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Strain Measurements with Digital Image Correlation System Vic-2D

Article · January 2008

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 NEES at CU Boulder
CU-NEES-08-06 01000110 01001000 01010100
The George E Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake Engineering Simulation

Strain Measurements with the

Digital Image Correlation
System Vic-2D
By

Rommel Cintrón
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez

Dr. Victor Saouma

University of Colorado, Boulder

Center for Fast Hybrid Testing

Department of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering
September University of Colorado
2008 UCB 428
Boulder, Colorado 80309-0428
 Strain Measurements with the Digital Image Correlation
System Vic-2D

REU Student: Rommel Cintrón

REU Mentor: Dr. Victor Saouma
Home Institution: University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez
Host Institution: University of Colorado, Boulder
Summer 2008

Abstract

The Vic-2D is an innovate system that uses the digital image correlation technique to
provide strain measurements in a two-dimensional contour map for planar surface
specimens. In this research, relations between some of the most important variables
involved in the digital image correlation are showed to improve the operation and results
with this technique. This paper includes a simple tutorial for the setup and operation of
the equipment. Three different tests were performed: (1) preliminary tests, (2) elementary
tests and (3) complex tests. The first ones prove the effectiveness of the Vic-2D with a
ductile material, based on its known elastic properties. The second ones study the success
of the system with brittle materials and the last ones analyze structural components. The
results provide the achievements obtained and some limitations with the Vic-2D.
 Table of Contents

1 Introduction

1.1 Digital Image Correlation Technique

1.2 Relating Image Resolution and Specimen Dimensions

1.3 Relating Focal Length and Distance Between Camera and Specimen

1.4 Distortion Effects

1.5 Speckle Pattern

2 Methods and Materials

2.1 Vic-2D

2.2 Setup and Operation of the System

2.3 Tests and Parameters

3 Discussion of the Results

3.1 Preliminary Tests

3.2 Elementary Tests

3.3 Complex Tests

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

5 Acknowledgement

6 References
 1 Introduction

Strain measurements are very important in mechanical sciences. A strain in any material
can be defined as the coefficient of the change in length and the initial length. Strains are
involved in many important material properties and parameters (i.e. Stress-Strain Curve,
Young’s Modulus, Poisson’s Ratio, etc.). Recently, new and more complex investigations
are requiring strain measurements at any point inside an area of interest to improve the
study of the behavior of materials and structural components. For this reason, researchers
are interested on a strain map over an entire specimen surface. Some conventional
instruments, which measure strains (i.e. strain gage and LVDT), are not accessible to
create strain maps, because it would be very expensive and not practical. Owing to the
fact that strain maps are needed to perform new investigations, a new technology was
develop to obtain these desired results. This technology is the digital image correlation,
which provides a contour map of strains of an entire specimen surface subject to
mechanical tests.

1.1 Digital Image Correlation Technique

The digital image correlation is an optical method that uses a mathematical correlation
analysis to examine digital image data taken while samples are in mechanical tests
[Correlated Solutions, 2008]. This technique consists on capture consecutive images with
a digital camera during the deformation period to evaluate the change in surface
characteristics and understand the behavior of the specimen while is subject to
incremental loads. To apply this method, the specimen needs to be prepared by the
application of a random dot pattern (speckle pattern) to its surface.

This technique starts with a picture before loading (reference image) and then a series of
pictures are taken during the deformation process (deformed images). All the deformed
images show a different random dot pattern relative to the initial non-deformed reference
image. With computer software these differences between patterns can be calculated by
correlating all the pixels of the reference image and any deformed image, and a strain
distribution map can be created (See Figure 1.1).
The digital image correlation requires computer software and an appropriate digital
camera. To get accurate measurements with this technique it is important to consider
some variables. The results are going to depend on the digital image resolution (pixels
columns (c) × pixels rows (r)), the width (w) and the height (h) of the specimen, the
distance between camera and specimen (d), the focal length of the lens (f), and the
application of the speckle pattern (See Figure 1.2).

1.2 Relating Image Resolution and Specimen Dimensions

The resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image and describes how many details
can be appreciated in an image. The image resolution and the specimen surface area can
be related to determine the quantity of space that each pixel is going to represent in the
specimen image (See Figure 1.3). To determine the quantity of space represented by a
pixel in a specimen image, the specimen dimensions (width and height) have to be
divided by the resolution of the camera (pixel columns and pixel rows). Two different
equations can be used to determine the pixel space represented on an image.

