Animal Cell

All animal cells are multicellular. They

are eukaryotic cells. Animal cells are
surrounded by plasma membrane and it
contains the nucleus and organelles that
are membrane bound.
Animal cells are of various sizes and
have irregular shapes. Most of the cells
size range between 1 and 100
micrometers and are visible only with
help of microscope. Trillions of cells are
found in the human body. There are
many different types of cells,
approximately 210 distinct cell types in
adult human body.

Animal Cell Definition

Animal cells are eukarytoic. Animal cells are have outer boundary known as the plasma
membrane. The nucleus and the organelles of the cell are bound by a membrane. The genetic
material (DNA) in animal cells is within the nucleus that is bound by a double membrane. The cell
organelles have a vast range of functions to perform like hormone and enzyme production to
providing energy for the cells.
The components of animal cells are centrioles, cilia and flagella, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, microfilaments, microtubules, mitochondria, nucleus, peroxisomes, plasma
membrane and ribosomes.

Parts of Animal Cell

Animal cell contains membrane bound nucleus, it also contains other membrane bound cellular
organelles. These cellular organelles carry out specific functions that are necessary for the normal
functioning of the cell. Animal cells lack cell wall, a large vacuole and plastids. Due to the lack of
the cell wall, the shape and size of the animal cells are mostly irregular. The constituents of animal
cells are structures like centrioles, cilia and flagella and lysosomes.

Parts of the animal cell are as follows:

Cell membrane - forms the outer covering of the cell, and is semi-permeable.
Cytoplasm - is a gel-like matrix where all the other cell organelles are suspended inside the cell.
Nucleus - contains the hereditary material DNA and directs the activities of the cell.
Centrioles - organize the microtubules assembly during cell division.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum - are a network of
membranes composed of rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi complex - is responsible for storing,
packaging of cellular products.
Lysosomes - are enzyme sacs that digest
cellular wastes.
Microtubules - are hollow rods, function
primarily as support and shape to the cell.
Mitochondria - is the site for cellular
respiration and producers of energy.
Ribosomes - are made of RNA and proteins,
and are sites for protein synthesis.
Nucleolus - is the structure within the
nucleus and helps in synthesis of ribosomes.
Nucleopore - is the tiny hole in the nuclear
membrane, allows the movement of nucleic
acids and proteins in/out of the cell.

Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are eukaryotic cells, the nucleus and other organelles of the cell are bound by
membrane.
Cell membrane
 It is a semi-permeable barrier, allowing
only a few molecules to move across it.
 Electron microscopic studies of cell
membrane shows the lipid bi-layer
model of the plasma membrane, it also
known as the fluid mosaic model.
 The cell membrane is made up of
phospholipids which has
polar(hydrophillic) heads and non-polar
(hydrophobic) tails.
Cytoplasm
 The fluid matrix that fills the cell is the
cytoplasm.
 The cellular organelles are suspended in
this matrix of the cytoplasm.
 This matrix maintains the pressure of the
cell, ensures the cell doesn't shrink or
burst.

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Nucleus
 Nucleus is the house for most of the cells genetic material- the DNA and RNA.
 The nucleus is surrounded by a porous membrane known as the nuclear membrane.
 The RNA moves in/out of the nucleus through these pores.
 Proteins needed by the nucleus enter through the nuclear pores.
 The RNA helps in protein synthesis through transcription process.
 The nucleus controls the activity of the cell and is known as the control center.
 The nucleolus is the dark spot in the nucleus, and it is the location for ribosome formation.
Ribosomes
 Ribosomes is the site for protein synthesis where the translation of the RNA takes place.
 As protein synthesis is very important to the cell, ribosomes are found in large number in
all cells.
 Ribosomes are found freely suspended in the cytoplasm and also are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum
 ER is the transport system of the cell. It transports molecules that need certain changes and
also molecules to their destination.
 ER is of two types, rough and smooth.
 ER bound to the ribosomes appear rough and is the rough endoplasmic reticulum; while
the smooth ER do not have the ribosomes.
Lysosomes
 It is the digestive system of the cell.
 They have digestive enzymes helps in breakdown the waste moelcules and also help in
detoxification of the cell.
 If the lysosomes were not membrane bound the cell could not have used the destructive
enzymes.
Centrosomes
 It is located near the nucleus of the cell and is known as the 'microtubule organizing center'
of the cell.
 Microtubules are made in the centrosome.
 During mitosis the centrosome aids in dividing of the cell and moving of the chromosome
to the opposite sides of the cell.
Vacuoles
 They are bound by single membrane and small organelles.
 In many organisms vacuoles are storage organelles.
Vesicles are smaller vacuoles which function for transport in/out of the cell.
Golgi bodies
 Golgi bodies are the packaging center of the cell.
 The Golgi bodies modify the molecules from the rough ER by dividing them into smaller
units with membrane known as vesicles.
 They are flattened stacks of membrane-bound sacs.
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria is the main energy source of the cell.

