PHY103A

Vector Calculus
Ayush Basu
May 27, 2017

1 Disclaimer
1. Although this is a lecture on vector calculus, I shall often use laws that
you learnt in high school.
2. The reason for this is that you will then have some context as to why you
are learning the math which will hopefully make you understand it better.
3. At any point you find yourself slipping, raise your hand and stop me. Ask
whatever you think is wrong.
4. Things you need to remember from this class are boxed.

2 Introduction
1. The basic question in electrostatics can be brought down to two funda-
mental problems. Given a charge distribution, find the electric field and
vice versa and this will lead us to the concept of the divergence.
2. Another important question that this subject is interested in is the manner
in which energies of systems change or are affected in the presence of charge
and this will lead us to the notions of the curl and gradient.
3. Finally the Helmholtz Theorem ensures that given a curl of the field ev-
erywhere and its divergence everywhere, and a boundary condition, one
can determine the entire field in space. With these ideas in mind, we begin
our study of the subject and the mathematics necessary to study it.

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3 Introduction to Partial Derivatives
Consider a function of the coordinates of a particle in space that is moving
around and call it say, f (x, y, z). Here x(t), y(t), z(t) depend on time. To find
the rate at which the function changes with time we change the each of the
coordinates and find the change and then subsequently add them. Note that
f (x + δx, y + δy, z + δz) − f (x, y, z) = f (x + δx, y + δy, z + δz)
− f (x, y + δy, z + δz)
+ f (x, y + δy, z + δz) − f (x, y, z + δz)
+ f (x, y, z + δz) − f (x, y, z)
(1)

We need,
df δf
= lim (2)
dt δt→0 δt

We will obtain the following on applying identity (1),

"      #
df ∂f δx ∂f δy ∂f δz
= lim + +
dt δt→0 ∂x (x+δx,y+δy,z+δz) δt ∂y (x+δx,y,z+δz) δt ∂x (x,y,z) δt
(3)

Ideally, even the partials should be written as limits which

I haven’t because of lack of space. :P

And thus we obtain, on applying the limits,

df ∂f dx ∂f dy ∂f dz
= + + (4)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt

Thus, we write,
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy + dz (5)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example 1. Consider the function f (x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 which defines the

distance from origin of a particle. Say the particle has a velocity v = (vx , vy , vz ),
then find the rate of change of f from first principles.

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 4 Coulomb’s Law and Divergence
4.1 Electric Field From Charge Distribution
The electric field at a point r due to a charge q at origin is given by,
1 q
E= · r̂ (6)
4π0 r2

In principle, Coulomb’s law gives us a basic fact about electrostatics and a

method to determine the electric field at any point in space due to a given
charge distribution.
We can write down the electric field E at any point for a continuous charge
distribution over volume V in space as follows,

ρ(r0 )
Z
1
E(r) = (r − r0 )dτ 0 (7)
4π0 V |r − r0 |3

where r0 gives the position of the infinitesimal charge ρ(r0 )dτ 0 .

4.2 Charge Distribution From Electric Field

Now we consider the problem of finding the charge density at a certain point,
given we know the electric field at all points in space. Recall Gauss’s Law, which
gives us something similar to this but on a larger scale.
I Z
ρ(r)
E · ds = dτ (8)
S V 0

Since we need to find ρ(r), let me try making the volume smaller around the
given position. Consider r = (x, y, z) and let’s construct a small box of dimen-
sions (∆x, ∆y, ∆z) around it with one of the corners at the point itself.

Applying Gauss’s Law, find the flux on any two opposite faces. Consider the
face of area ∆y∆z, then the net flux through the two faces would be (assuming
that ∆u where u is one of the coordinate axes are all small,

(Ex (x + ∆x, y, z) − Ex (x, y, z)) ∆y∆z (9)

NOTE: Why do we just account for the change in x and keep y, z unchanged?

Ans: Consider the order of the changes. Since all changes in the coordinates
are small, any changes in y and z when expanded in a Taylor expansion

Thus the net flux through the faces that have normals along x is given by
∂Ex ∂Ex
∆x∆y∆z = ∆V (10)
∂x ∂x

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Thus the net flux through the cube is given by,
 
∂Ex ∂Ey ∂Ez
+ + · ∆V (11)
∂x ∂y ∂z

Thus we have that,

 
∂Ex ∂Ey ∂Ez
ρ(x, y, z) = 0 + + (12)
∂x ∂y ∂z

The right hand side is called divergence of E.

4.3 Introducing Divergence

4.3.1 The Del Operator
Consider the following operation on any vector field F(x, y, z),

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (13)
∂x ∂y ∂y
Then we can represent divergence of F as ∇ · F.

4.3.2 The Divergence Theorem

Now let’s take a look back to Gauss’s Law and write it down using the divergence
operator,
I Z
E · ds = ∇ · E dτ (14)
S V

This brings us to one of the most important results in Electrodynamics and

Multivariable Calculus, the Divergence Theorem.
We used the Gauss’s Law to write this down but this is true for any vector field
and you can prove this by simply adding up the small boxes since the fluxes at
the boundary cancel and the result ends up holding for a larger volume as well.