The equation 1 allows to calculate the pixel width represented on the specimen image,
where ςw is the pixel width, w is the specimen width and c is the number of pixel columns
in the image. The equation 2 allows to calculate the pixel height represented on the
specimen image, where ςh is the pixel height, h is the specimen height and r is the number
of pixel rows in the image. As the resolution increase, the ς value is going to decrease,
and as the specimen dimensions increase, the ς value is going to increase. Independently
of the specimen dimensions, the values of ςw and ςh for an individual specimen always
are equal.

All the digital camera resolutions have a 4:3 or a 3:2 aspect ratio. The majority and most
common digital cameras have a 4:3 aspect ratio image resolution (i.e. 800 × 600,
1024 × 768, 1280 × 960, etc.). To explain the relation between image resolution and
specimen dimensions, 4:3 aspect ratio resolutions are going to be used. It is important to
point out that the samples must occupy the majority of the space as possible in an image
to maximize the quantity of pixels used. With a 4:3 aspect ratio resolution the ideal
surface area in a specimen to use all the pixels in an image is a rectangle with a 4:3 aspect
ratio too (i.e. 4” × 3”, 8” × 6”, 12” × 9”, etc.). In this case, equations 1 and 2 can be used
(See Figure 1.4).

If the specimen surface area is a square or a rectangle, which its wide is less than 1.33
times the height, the only equation that can be used is the equation 2. The equation 1
cannot be considered, because all the pixel columns are not going to be used to represent
the specimen in the image. It is obvious that in the square specimen the quantity of pixel
columns that are going to show the specimen image are going to be the same quantity of
pixel rows, but in the rectangular specimen that is not very simple to identify. In the
rectangular specimen the quantity of pixel columns that are going to show the specimen
image can be determined by geometry, but that is not necessary, because the results of
equations 1 and 2 always are going to be the same. If the pixel rows and specimen height
are known, that is enough (See Figure 1.5).
If the specimen has a rectangular shape, which its wide is more than 1.33 times the
height, the only equation that can be used is the equation 1. The equation 2 cannot be
considered, because all the pixel rows are not going to be used to represent the specimen
in the image. The quantity of pixel rows that are going to show the specimen image can
be determined by geometry, but that is not necessary. If the pixel columns and specimen
width are known, that is enough (See Figure 1.6).

1.3 Relating Focal Length and Distance between Camera and Specimen

The focal length is the distance in millimeters between the optical center of the lens and
the focal point in the surface of the sensor of the camera when the subject is in focus (See
Figure 1.7). There are three categories for the focal length. The three categories are wide-
angle lens (focal length < 35 mm), normal lens (35 mm < focal length < 55 mm) and
telephoto lens (focal length > 55 mm). The higher the focal length, the closer the image is
going to be registered in the digital camera.

It is not necessary to know an exact distance or focal length for each different specimen
dimensions, because they can be adjusted in different ways to get the specimen focused
with the camera. If the camera needs to be very far from the specimen, the image can be
focused by using a long focal length and vice versa. The distance between camera and
specimen also depends on the specimen dimensions. The higher the specimen
dimensions, the higher the distance between camera and specimen will be needed.

1.4 Distortion Effects

The distortion effects are a problem that still affects all the digital cameras. The distortion
can be defined as the lens defect that produces an imperfect image. Distortion effects can
appear when the lens is zoomed. Zoom lenses at their maximum wide-angle (28 mm) or
telephoto (> 80 mm) setting can be affected by barrel or pincushion distortions,
respectively (See Figure 1.8). Also, to avoid distortion effects, the images need to be
centralized.
 1.5 Speckle Pattern

The specimen surface to be studied must have a random dot pattern [Limess, 2008]. The
speckle pattern is essential, because it permits the software to be able to identify and
calculate the displacements with accuracy. To obtain accurate results with the digital
image correlation it is important to get an adequate speckle pattern. An adequate speckle
pattern must have a considerable quantity of black speckles with different shapes and
sizes (See Figure 1.9). The effectiveness of the speckle pattern can be determined by the
quantity of pixels per black speckle. A good speckle pattern must have small black
speckles (10 pixels), medium black speckles (20 pixels) and large black speckles (30
pixels). The quantity of pixels per black speckle size is approximated (See Figure 1.10).

To identify the ideal size of any black speckle in a specimen, a relation between the black
speckle size desired (small, medium or large) and the quantity of space represented by a
pixel in a specimen image (ςw or ςh) can be made. Knowing the quantity of pixels that
any black speckle size must have and the pixel size represented in a specimen image,
their product are going to give us the proper dimensions of the black speckles in the
specimen.
The equation 3 allows to calculate the dimensions of a black speckle in a specimen,
where ζ is the black speckle length in a specimen, p is the quantity of pixels that the
desired black speckle size must have and ς is the pixel size represented in a specimen
image (ςw or ςh) (See Figure 1.11). It is important to notice that the results of ζ are an
approximation to have an idea of how the black speckles length must be in any specimen.
Also, to get accurate results is very important to avoid black speckles bigger than the
large black speckles.