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  They are called the power house of the cell because energy(ATP) is created here.
 Mitochondria consists of inner and outer membrane.
 It is spherical or rod shaped organelle.
 It is an organelle which is independent as it has its own hereditary material.
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are single membrane bound organelle that contain oxidative enzymes that are
digestive in function.
 They help in digesting long chains of fatty acids and amino acids and help in synthesis of
cholesterol.
Cytoskeleton
 It is the network of microtubules and microfilament fibres.
 They give structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.
Cilia and Flagella
 Cilia and flagella are structurally identical structures.
 They are different based on the function they perform and their length.
 Cilia are short and are in large number per cell while flagella are longer and are fewer in
number.
 They are organelles of movement.
 The flagellar motion is undulating and wave-like whereas the ciliary movement is power
stroke and recovery stroke.

Function of Animal Cell

All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells are differentiated into plant cells and animal cells.
Structurally there are a few differences in plant and animal cells though their functionality is almost
the same.

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All the cells are enclosed in a protective membrane called the cell membrane however plant cells
have an extra addition the cell wall. The cells have certain organelles that are membrane bound
within them, these structures are called cellular organelles. These organelles are specified to
perform certain activities that are important for the survival of the cell. All the cells function
together in coordination with each other and help the organism to survive. The functions of animal
cell is carried out by the different cell organelles. The organelles of the cell function as a unit and
regulate the activities of the cell. The different cell organelles and their functions are as follows:

Cell Nucleus - Cell nucleus is referred to as the control center of the cell. The genetic material of
the organism is present in the cell. The replication of DNA, and synthesis of RNA occurs in the
nucleus of the cell. It also regulates the activities of the other cellular organelles.

Mitochondria - The mitochondria is referred to as the power house of the cell. Its main function
if to produce energy for cell by the process of cellular respiration. The energy produced is ATP.

Endoplasmic Reticulum - It is a network for transportation of certain substances in and out of the
nucleus.

Golgi apparatus - It is involved with processing and packaging of the molecules that are
synthesized by the cells. The crude proteins that are passed on by the ER to the apparatus are
developed by the Golgi apparatus into primary, secondary, and tertiary proteins.

Ribosomes - The function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.

Lysosomes - They are referred to as the suicide bags of the cell. They have digestive enzymes and
are involved in clearing the unwanted waste materials from the cell. They also engulf damaged
materials like the damaged cells and invading microorganisms and digest food particles.

Vacuole - They are large storage organelles. They store excess food or water.

Functions of the Animal Cell

The animal cells perform variety of activities by the aid of the cellular organelles. These cells
function as a unit and the cells together form tissues. A group go tissues with similar function form
an organ and a group of organ of specific function to perform becomes and organ system. Thus,
the microscopic cells form the basic unit for the activities and coordination and help survival of
the organism.

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Organelle Summary of Function
 Protects the cell
 Controls the entry and exit of molecules
Cell membrane  Gives the cell a shape
 Adheres to neighboring cells to form tissue
 Helps the cell to communicate with the exterior

 The cytoplasm holds water and nutrients

Cytoplasm &
 The cytoskeleton gives structural rigidity to cell
Cytoskeleton
 The cytoskeleton helps movement of organelles and
chromosomes

 Command center of the cell

 Duplicate and store genetic information
Nucleus
 Makes ribosomes
 Sends commands to ribosomes for protein synthesis
Ribosomes  Protein synthesis
Summary of the function of the Smooth ER:
 Lipid synthesis
Endoplasmic
 Detoxification of alcohol and drugs
Reticulum (ER)
Summary of the function of the Rough ER:
 Protein synthesis

