitude
Note small change in gradient
+ compared to large change in intercept.

Wet Sand

Gas Sand

–
0 degrees 40

Hilterman, 2001
 AVO Class 2 Gas Sand

• More consolidated sand than AVO Class 3 sand

• Gross interval velocity ~ 8500’/sec to 12,000’/s
(2650 to 3650 m/sec)
• Acoustic impedance of gas sand and encasing
shale about equal
• Intercept can vary from weak positive to weak
negative
• AVO strongly more negative with increasing offset
(angle)
 AVO Class 1 Gas Sand

• Very consolidated sand

• Gross interval velocity usually >12,000’/sec
(3650 m/sec)
• On stack data a large positive amplitude for a
wet sand decreases to a smaller positive
amplitude for a gas sand (dim spot)
• AVO less positive with increasing offset
(angle), possible phase change at far offset
 AVO Class 4 Gas Sand
Similar to Class 3 Gas
Sand except sand is
Reflection Amplitude

overlain by
Class 1 high velocity hard shale,
+ siltstone or carbonate.

Class 2 Vs hard interval is larger

than Vs gas sand
– Class 4
(in all other Classes,
Vs shale is smaller than
Class 3 gas sand).

Net result is small

Offset decrease in negative
amplitude with
increasing offset.

Castagna, The Leading Edge,1998

Typical AVO Displays and Calculations

Gathers (offset or angle)

Offset and Angle Stacks

Windowed Amplitude Maps

AVO Product Indicators

Intercept vs. Gradient Crossplots

 Amplitudes at an Interface
Energy of an incident wave is partitioned (reflected and refracted)
depending on the acoustic impedance (Vρ) and angle of
incidence
Zoeppritz Equations describe these relationships

(V1,ρ1)

(V2,ρ2)
 DHI Interpretation Issues

Recommend “Geology First”

Important to first consider chance of:

presence of source rock
migration of hydrocarbons
closure
reservoir
containment

DHI interpretation – start with simple approach and then

move to more advanced studies.

HCI (DHI) limits must honor trapping mechanisms

such as rollover, up-dip pinchouts, trapping
faults, etc.
SEG Distinguished Instructor Quote:

AVO …. “concepts and equations are a gross

simplification of the real world…… The way to
confirm the suggested physical interpretation
is to examine where on the seismic section
(and gathers) the anomalous points come
from.”

Thomson, “Understanding Seismic Anisotropy,” 2002

SEG Distinguished Instructor
Quote:
“Amplitude interpretation must make
geologic sense. Apply less Principle of Least
Squares and more Principles of Least
Astonishment.”

Hilterman, “Seismic Amplitude Interpretation,” 2000

 Conclusion

 Stress integrated geological/geophysical

approach – “Common Sense”.

 There is no “Silver Bullet” – use all

available tools.
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