2 Methods and Materials

2.1 Vic-2D

The Vic-2D uses the digital image correlation technique to make strain measurements
[Limess, 2008]. This system is able to provide two-dimensional strain maps of an entire
planar specimen surface. The equipment consists of computer software and a digital
camera with appropriate lens and resolution (See Figure 2.1). The digital camera records
the pictures during the mechanical testing process and the software analyzes the images
and calculates axial and transversal displacements, as well as axial, transversal and shear
strains.
 2.2 Setup and Operation of the System

For the success of strain measurements with the Vic-2D, it is indispensable to get a good
speckle pattern. The speckle pattern can be naturally occurring or can be applied. It can
be applied with white and black paint. First painting the surface with a thin layer of white
paint (it could be brush or spray paint) and then applying a black mist of paint (spray
paint) to create the black speckles. To apply the black mist of paint it is essential to keep
approximate two feet of distance between specimen and spray can (See Figure 2.2). The
speckle pattern needs to be applied considering the relation between the pixel size
represented in a specimen image and the amount of pixels per black speckle (equation 3)
(See Figure 2.3).

To take the pictures during the deformation period, the specimen needs to be prepared to
be subject to the mechanical test. After the sample and the universal testing machine are
settled, select an accessible position for the digital camera and adjust the focal length to
fix and acquire a clear image (See Figures 2.4 and 2.5). Set the aperture range of the
camera lens with the lowest f-number as possible to let the entrance of the maximum
amount of light. The illumination has to be appropriate. The sample must be illuminate
by a standard white light source. If ambient illumination is not sufficient, additional
lighting may be needed. Before starting the test, a picture is taken for reference (non-
deformed image). While the specimen is subject to external loads, consecutive pictures
are taken (deformed images).

To operate the software, the pictures taken during the deformation process need to be
open in the Vic-2D. Let the subset and step sizes as default (i.e. subset: 29 and step: 5).
To determine where the specimen strain map is going to be seen, select an area of interest
in the reference image. Then, choose a point inside the area of interest (seed point) and
make the initial guesses in all the deformed images. The seed point needs to be in a place
where black speckles are easy to identify. After all the initial guesses are finished, run the
correlation. It is important to notice that during the correlation the number of average
iterations is shown for every image. This number of average iterations needs to be less
than five to make sure that the correlation for the strain map is adequate. When the
correlation is finished, calibrate the reference image with its true length. Finally, make
the program calculates the strains. After this process, the Vic-2D is going to be able to
show displacement and strain maps in any deformed image. Also, an animation with all
the deformed image maps in sequence can be seen.

2.3 Tests and Parameters

First preliminary tests were performed with 1×1×1 and 1.3×1.5×1.0 inches aluminum
samples. Based on aluminum properties known by theory (i.e. Young’s Modulus and
Poisson’s Ratio) the results of these tests can determine the effectiveness of the Vic-2D.
Then, elementary tests with 2×2×2 inches mortar and clay brick samples were performed.
Two different sample dimensions were used for the bricks: 4.15×2.25×3.75 and
3.75×7.75×2.25 inches. These elementary tests are useful to determine how the Vic-2D
works with brittle materials. The 3.75×7.75×2.25 inches bricks were tested with
extensometers added to compare the strain measurements in the Vic-2D. Finally,
complex tests with 4.25×7.75×3.75 inches brick-mortar prisms (brick wall) were
performed. These complex tests are useful to determine how the Vic-2D works with
structural components. It is essential to see if the Vic-2D can generate the difference in
strains between both materials. The mortar-brick prisms were composed of three stack
bricks joined by two mortar bed joints (See Figure 2.6).

All the samples were subjected to compression tests with a MTS universal testing
machine. The deformation rate in the universal testing machine was 0.0004 inches per
second in all the tests. The pictures for the prism tests were taken every 6 seconds for a
period of 4 minutes. The pictures for all the other tests were taken every 5 seconds for a
period of 5 minutes. A 1024 × 768 digital image resolution was used for all the pictures.
The bricks and brick-mortar prisms were “capped” on both sides with a plaster of Paris to
ensure evenness and continuous contact between the samples and the plates of the
universal testing machine [Tusini, 2008].