 Processes and packages proteins and transports them to other

Golgi apparatus
parts of the cell or outside the cell.
 Converts food we eat into energy we use
Mitochondria
 Assist in cell growth, cell cycle and cellular death
 Break down cellular waste into building blocks
 Destroy foreign invaders
Lysosomes
 Peroxisomes break down hydrogen peroxide – harmful
& Peroxisomes
compound
 Peroxisomes are involved in the synthesis of lipids and bile
acids
Vacuoles
 Store food, water and waste

 Lung cells use cilia to move mucus out of the lungs

Cilia &Flagellum
 A sperm cell uses its flagellum to swim through the female
reproductive tract

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 Plant Cell

Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Unlike prokaryotic cells,
the DNA in a plant cell is housed within a nucleus that is enveloped by a membrane. In addition
to having a nucleus, plant cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles (tiny cellular
structures) that carry out specific functions necessary for normal cellular operation. Organelles
have a wide range of responsibilities that include everything from producing hormones and
enzymes to providing energy for a plant cell.
Plant cells are similar to animal cells in that they are both eukaryotic cells and have similar
organelles. However, there are a number of differences between plant and animal cells. Plant cells
are generally larger than animal cells. While animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have
irregular shapes, plant cells are more similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped.
A plant cell also contains structures not found in an animal cell. Some of these include a cell wall,
a large vacuole, and plastids. Plastids, such as chloroplasts, assist in storing and harvesting needed
substances for the plant. Animal cells also contain structures such as centrioles, lysosomes,
and cilia and flagella that are not typically found in plant cells.

PLANT CELL: STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES

The following are examples of structures and organelles that can be found in typical plant cells:
 Cell (Plasma) Membrane - a thin, semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm
of a cell, enclosing its contents.
 Cell Wall - outer covering of the cell that protects the plant cell and gives it shape.
 Chloroplast - the sites of photosynthesis in a plant cell. They contain chlorophyll, a green
pigment that absorbs energy from sunlight.

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  Cytoplasm - gel-like substance within the cell membrane containing water, enzymes, salts,
organelles, and various organic molecules.
 Cytoskeleton - a network of fibers throughout the cytoplasm that helps the cell maintain its
shape and gives support to the cell.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - extensive network of membranes composed of both regions
with ribosomes (rough ER) and regions without ribosomes (smooth ER). The ER
synthesizes proteins and lipids.
 Golgi Complex - responsible for manufacturing, storing and shipping certain cellular
products including proteins.
 Microtubules - hollow rods that function primarily to help support and shape the cell. They
are important for chromosome movement in mitosis and meiosis, as well as cytosol
movement within a cell.
 Mitochondria - these organelles generates energy for the cell by converting glucose
(produced by photosynthesis) and oxygen to ATP. This process is known as respiration.
 Nucleus - membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information (DNA).
 Nucleolus - structure within the nucleus that helps in the synthesis of ribosomes.
 Nucleopore - tiny hole within the nuclear membrane that allows nucleic
acids and proteins to move into and out of the nucleus.
 Peroxisomes - tiny structures bound by a single membrane that contain enzymes that
produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product. These structures are involved in plant
processes such as photorespiration.
 Plasmodesmata - pores or channels between plant cell walls that allow molecules and
communication signals to pass between individual plant cells.
 Ribosomes - consisting of RNA and proteins, ribosomes are responsible for protein
assembly. They can be found either attached to the rough ER or free in the cytoplasm.
 Vacuole - structure in a plant cell that provides support and participates in a variety of
cellular functions including storage, detoxification, protection, and growth. When a plant
cell matures, it typically contains one large liquid-filled vacuole.

This is a typical dicotyledon stem (Buttercup). At center is an

oval vascular bundle embedded in parenchyma cells (yellow) of
the cortex of the stem. Some parenchyma cells contain
chloroplasts (green). The vascular bundle contains large xylem
vessels (center right) which serve to conduct water; the nutrient
conducting phloem is orange. At the outer edge of the vascular
bundle is sclerenchyma tissue which supports the vascular
bundle.

As a plant matures, its cells become specialized in order to perform certain functions necessary for
survival. Some plant cells synthesize and store organic products, while others help to transport
nutrients throughout the plant. Some examples of specialized plant cell types include:
 Parenchyma Cells - although not highly specialized, these cells synthesize and store
organic products in the plant.