4.3.3 Definition of Divergence

From the theorem, we define divergence at a point r by the use of a volume ∆τ
enclosing the point that keeps getting smaller,
I
1
∇ · E = lim E · ds (15)
∆τ →0 ∆τ S

Note that the derivative based definition is derived from this basic
definition and you should prefer using this definition in most cases.

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4.3.4 Why is the Divergence Called So?
You might feel a little unsettled with the choice of the given name for this oper-
ator, as you don’t see a relation between the usual sense of the term divergence
and the operator as of yet. But go back to the divergence theorem and imagine
a set of lines originating out of a point, do you see that the divergence opera-
tor on that field is then positive, while if the net lines converge or are directed
towards that point, then the divergence is negative?

4.3.5 Gauss’s Law

We end the section by stating the first of the four Maxwell’s equations.

ρ
∇·E= (16)
0

4.4 Corelation of Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law

Are the Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law two independent and fundamentally
laws? Or can one lead to the other?

4.4.1 Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’s Law

We will understand in a little bit that Gauss’s Law and Coulomb’s Law are
NOT equivalent and that there is another Maxwell’s equation which together
with Gauss’s Law combine to form the accurate representation of Coulomb’s
Law. Thus Gauss’s Law is not sufficient to deduce Coulomb’s Law alone.

4.4.2 Gauss’s Law from Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s Law gives us E at all points in space due to some charge distribution.
Let us now find the divergence of the electric field due to a charge distribution
in space from Coulomb’s Law as given in Equation (7).
We shall do this by using the Divergence Theorem, and hence show you that
Gauss’s Law can be derived from Coulomb’s Law. To do this consider any
arbitrary charge distribution in space given by ρ. We will take a sphere at the
origin and find the flux through it due to the entire distribution, whose electric
field shall be given by Coulomb’s Law.
Consider a sphere of radius R centered at the origin. Let us calculate the flux
through it. A small area element at r on the sphere in the spherical coordinate
system is given by dS = r2 sin θ dθ dφ.
Now we know that the flux through the sphere must be equal to (let the sphere
be S)
Z 2π Z π
ρ(r0 )
Z
1
0 3
(r − r0 )dτ 0 · r2 sin θ dθ dφ · r̂ (17)
0 0 4π0 V |r − r |

where r = R.

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Now consider the integral over the sphere for a small volume element in space,
and find out the integral of the electric field, once done, integrate over the
volume, and hence we can separate out the integrals.
Z 2π Z π
(r − r0 cos θ) 2
Z
0 |3
r sin θ dθ dφ ρ(r0 )dτ 0 (18)
0 0 |r − r V

The integral over the sphere can be written as,

Z π
2 (R − r0 cos θ) sin θ
2πR 3/2
dθ (19)
0 (R2 + r 02 − 2Rr 0 cos θ)

Taking advantage of the form inside the integral we write the integral as a partial
derivative, Z π
∂ sin θ
2πR2 1/2
dθ (20)
0 ∂R (R + r − 2Rr0 cos θ)
2 02

One can pull out the partial with respect to R since R and θ are independent
variables and we finally obtain,
 
2 ∂ 1 0 0
I = 2πR [|R − r |−(R + r )] (21)
∂R r0 R

And thus we get,

r − r0 if r0 < R
I 
4π
· ds = (22)
S |r − r0 |3 0 if r0 > R

Thus from (17) and by the Divergence Theorem,

Z Z
1 0 0
lim ρ(r )dτ = lim ∇ · Edτ (23)
R→0 0 V R→0 V
sphere sphere

Since the left hand side and the right hand side denote the same volume, we
can say that in the limiting case, the terms inside the integral are equal. That
is, Z  
ρ(r)
lim − ∇ · E dτ = 0 (24)
R→0 V
in
0

And thus we obtain Gauss’s Law,

ρ(0)
∇ · E(0) = (25)
0
And we can always transform the origin to any position to prove it at any
(x, y, z).

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5 The Dirac Delta Function
How do we express the charge due to a point charge in terms of a continuous
charge distribution? This is essential because we have so far employed the use
of calculus that requires existence of representations in terms of a continuous
charge distribution.
Gauss’s Law tells us that we should have ρ as 0 everywhere except for origin.
But what about the origin? At the origin ρ(0)dτ = q. We need the value to be
such that,
(
Z q for all V that encloses the origin
ρdτ = (26)
V 0 for all V that doesn’t enclose origin
This brings us to the definition of the Dirac Delta function δ,

δ(r) = 0 ∀ r 6= 0 and
Z (27)
δ(r)dτ = 1 ∀ V | 0 ∈ V
V

Thus,
ρ(r0 ) = qδ(r − r0 ) (28)

5.1 Dirac Delta in One Dimension

One can similarly define a Dirac Delta in one dimension, or in general with
respect to any variable, for example, time
δ(t − t0 ) = 0 ∀ t 6= t0 and
Z (29)
δ(t − t0 )dt = 1 ∀ V | t0 ∈ V
V

Example 2 Consider a large semi-infinite area A in which there exists a vector

field F that is uniform in value in A and points perpendicular to it. Say A is in
xy plane and F = F0 ẑ (only inside the square). A moves with a velocity −vx̂.
Initially (t = 0), the right edge of the square is parallel to the x axis and at the
origin.
After a time t0 , the right edge of A will be positioned at −vt0 and the field ∀
x > −vt0 is zero. For all x to the left of −vt0 it is F0 ẑ. Note that in a small
time δt, only the field at this position changes. How can we write down ∂F ∂t ?

