English for Academic and Professional Purposes

“Good writing requires good reading.”

WHAT IS CRITICAL READING?

Critical Reading is careful, thorough, thoughtful, and active reading of an Academic Text. It is not quick
reading. A person is involved in critical reading whenever one is interested in a text and made a variety of
comments about it while reading. Responding to a text, whether in writing, orally, in a test, or in a discussion
group, requires critical reading.

Academic Text means a text that is specifically written for use by instructors or students. It is also used
for publications that are read by teachers, students and researchers which are to be presented at school
conferences. A very broad definition of academic writing could include any writing assignment given in an
academic setting.

Active, critical reading usually involves marking or highlighting the text and writing marginal notes. Such
notes can include brief comments explaining one’s agreement or disagreement with important points, comparisons
and contrasts to other texts or ideas, and new ideas that occurred. At the end of each page, a critical reader also
should ask himself, "Have I understood everything on this page?" Just looking at the sentences and turning pages
does not constitute critical reading. One must try to write a brief summary for each paragraph of a text as one of
the possible evidences that resulted from critical reading. Critical reading means actively comprehending what you
have read on the text.

Engaging in critical reading is to actively engage into the text right after the first reading. This means
talking with others about it, putting the words into practice, making an alternative model of what has been
discussed (for example, a story or a drawing), or simply writing about it (summary, outline). Once done reading
critically, writing about what you have read is a way of responding to the text.

TYPICAL STRUCTURES OF AN ACADEMIC TEXT

The structure of a text often depends on the academic discipline in which it is used. Many disciplines have
their own unique patterns of writing: in Journalism, there are news reports, interviews, in-depth analyses,
magazine articles, and editorials; in Psychology, there are case observations, case studies, and scientific
reports. However, in undergraduate courses in which a general book or essay is studied, analyzed, or used in
research, there are three structures that stands out above all others: (A) the Thesis Structure, (B) the
Problems-and-Solutions Structure, and (C) the Factual Structure.

a. Thesis Structure

A Thesis Structure is a basic pattern in writing that occurs in a large number of books and essays. In
this structure, the writer presents a primary argument about an important subject and presents reasons and
supporting details to prove why the argument is true.

 Introduction: The introduction contains the main argument. It is also the first impression
of a text.

 First Body Section: First reason

 Second Body Section: Second reason

 Third Body Section: Third reason

(Each body section must start with a topic sentence that states a new reason why the main argument is
true, and the details supporting it such as facts, examples, evidences and citations of works done by
experts.)

 Conclusion: The conclusion gives a summary of the reasons and the entire interpretation of
the text, providing and emphasizing the essence of the main argument,
making the readers accept and agree with it.

b. Problem-and-Solutions Structure

The writer's central idea of the text is presented as an overall solution to one or more problems. A
writer may present a problem or series of problems which will be solved by several possible solutions and later
on be consolidated into an overall solution. This structure’s purpose is to convince readers that the problem
needs solving and the presented overall solution is the best solution, workable, and worth-implementing.

 Introduction: The introduction describes and states the main problem. It also contains the
initial solution to the problem.

 First Point: First subproblem and its solution or first possible solution to the main problem

 Second Point: Second subproblem and its solution or second possible solution to the main problem

 Third Point: Third subproblem and its solution or third possible solution to the main problem
English for Academic and Professional Purposes

(The series of points may contain a subproblem, its details, and solution or a possible solution directly to
the man problem. Each point must be supported with facts and examples pointing out the solution as the
best.)

 Final resolution: The final resolution contains the discussion of the solutions arriving to the
overall solution of the problem.

 Conclusion The conclusion gives refinement to a reader’s knowledge which is gained

from the presented points of the overall solution.

c. Factual Structure

The World Wide Web is a location especially filled with information meant to be factual as well as
textbooks and journals used in schools. These academic texts mentioned uses factual structure. Facts and
proven ideas are needed in order to objectively write this writing structure. This text must the informative and
expository.

 Introduction: The introduction contains the main subject of the text or what the text
is all about.

 First Body Section: First subsection and its explanatory details

 Second Body Section: Second subsection and its explanatory details

 Third Body Section: Third subsection and its explanatory details

(Each main body section usually starts with a topic sentence that states a new subsection of the factual
information being conveyed. Each subsection needs clear elucidation for the better comprehension of the
readers)

 Conclusion: The conclusion gives a summary of the subject. It can also include possible
arguments and clarifications about it.

Thesis Structure and Problem-and-Solutions Structure are both biased for taking one side of an argument
while factual structure is supposed to offer only facts but by leaving out some facts and giving others a narrow
interpretation would offer a biased version of factual reality. For that reason, a reader needs to pay attention to
the credibility of the information and its sources.

READING TECHNIQUES: PREVIEWING, SKIMMING, SCANNING, AND SPEED READING

a. Previewing
Previewing is an important part of the pre-reading process which activates one’s prior knowledge
about the subject of the text. It helps the reader make connections to the text before reading it. Previewing
also makes the reader get focused before starting to read and helps retain information to have better
understanding of the text.