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  Collenchyma Cells - help to support plants while not restraining growth due to their lack
of secondary walls and the absence of a hardening agent in their primary walls.
 Sclerenchyma Cells - provide a support function in plants, but unlike collenchyma cells,
they have a hardening agent and are much more rigid.
Plant cells are grouped together into various tissues. These tissues can be simple, consisting of a
single cell type, or complex, consisting of more than one cell type. Above and beyond tissues,
plants also have a higher level of structure called plant tissue systems. There are three types of
tissue systems: dermal tissue, vascular tissue, and ground tissue systems.

Prokaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cells are also called prokaryotes. They are a type of biological cell that do not have a
cell nucleus or any membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. That is, neither the DNA
of prokaryotic cells nor any of the sites of metabolic activity within a prokaryotic cell are collected
together in a discrete membrane-enclosed area. Instead, everything is openly accessible within the
cell e.g. ribosomes are scattered throughout the cytoplasm (not attached to the surfaces of the
endoplasmic reticulum as in animal cells).
Examples of prokaryotic cells include the cells of many bacteria, e.g. vibrio cholerae, the cholera
bacterium.
Diagram of a general prokaryotic cell

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The following table lists parts of a prokaryotic cell - note that this type of cell has no true
organelles:
Part or Component of Notes:
Prokaryotic Cell:
1. Capsule The outer layer of of prokaryotic cells is a gummy or slimy covering
(it is sometimes labelled as the "slime capsule") that may help
bacteria stay together in colonies and/or provide some protection to
the cell.
2. Cell Wall Prokaryotic cell walls have a rigid framework of murein, which is a
polysaccharide cross-linked by peptide chains. (Compare with plant
cell walls which are made mainly of cellulose and animal cells which
do not have have cell walls.)
See further information about prokaryotic cell walls.
3. Plasma membrane The plasma membrane (sometimes also called the "cell membrane")
is phospholipid bilayer. Note that it is flexible i.e. non-rigid. See
also functions of the plasma membrane.
4. Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that consists mainly of water. In
general cytoplasm may also contain enzymes, salts, cell components
(e.g. ribosomes, plasmids, food stores etc.), and
various organic molecules.
5. Flagellum (sing.) Flagella are not limited to prokaryotic cells; certain eukaryotic cells
the plural form isalso have flagella - but there are are differences between the three
"flagella" types of flagella i.e. those found in:
1. Bacterial cells (also called prokaryotes) and the subject of
this page
2. Archaeal cells (although archaeal flagella are superficially
similar to bacterial flagella)
3. Eukaryotic cells (e.g. animal cells)
In many cases the flagellum of a prokaryotic cell (e.g. a bacterium)
is responsible for the motility, i.e. ability to move spontaneously and
actively - consuming energy in the process, of the cell. The flagellum
of a prokaryotic cell does not "beat" but rotates about a "bearing" in
the cell wall - resulting in a "corkscrew" motion that drives the cell
forwards in much the same way as a propeller propels some ships
forwards.
6. Pili (pl.) A pilus is a hair-like appendage many of which are present on the
the singular form issurface of many bacteria. In this context the words "pilus" and
"pilus" "fimbria" are sometimes used interchangeably.
(also called Fimbriae pl.The words "fimbria" (singular) and fimbriae (plural) are also used
or fimbria sing.) in other contexts within biology, with different meanings in each. In
the context of prokaryotic cells, a fimbria (or a pilus) is

10
 a protein rod that is sometimes called a proteinaceous appendage. It
is shorter and thinner than a flagellum. Fimbriae (or pili) tend to be
approx. 3-10 nm in diameter and up to several μm long. See scientific
numbers for more about the units nm and μm.
Fimbriae (or pili) help bacterial cells adhere to each other, to animal
cells and to inanimate objects. A single bacterium can have as many
as 1,000 fimbriae.
Some scientists prefer to reserve the word "pilus" for the appendage
that is sometimes called the "sex pilus" because it participates in
DNA transfer during bacterial conjugation - the bacterial
equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating.
7. Photosynthetic Photosynthetic membranes are surfaces on which light-absorbing
membranes pigments are located. Bacteriochlorophylls are photosynthetic
(photosynthetic =>pigments found in phototrophic bacteria.
photosynthesis i.e.Photosynthesis and bacterial photosynthesis:
accepting energy from
light) Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many species of bacteria.
It can happen in different ways but always starts by light
energy being absorbed by proteins called photosynthetic reaction
centers that contain chlorophylls or chlorophyll-type molecules.
In plant cells these proteins are inside organelles
called chloroplasts while in bacteria they are embedded in the
plasma membrane - on surfaces called photosynthetic
membranes. (Bacterial cells do not contain any membrane-bound
organelles so they obviously do not contain chloroplasts!)
In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis uses carbon
dioxide and water and releases oxygen as a waste product. With the
exception of cyanobacteria, bacterial photosynthesis changes light
energy into a biologically useful form of energy without producing
oxygen, i.e. they are anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria. E.g.s
include
 purple phototrophic bacteria
 green sulphur bacteria
 green filamentous bacteria
 heliobacteria
8. Mesosomes Mesosomes are structures of prokaryotic cells formed by folded
invaginations (sometimes described simply as "infoldings") of the
plasma membrane. Enzymes associated with respiration of the
prokaryotic cell, e.g. a bacterium, are located on the infoldings. Not
all prokaryotic cells have mesosomes.