3 Discussion of the Results

3.1 Preliminary Tests

The axial and transversal displacement maps, and the axial, transversal and shear strain
maps were obtained in the preliminary tests. The maps in all the aluminum samples are
very logical and useful to see the behavior of the material when is subject to compression
loads (See Figure 3.1). All the strain measurements have more uniformity and almost the
same values in the strain maps corresponding to the sample images taken during the
elastic period of aluminum. In the strain maps corresponding to the sample images taken
during the plastic period there is more variation of the strain values (See Figure 3.2). The
maps consist of a range of colors, where the violet and red are the left and right
boundaries, respectively. In the displacement maps the violet color represents the highest
displacement to the left in the transversal map and the highest displacement down in the
axial map, and the red color represents the highest displacement to the right in the
transversal map and the highest displacement up in the axial map. In the strain maps the
violet color represents the lowest positive strain values or the highest negative strain
values and the red color the highest positive strain values or the lowest negative strain
values.

The strain values obtained in the preliminary tests are not the expected. Using the
Young’s Modulus of aluminum known by theory (E=70GPa) and the universal testing
machine reading (loads), the expected strains were calculated. The data (strains values) in
the strain maps was export from the Vic-2D to an Excel document file. An average of all
the axial strains of each strain map corresponding to the sample images taken during the
elastic period was calculated to compare the Vic-2D results with the expected strains. In
the 1×1×1 inches aluminum samples the strains obtained from the Vic-2D are very high
(See Table 3.1 and Figure 3.3). However, in the 1.3×1.5×1.0 inches aluminum samples
the strains obtained are better, but still a little bit higher (See Table 3.2 and Figure 3.3). A
Strain vs. Stress graph (not Stress vs. Strain) was made to compare the strains. In this
case, with the Strain vs. Stress graph is easier to see and understand the differences
between strains. The Strain vs. Stress graph of the aluminum samples shows that the
strains obtained with the Vic-2D present a faster increase than the strains obtained by
theory (See Figure 3.3).
To compare the proportion between the axial and transversal strains in the Vic-2D, the
Poisson’s Ratio known by theory of aluminum (ν=0.35) was used. The average of the
axial and transversal strains of each strain map corresponding to the sample images taken
during the elastic period was calculated to compare the Poisson’s Ratios obtained in the
Vic-2D with the Poisson’s Ratio known by theory. The Poisson’s Ratios obtained in the
Vic-2D are between 0.20 and 0.40. These results show that the proportion between the
axial and transversal strains obtained with the Vic-2D is not always exact.

3.2 Elementary Tests

In the elementary tests the axial and transversal displacement maps, and the axial,
transversal and shear strain maps were obtained. In this case, the displacement and strain
maps show the behavior of the materials during the deformation in a logical way too.
Owing to the fact that mortars and bricks are brittle materials, big cracks appear during
the tests. Running the correlation in the Vic-2D to get the strain maps, some unexpected
uncolored spots appear in the contour maps. These uncolored spots in the strain maps
coincide with the images that show cracks in the specimen. Also, the pictures that show
the uncolored spots in the strain maps had average iterations above five during the
correlation, so that means that the correlation was not adequate in those pictures. The
uncolored spots are not desired, because there is no way to identify the strain values
inside the uncolored areas. A good fact is that before the specimen shows cracks, the
axial strain map is able to show the areas where the cracks are going to appear in the
specimen (See Figures 3.4 and 3.5).
Some strain values obtained in the elementary tests are good, but others are not. Using
the Young’s Modulus of mortar (E≈7GPa) determined with extensometers in other
research with the same mix of mortar [Tusini, 2008] and the universal testing machine
reading (loads), the expected strains for mortars were calculated. The axial strains from
the Vic-2D in the elementary tests were calculated in the same way that the axial strains
were calculated in the preliminary tests. Comparing the expected strains with the Vic-2D
results, the strains obtained in the Vic-2D of the 2×2×2 inches mortar samples are a little
bit higher than the expected strains (See Table 3.3 and Figure 3.6). In this case, the strains
obtained with the Vic-2D present a faster increase than the strains obtained by theory too
(See Figure 3.6).
Using the Young’s Modulus of brick known by theory (E≈15Gpa) and the universal
testing machine reading (loads), the expected strains for bricks were calculated.
Comparing the expected strains with the Vic-2D results, the strains obtained in the Vic-
2D are close to the expected strains. In the 4.15×2.25×3.75 inches brick samples the
strains obtained with the Vic-2D are a little bit below from the expected strains (See
Table 3.4 and Figure 3.7). In the 3.75×7.75×2.25 inches brick samples the strains
obtained with the Vic-2D are a little bit above from the expected strains (See Table 3.5
and Figure 3.7). It is important to point out that the Young’s Modulus of brick is very
approximated, so the results of the Vic-2D cannot be considered as good or bad. Also, the
3.75×7.75×2.25 inches brick samples were performed with extensometers added and the
results of the Vic-2D and the extensometers are very similar, so in this case the Vic-2D
results can be considered as acceptable (See Table 3.5 and Figure 3.7). Besides, in the
brick tests the expected strains and the strains obtained with the Vic-2D present a similar
rate of increase (See Figure 3.7).
 3.3 Complex Tests