Steps of Previewing

1. Cover: Read any descriptions you can find about the book on the back or inside, or on the book's cover
page, and consider the possible meaning of the title of the book.

2. Table of Contents: Read the book's table of contents. If there is an index, look at it casually for a
minute or two, picking up some of the words in it.

3. Introduction: If the book has a short introductory chapter, read it.

4. First and last pages: Read the first page or two of the first chapter, and the last page or two of the last
chapter. This will tell you more precisely what the book is about.

5. Chapter beginnings and endings: Read the first and last paragraph of each chapter in the book.
Glance at the graphics (pictures, diagrams, etc.). (If you are examining an essay rather than a book,
think about the essay's title; then read the introductory and ending sections, which probably are one to
several paragraphs each, and look at graphics, if any.)

6. Each page: For thorough previewing, turn the pages as fast as you comfortably can, letting your fingers
and hands determine the speed at which you turn the pages. Turn them at a steady rate, long enough to
let your eyes light once, briefly, on each page. If there are titles, subtitles, or illustrations, you are
welcome to look at them. Otherwise, simply let your eyes catch a word or phrase somewhere on each
page.

7. Chapter paragraphs: For more thorough previewing, read the first or last sentence of each paragraph.
If you do not have time to go to step 8, step 7 is very helpful.
English for Academic and Professional Purposes

8. Every word: The final step, if you have time, is to actually read all of the text, taking critical notes
as you do so.

If you are reading a book, completing steps 1-4 is a necessary minimum for previewing to be
effective. Finishing step 5 is much more helpful, and completing step 6 is especially useful for textbooks
and other books that eventually must be read in their entirety.

This method of previewing also can be used to help you review a text for a test or a final paper.
Simply go through the steps again to refresh your memory, taking notes as needed.

b. Skimming

Skimming is the method of rapidly moving the eyes over the text with purpose of only getting
the main idea; a way of reading something quickly, flitting over key words, and predicting the rest. Skimming can be
helpful in emergency situations wherein you can go into a class discussion or test with a general
knowledge of the entire text.

Steps of Skimming

1. The first sentence of a paragraph is usually the topic sentence. Reading first sentences of each of
the paragraphs gives the reader a summary of the text.

2. Use the Previewing steps above. Start with steps 1-5, which are necessary to make the skimming
work efficiently.

3. Then focus especially on steps 6 and 7. These are the steps specific to skimming.

4. Some authors' methods of organizing each of their paragraphs may be slightly different. If reading
the first sentence of each paragraph doesn't seem to work, try reading the first and last sentence.

When you skim-read like this, you are looking at an outline of the work. Skim-reading may
also be accompanied by critical reading: thinking about the contents and responding to them by writing
notes.

c. Scanning

Scanning is a reading technique to be used when finding specific information quickly. It uses
keywords and organizational cues. While the goal of skimming is a bird's-eye view of the material, the
goal of scanning is to locate particular facts that can possibly be found within long passages. Skim long
texts first to decide if it is likely to contain the facts you need: tables of contents, summaries, indexes,
headings, and typographical cues. Skim them first to understand how they are organized: alphabetical,
chronological, or most-to-least, for example. After skimming you decide if the material will be useful,
then proceed to scanning.

Steps of Scanning

- Scanning about a Certain Subject

1. Identify your subject. Decide on a few key words or phrases–search terms that appropriate to
your subject.

2. Look for only one keyword at a time. If you use multiple keywords, do multiple scans.

3. Let your eyes float rapidly down the page until you find the word or phrase you want.
Peripheral vision can also help you scan effectively. When your hand moves down a list of
names or text, you see not only the words your finger is pointing at, but also the words above
and below.

4. When your eye catches one of your keywords, read the surrounding material carefully.

- Scanning for an Answer to a Question

If you are scanning for facts to answer a specific question, one step is already done for
you: the question itself supplies the keywords. Follow these steps:

1. Read each question completely before starting to scan. Choose your keywords from the
question itself.

2. Look for answers to only one question at a time. Scan separately for each question.

3. When you locate a keyword, read the surrounding text carefully to see if it is relevant.

4. Re-read the question to determine if the answer you found answers this question.
English for Academic and Professional Purposes

Scanning is a technique that requires concentration and can be surprisingly tiring. You
may have to practice at not allowing your attention to wander. Choose a time and place that you
know works for you and dive in.

d. Speed Reading

Speed reading means a reading of every phrase in a text, without skipping any parts of it, but in
a much faster fashion than normal or average. Speed reading is a skill that requires practice. However,
it is a very useful skill, for it can save many hours of time. Speed reading changes the essential manner
in which a person reads. In speed reading, you read faster than you can speak the words in your head.
How is this accomplished? You learn to see the words and only see them rather than to turn them into a
running monologue in your head. You do this by starting with one of the oldest reading habits in the
world: you use your finger to read. Here is how it works:

Steps of Speed Reading

1. Read normally for several minutes, and use your fingers to follow along beneath each line as you
read it.

2. Next, increase the speed of your fingers, and make your eyes follow the print. Practice this for
several minutes until your eyes adjust to taking in the meanings of the sentences.