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 Both mesosomes and the cristae (folds of the inner-membrane)
of mitochondria participate in the aerobic part of aerobic cellular
respiration. As mesosomes are only found in prokaryotic cells and
mitochondria only in eukaryotic cells, these structures are sometimes
compared when discussing the differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
9. Nuclear body The genetic material consists of a circle of double-stranded DNA.
(genetic material) The nuclear body of prokaryotic cells differs from the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells in that the nuclear body (genetic material) of
prokaryotic cell is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
10.Plasmids Plasmids are short pieces of circular DNA. They replicate
independently of the cell genome.
Plasmids are not present in eukaryotic cells (also called eukaryotes,
e.g. plant cells and animal cells).
11.Food Stores The food stores in prokaryotic cells can be e.g. lipid globules or
glycogen granules - hence the slightly different sizes and colours of
"food store" particles in the above diagram of a prokaryotic cell.
12.Ribosomes The ribosomes found in prokaryotic cells are much smaller than the
ones in eukaryotic cells. The (smaller) ribosomes in prokaryotic
cells are the the 70S type, compared with the (larger) ribosomes in
eukaryotic cells which are the 80S type.
The ribosomes in bacterial cells are scattered throughout the
cytoplasm - as opposed to supported on an endoplasmic reticulum as
is usual in eukaryotic cells.

Stomata
Stomata are tiny holes that cover the underside of the marijuana leaf.
These stomata are microscopic and must be magnified by a lens to
be seen. They are the part of the plant that takes in CO2, while
releasing water and oxygen.
Plants use a cleverly engineered vacuum system for opening and
closing the stomata, which are vital because they are a foundational
part of the plant’s growth. When you adjust the stimuli in a plant’s
environment, you concurrently adjust the position of the stomata.
So, in order to grow the highest quality cannabis, it’s vital to
understand the processes by which the plant itself functions.

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What are stomata: Stomata are the door and windows of the leaves. They are organs that absorb
CO2, releasing oxygen and water. Ideally, it is best for stomata to absorb as much CO2 as possible,
to facilitate photosynthesis.
On the other hand, if the stomata remain open for too long, the plant will suffer from a loss of
moisture. Since stomata must be either open or closed, the plant is constantly walking a knife’s
edge between moisture loss and CO2 absorption. This balance depends on the environment and
the health of the plant. By adjusting the environment, you can influence the opening and closing
of the stomata.

How do stomata function

Stomata (singular: stoma) are tiny holes on the undersides of
leaves. The hole is made up of twin guard cells and auxiliary
cells.
The guard cells are what allows the stoma to open and close:
they can absorb or release water to change their size,
effectively closing or opening, depending on the plant’s
needs. This process of absorption is called osmosis, when a
liquid with a lower concentration of dissolved solids travels
across a membrane to a region with a higher concentration of
dissolved solids. So, guard cells build up dissolved solids in
order to be able to absorb water. Primarily they utilize
potassium and sugars.
There are also channels in the guard cell for attracting potassium, which it gathers through the
auxiliary cells. The absorption of water is faster than the second process, meaning that plants can
close stomata more quickly than they can be opened. A hormone called abscisic acid sends the
signal to close the stomata. This hormone is generated when the plant itself is in a state of low
moisture.
Bear in mind that open stomata are not picky about what they absorb. In addition to CO2, water,
and oxygen, other harmful gases like carbon monoxide and ethylene can pass through the
membranes.