The axial and transversal displacement maps, and the axial, transversal and shear strain
maps were obtained in the complex tests too. The displacement and strain maps in all the
mortar-brick prism samples look very logical, like in the tests before mentioned. The
axial strain maps are able to show the difference in strains between the mortars and
bricks, where the mortar presents the highest strain values (See Figure 3.8). During these
tests, the unexpected uncolored spots also appear when the images show cracks in the
specimen.
The strain values of the complex tests obtained with the Vic-2D are acceptable. The
results with the 4.25×7.75×3.75 inches mortar-brick prism samples are very similar to the
results obtained with the 3.75×7.75×2.25 inches brick samples in the elementary tests
(See Table 3.6). In fact, in all the prism tests the brick fails first than the mortar.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations

The Vic-2D is able to provide logical and useful displacement and strain maps to show
the behavior of the materials during the deformation process. The system is capable to
detect the areas with higher strains inside the area of interest. The Vic-2D cannot provide
displacement and strain maps after the specimens show cracks. The maps obtained from
the specimen images that show cracks are not adequate to determine the strain values in
some points inside the area of interest.

Some strain measurements obtained with the Vic-2D are acceptable, but others are not
the expected. The strain values obtained with the aluminum and mortar samples are
higher than the strains expected. In these tests the strains obtained with the Vic-2D
present a faster increase than the strains obtained by theory. Also, the majority of the
Poisson’s Ratios obtained with the Vic-2D in the aluminum samples do not coincide with
the Poisson’s Ratio known by theory. On the other hand, the strain values obtained with
the brick samples are close to the expected strains. In these tests the expected strains and
the strains obtained with the Vic-2D present a similar rate of increase. Also, in the brick
samples tested with the extensometers the results obtained with the Vic-2D are very
similar to the results obtained with the extensometers. The results obtained with the brick
and mortar-brick prism samples can be considered as acceptable, but cannot be
considered as accurate. The good results on strain measurements coincide with the
samples with dimensions higher than 2×2×2 inches and the unexpected strains obtained
coincide with the samples with 2×2×2 inches dimensions or lower. That means that
maybe the Vi-2D is not able to provide accurate strain measurements in specimens with
2×2×2 inches dimensions or lower.

Preliminary tests with bigger specimens must be considered for future work to verify the
accuracy on strain measurements with the Vic-2D. It is essential to put more emphasis in
the application of the first thin layer of white paint to create the speckle pattern on the
specimens. The layer of white paint has different properties compared to the materials
tested. These differences could affect the accuracy on strain measurements with the Vic-
2D. There was a margin of error in time between the pictures taken during the tests and
the load lectures in the universal testing machine. The digital camera and the universal
testing machine should be synchronized to start at the same time to get more accurate
expected strains.

5 Acknowledgement

This research was supported by the George E. Brown, Jr. Network for Earthquake
Engineering Simulation (NEES) and the National Science Foundation (NSF). The author
would like to thank the University of Colorado at Boulder (CU) and the NEES Research
Experience for Undergraduates (REU) for brings the opportunity to undergraduate
students to gain experience on research work. The author is very grateful with his mentor
Victor Saouma for guides him in the way to complete this research, Kaspar Willam for
the assistance with the results, Ben Blackard for facilitates the resources to perform the
tests and Kent Polkinghorne for the help on the understanding of the research objectives.
Finally, the author needs to mention Ryan Doheny, Evan Tusini and all the CU structures
and materials laboratory staff.
 6 References

Correlated Solutions, Inc., “Digital Image Correlation”,

16 Jun. 2008 <http://www.correlatedsolutions.com/index.php?option=com_
content&task=view&id=23&Itemid=36>.

Hild, F. and Roux, S. [2006] “Digital Image Correlation: from Displacement

Measurement to Identification of Elastic Properties”, The Authors, Journal
compilation, Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Strain 42, 69-80.

Limess Messtechnik & Software GmbH, “Vic-2D”,

16 Jun. 2008 <http://limess.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=
24&Itemid=58>.

Tusini, E. [2008] “Performance Evaluation of Reinforced Concrete Masonry Infill Walls,

Concentration on Evaluation of Masonry Infill Properties”, Research paper, Civil
Engineering Dept., University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado.

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