In whatever small interval δt → 0, we choose,

Z t0 +δt  
∂F
dt = ∆F
t0 −δt ∂t t=t0 (30)
= F(t0 + δt) − F(t0 − δt) = −F

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Thus consider the definition ∂F ∂t = vF0 ẑδ(−vt). We observe that the above
integral and this definition are exactly equivalent.

5.1.1 Linear Charge Density

A line charge exists along z axis with linear charge density λ. Find the ρ in
space.
Consider a cylinder of radius s and length l with the wire as the axis. The charge
contained in it is lλ. Why do we choose a cylinder and not a sphere? Because
we’d like the charge inside to stay constant with a limiting volume to find the
value of ρ. Now we let us make the radius of the cylinder smaller around the
axis. The charge inside remains the same. If the cylinder is C, we have,
ZZ
ρ(r)dSdl = λl for all C that include the axis
C (31)
= 0 for all C that are cylindrical shells

We observe that if one defines ρ(s) = λδ(s) where we use cylindrical coordinates
due to cylindrical symmetry, we get the required result. Also note the fact that
this definition and the condition for ρ are again equivalent.

5.1.2 Surface Charge Density

There exists some surface charge σ that is uniformly distributed on a sphere of
radius R. Describe the ρ in space.
Take a thin shell of thickness 2r around R and then integrate the charge density.
Keep making r smaller so as to prove that other shells have no charge and then
define ρ = σδ(r − R) where |R|= R.

5.2 Finding ρ in a General Case

To find ρ for cases where you find that ρdτ equals some finite value, you have
some incentive for writing down ρ in terms of the Dirac delta function. This is
because, this is where we started from, in general.
In both of the above cases, the choice of elementary volumes was also important
to have a clear idea of what the function would be and how to express it in terms
of surface and linear charge densities. So how do we decide on the elementary
volume? The shell in case of a cylinder (2πsds) and the spherical shell of
infinitesimal thickness in the case of a sphere (4πr2 dr).
Note that, if we can find such an elementary volume, that keeps charge constant
regardless of how small it is, it becomes very easy to find the Dirac delta function,
and essentially that is what you should be looking for. To construct a volume,
which you can tend to zero and yet keep the charge enclosed in it constant.

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6 Introduction to Curl
Consider the work done to move a charge from one point to another while
moving slowly, in an electric field that does not change with time. The force on
the charge due to the electric field is qE and hence the work done in moving it
is, Z
W = qE · dl (32)
P

Now consider two points in space A and B, and all posssible paths a particle can
take between them. It seems sensible to ask which path of all the given paths
would require the least amount of work done to take the charge from point A
to B. To answer this, let us choose any two paths P1 and P2 . The idea is to
compare the work done between the two paths. Note that if we take a closed
loop that goes from A to B along P1 and returns along P∈ , then we have the
difference of works done in each path.
Hence you can see that it is an important problem to address the work done in
moving a charge along a closed loop that lies on points A and B.
Let us first solve this problem for a small area, say a rectangle with (x, y) as
one of its corners and dimensions (∆x, ∆y). Consider the work done along the
edges of length ∆x,
dW1 = qEx (x, y)∆x − qEx (x, y + ∆y)∆x
∂Ex (33)
=⇒ dW1 = −q ∆y∆x
∂y

Once again, we don’t consider the changes in x because they form terms of a
higher order.
Thus the total work done to move along the rectangle equals,
 
∂Ey ∂Ex
− ∆A = (∇ × E) · ∆A (34)
∂x ∂y

Notice that the process of finding the integral along a closed loop is also a
measure of how much the field at that point “curls” in some sense. For instance
an electric field that is uniform will give zero curl while a field that is circular
will have a non-zero one which will be positive or negative depending upon its
direction.
In general, we define curl at a point in space as a vector such that,
I
1
(curl E) · Â = lim E · dl (35)
A→0 A L

where A is any area enclosing the point and L forms the enclosing boundary of
A.
Note that ∇ × E gives the same.

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1. Demonstrate how can formalize the notion of work done by electric fields using
curls.
2. Prove Greene’s Theorem.
3. Show that Curl of E is 0. And hence one can define Potential.

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7 Introduction to Gradients
1. Develop the idea from deriving the scalar potential.
2. Describe its geometric significance.

8 Some Useful Theorems

Problems 61 and 62

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