Responses to climate

Stomata operate in their own solar cycles, not so different

from our own circadian rhythms. During the day, they open
while at night they close to retain moisture.
They can also be affected by a variety of other stimuli: the
intensity of the light, the concentration of CO2, and the
humidity. For more tips on plant physiology, be sure to
download my free Marijuana Grow Guide
New research indicates that the cyclical opening and closing
mechanism of the stomata is a complex process affected by

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many stimuli. The system is sophisticated, and features many guards to aid the plant in protecting
itself. This should come as no surprise since if something goes wrong with this foundational
system, the plant will be unable to grow or survive.
Botanical research has compared the flexible systems of the plant to the processes of the brain in
which new components can help fill in for lost functions. If one part of the plant fails, another part
of the plant will take over.

Responses to CO2 and light intensity

The size of the stomata opening is dependent on the intensity

of the light. The more light, the larger the opening. The
process is chemical, however. Intense light decreases the CO2
concentration in a leaf, and once the CO2 disappears, the
guard cells are signaled to open and absorb more.
The plant will attempt to maintain a balance between external
CO2 and internal CO2. Unfortunately, a lot of external CO2
will lead to smaller stomata openings, which can cause the
leaves to overheat and turn yellow. This is why airflow is
important: cooling the plant can help prevent this. CO2 levels
of around 1500 ppm are optimum for CO2 absorption.

Controlling stomata with blue light

Interestingly enough, the spectrum of light absorbed also

strongly affects stomata reactions. The blue end of the
spectrum is more effective than the red. Stomata open the
most when exposed to blue light. Be careful with this,
however: this might make it seem that you can use colored
LEDs to manipulate the mechanisms of the stomata. Don’t do
it! The plant’s optimization system is carefully balanced, and
you don’t want to radically overturn the ratio of CO2
absorption and water loss. HPI and HPS lamps are still the
ideal choices of lighting for indoor growers.

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Moisture

A plant’s response to moisture levels is a complex interplay

between its internal moisture levels and those of the
environment around it. This means all the water absorbed
through the roots and evaporated through the leaves all comes
into play.
When a plant is low on water (internal moisture), the stomata
will close. Even though this means photosynthesis is
interrupted, it can save a plant from drying out and dying.
More detrimental than the lack of CO2 is the temperature of
the plant. The stomata are how the plant cools itself, and when
they close, the leaves get hotter, which causes further
evaporation (some water can escape even when stomata are
closed). This cycles right back to the low internal moisture.

To go even one step further, this inhibited evaporation and cooling means that the humidity of the
air in the plants environment will begin to drop. Thus, an even greater disparity will grow between
the humidity in the room and the internal moisture of the plant. Eventually, this cycle will prevent
the plant from saving as much water as one might expect.
Curiously enough, researchers at the University of Wageningen in the Netherlands have found that
plants exposed to a constantly high humidity have no need to close their stomata. There is no
danger of moisture loss in this environment. But plants still have no adaptation for this, likely due
to their evolution in arid climates. This offers an important reminder: plants cannot always respond
properly to a stressful environment. Don’t forget to take care of your plants!
Learning about the stomata is important, but that’s just one piece of the puzzle. Many factors figure
into successful cultivation and growth. It’s very important to understand the parts of the plant and
the processes they go through.

OTHER NOTES:
Cyanobacteria, Amoeba
Cyanobacteria are aquatic and photosynthetic, that is, they live
in the water, and can manufacture their own food. Because they
are bacteria, they are quite small and usually unicellular,
though they often grow in colonies large enough to see. They
have the distinction of being the oldest known fossils, more
than 3.5 billion years old, in fact! It may surprise you then to
know that the cyanobacteria are still around; they are one of
the largest and most important groups of bacteria on earth.
Many Proterozoic oil deposits are attributed to the activity of
cyanobacteria. They are also important providers of nitrogen
fertilizer in the cultivation of rice and beans. The cyanobacteria

15
have also been tremendously important in shaping the course of evolution and ecological change
throughout earth's history. The oxygen atmosphere that we depend on was generated by numerous
cyanobacteria during the Archaean and Proterozoic Eras. Before that time, the atmosphere had a
very different chemistry, unsuitable for life as we know it today.
The other great contribution of the cyanobacteria is the origin of plants. The chloroplast with which
plants make food for themselves is actually a cyanobacterium living within the plant's cells.
Sometime in the late Proterozoic, or in the early Cambrian, cyanobacteria began to take up
residence within certain eukaryote cells, making food for the eukaryote host in return for a home.
This event is known as endosymbiosis, and is also the origin of the eukaryotic mitochondrion.
Because they are photosynthetic and aquatic, cyanobacteria are often called "blue-green algae".
This name is convenient for talking about organisms in the water that make their own food, but
does not reflect any relationship between the cyanobacteria and other organisms called algae.
Cyanobacteria are relatives of the bacteria, not eukaryotes, and it is only the chloroplast in
eukaryotic algae to which the cyanobacteria are related.