3. Then increase the speed of your finger movement even more. (You may find your eyes will follow
your fingers better if you tap each line two or three times in different places instead of moving
your fingers steadily.) Practice this for several minutes more.

4. You can continue with step 3, maintaining or increasing your speed, or you can try doing so
without fingers. However, practice is required.

You may always need your fingers to speed read, especially if you don't use it often. However,
with constant use, over a period of weeks or months your eyes will become used to the speed, making
use of your finger less necessary.

READING (AND WRITING) A WEBSITE

Increasingly, students and professionals find useful quality information on the Web. In addition,
more people are writing their own Websites. Quality Web readings, while they usually have a similar
structure of content, often present their material in very different ways than physical books. A reader
cannot exactly write notes on the screen. As a result, it is worth examining how Website reading is
different. As far as reading (and writing) is concerned, there are four elements of Web structure that may
be helpful.

1. How do you read (and write) a Web page's general contents?

The contents of a Web page are more likely to be factual, or at least to present themselves as
quasi-factual - seeming to be factual but having an underlying argumentative message. It may be very
helpful to determine whether the content is factual, quasi-factual, or argumentative. Reading the
written text of any Web page is in many ways like reading a standard text. A Web "page" actually can be
much longer than a regular printed page: a Web "page" is not only what you can see on your screen,
but also what you can reach by scrolling down or up. To read a Web page, you use previewing skills to
pick out the basic sentences and basic structure. Then you read critically.

Critical reading requires good note taking. There are several ways you can do this when reading
Web pages:

a. One is to take notes on a separate piece of paper, noting Web page names and paragraph
numbers.

b. You also can simply print a Web page and take notes on the printed page. Many people like this
method because it is easy. However, the margins often are small. If you are using a recent
version of Explorer, you can change the margins before printing by going to "File" and "Page
Setup."

c. You also can open a new Word document and set its margins to whatever width you want (by going
to go to "File" and "Page Setup"). You then copy the Web page to the Word document and print the
Word document.

d. If you would like to take notes using your computer, you can do so by creating two windows. Open
a new Word document and resize it so it fits one third of your screen, either left to right or top to
English for Academic and Professional Purposes

bottom. Then resize your Web page so it fits the other two thirds of your screen. Then you can
simply read one while you take notes on the other.

2. Are the pictures important?

Pictures found on the web pages are important. The visual cues on a Web site are called
"graphics": the pictures and to some extent the differing column widths, text boxes, and other graphic
features all are meant to convey information that speaks directly to the organization of the contents.
Text placed in left-hand columns or top-of-the-page boxes, for example, often is directional: it helps you
move around the page itself or from one page to another. Each picture on the page visually represents
an important idea. When information is placed in a separate column or text box within the text itself,
such placement usually means the writing in it is a little "mini-section" of special information or,
sometimes, a brief summary of ideas on the page.

Therefore, as you prepare to read, you should examine the pictures, columns, and boxes for
structural significance: they are like topic sentences and subtitles, even though in unwritten form,
indicating major ideas.

3. Are Web site pages organized differently than those in books?

A true Web site, one with Web graphics and Web arrangement, not just a text pasted from a
word-processing document, is organized in groups and subgroups of Web pages. Pages in a physical
book are arranged as a series of sheets of paper--one after another, in order. However, in a Web site,
pages are grouped differently. The organization is roughly comparable to how a grapevine has separate
bunches of grapes. In a Web site, this bunches are organized hierarchically--something like a
tournament roster with the winner's box first:

Hierarchical Structure of a Web Site

HOME
PAGE

SECTION 1 SECTION 2

CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2

P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2

When you read a Web site, you should preview it by getting to know its hierarchical
structure. And when you write it, you must be sure to have a clear, simple hierarchical structure. You
should do so just as you would look at a book's table of contents and the first and last paragraph or page of
each chapter. You should, in a Web text, browse the site by clicking on the main links and looking at the
beginning of each major Web page.

4. Do all Web pages fit this hierarchical pattern?

It is very important to know that not all Web pages do. Another important feature of Web site
development is the interconnectivity. Often there are cross links: links between sections, chapters, and
pages. In this regard, any individual Web site that is thoroughly "webbed" is like a spider's web:

Chapters are connected to chapters, chapter parts to chapter parts, and some parts to external links
on the World Wide Web. For example, in this chapter, there are over two dozen links to other chapters,
over fifteen to parts within the chapter, and over ten to other Web sites on the World Wide Web. Of these,
about a dozen are visual icons, and the rest are words or phrases.

Trying to follow all such links can be difficult to nearly impossible, depending on the size of the Web
site and your patience. Following these webbed links is unnecessary in previewing and, often, in critical
reading, as well. In previewing, your job is to develop a sense of the main structure: the home page, the
main second-level pages, the main third-level pages, etc. The webbed links either will pop up in the course
of looking at the main structure, or they are less necessary, like footnotes, endnotes, or references to other
works that might be helpful to you. As you critically read a Web site, you may wish to go to some of the
webbed links in order to understand the text better; however, they are not always necessary.