The amoeba belongs to the kingdom

Protista. The name amoeba comes
from the greek word amoibe, which
means change. The amoeba is a
single celled microscopic organism
(about 0.3 mm across). It has
cytoplasm, nucleus, cell membrane
and a variety of inclusions in the
cytoplasm and exhibits all the
essential functions of any living
organism.They are found in fresh
water (like puddle and ponds), salty
water, wet soil and in animals.

Explanation about Amoeba.

Cell membrane: The cell membrane is flexible and porous. It allows the amoeba to change shape.
The amoeba "breathes" using this membrane. It also controls the entry and exit of substances into
and out of the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm: Cytoplasm is the living substance which contains all the chemical reactions necessary
for life. There are two types of cytoplasm in the amoeba, the darker cytoplasm toward the interior
of the amoeba is called endoplasm, and the clearer cytoplasm that is found near the cell membrane
is called ectoplasm. By pushing the endoplasm toward the cell membrane, the amoeba causes its
body to extend and creep along. It is also by this method that the amoeba consumes its food.
Nucleus: A large, disk-shaped nucleus found in the cell controls the growth and reproduction of
the amoeba. Amoeba reproduce through binary fission where the nucleus copies its genetic
material and the cytoplasm splits into two new daughter cells, each identical to the original parent.
Contractile Vacuole: The contractile vacuole removes excess water to the outside from time to
time (osmoregulation) so that the amoeba does not burst. Because the concentration of solutes in

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the cytoplasm is greater than that in the surrounding fresh water, the water tends to enter the
cytoplasm by osmosis via the partially permeable cell membrane.
Food Vacuole: Microscopic organisms are taken into the cytoplasm with a drop of water forming
a temporary vacuole. These organisms are then digested and then exits through a structure called
a food vacuole.
Digestive Vacuole: This is a cavity responsible for digestion in the amoeba.
Pseudopodium: Pseudopodium means ‘false foot’. The amoeba move by stretching its cytoplasm
into finger like extensions called pseudopodia.

Blood
The familiar red fluid in the body that contains white and red blood cells, platelets, proteins, and
other elements. The blood is transported throughout the body by the circulatory system. Blood
functions in two directions: arterial and venous. Arterial blood is the means by which oxygen and
nutrients are transported to tissues while venous blood is the means by which carbon dioxide and
metabolic by-products are transported to the lungs and kidneys, respectively, for removal from the
body.

Sperm Cell
The male cells of reproduction, also called gametes. A spermatozoon (single sperm cell) is a
haploid cell; it contains one half of the genetic material necessary for human life. The epididymis
within the testicle (also called the testis) produces sperm, a process called spermatogenesis, at the
rate of hundreds of millions each day from PUBERTY (the onset of sexual maturity) through the
end of life. The tissues of the TESTICLES absorb sperm that remain in the epididymis for longer
than six weeks, allowing the supply of sperm to remain fresh.

Spermatogenesis

The production of new sperm cells begins with the division and differentiation of germ cells in the
seminiferous tubules. Specialized cells called Sertoli cells nourish and protect the new sperm cells,
ushering them into the epididymis where they grow to maturity as they migrate through the 10 to
12 feet of tightly coiled tubule that makes up this testicular structure. Their journey takes sperm to
the ejaculatory ducts, where they mix with SEMEN. A mature spermatozoon consists of a head
(the cell body) containing genetic material and a whiplike tail that provides mobility.
ANDROGENS, notably TESTOSTERONE, and other hormones regulate spermatogenesis.
Spermatogenesis is a continuous process.

Fertilization

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The role of the sperm is to fertilize the ovum (egg), the first step in establishing PREGNANCY.
SEXUAL INTERCOURSE, in which the man’s erect PENIS enters the woman’s VAGINA, is the
natural mechanism through which sperm gain access to the woman’s reproductive tract. From 20
to 250 million sperm leave the testicles within the semen, the fluid that nourishes and protects the
sperm, during each EJACULATION. The sperm swim through the fluids in the vagina, enter the
UTERUS through the CERVIX, and continue to the entrance of the FALLOPIAN TUBES at the
top of the uterus.

Of the millions of sperm that begin this journey, most die before reaching the fallopian tube.
Surviving sperm continue through the fallopian tube; fertilization takes place if there is an ovum
(egg) also in the fallopian tube and a sperm is able to penetrate its surface membrane. Multiple
factors influence this ability, including the shape of the sperm head, the remaining motility of the
sperm tail to thrust the head through the ovum’s membrane, and the environment within the
fallopian tube. Once a single sperm penetrates the shell of the ovum, the ovum closes itself to
further penetration. Only the head of the sperm enters the ovum; the tail of the sperm drops off
outside the ovum. Multiple pregnancies occur when two or more sperm simultaneously penetrate
the ovum (identical multiples) or when two or more OVA are present in the fallopian tubes
(fraternal multiples). Abnormalities of sperm structure or motility may interfere with the sperm’s
ability to reach or penetrate the ovum.

Bone Cells
Bone consists of four types of cells: osteoblasts, osteoclasts, osteocytes, and osteoprogenitor (or
osteogenic) cells . Each cell type has a unique function and is found in different locations in bones
. The osteoblast, the bone cell responsible for forming new bone, is found in the growing portions
of bone, including the periosteumand endosteum. Osteoblasts, which do not divide, synthesize and
secrete the collagen matrix and calcium salts. As the secreted matrix surrounding the osteoblast
calcifies, the osteoblast becomes trapped within it. As a result, it changes in structure, becoming
an osteocyte, the primary cell of mature bone and the most common type of bone cell. Each
osteocyte is located in a space (lacuna) surrounded by bone tissue. Osteocytes maintain the mineral
concentration of the matrix via the secretion of enzymes. As is the case with osteoblasts,
osteocytes lack mitotic activity. They are able to communicate with each other and
receive nutrients via long cytoplasmic processes that extend through canaliculi (singular =
canaliculus), channels within the bone matrix.

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Bone cell types

Table listing the function and location of the

four types of bone cells.

Four types of bone cells

Four types of cells are found within bone

tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated
and develop into osteoblasts. When
osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified
matrix, their structure and function changes;
they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop
from monocytes and macrophages and differ
in appearance from other bone cells.

If osteoblasts and osteocytes are incapable of mitosis, then how are they replenished when old ones
die? The answer lies in the properties of a third category of bone cells: the osteogenic cell. These
osteogenic cells are undifferentiated with high mitotic activity; they are the only bone cells that
divide. Immature osteogenic cells are found in the deep layers of the periosteum and the marrow.
When they differentiate, they develop into osteoblasts. The dynamic nature of bone means that
new tissue is constantly formed, while old, injured, or unnecessary bone is dissolved for repair or
for calcium release. The cell responsible for bone resorption, or breakdown, is the osteoclast,
which is found on bone surfaces, is multinucleated, and originates from monocytes and
macrophages (two types of white blood cells) rather than from osteogenic cells. Osteoclasts
continually break down old bone while osteoblasts continually form new bone. The ongoing
balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is responsible for the constant, but subtle, reshaping
of bone.

Amyloplast
Amyloplasts are organelles in plant cells where starch is made and stored. They are a type of
colorless plastid called a leucoplast which are formed from protoplastids. Starch is made of glucose
molecules which are used as energy by the cell.

Amyloplast’s primary functions are the degradation and synthesis of starch. Amyloplasts are non-
pigmented or colorless organelles known as plastids that convert glucose into starch and store it in
the stroma.

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 Sources
http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/animal-cell.html

http://biology.tutorvista.com/animal-and-plant-cells/plant-cell.html

http://www.ivyroses.com/Biology/Cells/Prokaryotic-Cell-Structure.php

http://www.ilovegrowingmarijuana.com/structure-function-stomata/

http://www.tutorvista.com/biology/structure-of-amoeba

http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2483

http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/sperm-definition-function-spermatogenesis-
fertilization.html

https://www.boundless.com/biology/textbooks/boundless-biology-textbook/the-musculoskeletal-
system-38/bone-216/cell-types-in-bones-816-12058/

https://www.quora.com/What-are-amyloplasts-What-functions-do-they-have

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