Worksheets 1 Answer

1 Opportunities and risks—Is it rational to
Senior Secondary Exploring Geography (Second Edition)

Part 1 Lesson worksheets
live in
1.1 Is the earth we
hazard-prone live
areas? on stable?
A What are natural hazards?

1 Hazards are events that threaten us or cause loss of human life and
property .
2 Identify whether the following cases are natural events or natural hazards.
a A tsunami which has caused 1,000 deaths

and serious loss of property
This is a natural ( event / hazard )..
b A volcanic eruption on a remote island

without any settlement
This is a natural ( event / hazard ).
c An earthquake which leads to the damage of

a road
This is a natural ( event / hazard ).
B Is the earth we live on stable?

3 Tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are caused by earth movement . This results in
violent movements of the earth’s surface.
4 They are classified as tectonic hazards.
© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 1

1.2 Why is our earth unstable?
A What is the structure of the earth?

1 Figure 1 shows the structure of the
earth based on chemical composition.
Complete Table 1.
Figure 1
Table 1
Layer Thickness Characteristic
Crust 6–8 km A Oceanic crust
 It is found under the oceans. It is thin and dense
 It consists of mainly silica with relatively more

iron and magnesium
25–70 km B Continental crust
 It makes up the continents and the continental shelves. It is

thick and light
 It consists of mainly silica with relatively more

aluminium , potassium and sodium
C 2,900 km  It lies below the crust
Mantle  It is rich in iron and magnesium
D 3,470 km  It is the hottest and densest part of the earth
Core  It is rich in iron and nickel

2 Figure 2 shows the structure of the earth based on the state of material.
Figure 2
a What are the states of materials in the following layers? Tick () the appropriate column in
Table 2.
Table 2
Layer State Solid Liquid Plastic
Crust Oceanic crust and continental crust 
Mantle Uppermost part of the mantle 
Asthenosphere 
Lower mantle 
Core Outer core 
Inner core 
b Which two layers in Table 2 above are collectively called the lithosphere?
The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are collectively called the lithosphere.
B What are plates?

3 a What are plates?
Plates are the broken pieces of the lithosphere . They are also called
tectonic plates.
b What are the characteristics of plates?
1 Shape: They vary in shape

2 Thickness and sizes: They have different thickness and sizes
3 The direction of movement: They move in different directions
4 The kind of crust they carry: Some carry both oceanic and continental crust;
some carry oceanic crust only
C Why do plates move?

4 Research shows that ridge push and slab pull are two major mechanisms which drive plate
movement. Fill in the blanks on pp. 4–5with the keywords given to show the processes. Some
words can be used more than once.
magma crustal materials fissure ridge sinks density slab pull
gravity asthenosphere suction oceanic increases ridge push
a Ridge push
 The intense heat in the earth’s core causes some

rocks to melt. This molten rock is called
a (i) magma . It rises towards the surface at
some places.
 • When the rising (ii) magma reaches

the lithosphere, it creates a
b (iii) fissure there.
• The upwelling (iv) magma will fill the
(v) fissure and form new
(vi) crustal materials .
• These materials are very hot and have a low
(vii) density . They rise above the
existing crust and form an upswelling
(viii) ridge .
 • These materials gradually cool off, solidify

and become a new part of the
c (ix) oceanic lithosphere.
• As this new lithosphere cools, its density
(x) increases and slides down from the

two sides of the ridge under the force of

(xi) gravity .
d • This pushes the rest of the plates away from

the (xii) ridge .
• This is called (xiii) ridge push .
Figure 3
b Slab pull
 • As the newly formed part of the oceanic

lithosphere continues to move away from
a the ridge, it merges with some of the rock
materials in the (xiv) asthenosphere , and
gets thicker in the process.
• After many millions of years, they become
a dense, heavy slab of plate.
 • When this dense slab of plate collides with

another plate, it (xv) sinks into the
b asthenosphere because it is heavier.
• This creates a (xvi) suction force that
pulls the rest of the plate behind it.
Figure 4
• This is called (xvii) slab pull .
D What types of plate boundaries are there?

5 a Draw arrows on Figures 5a to c to show the directions of plate movement.
b Complete Table 4 about plate boundaries.
Table 4
Figure 5a Figure 5b Figure 5c
Movement of Plates diverge or move Plates converge or move Plate slide horizontally
plates apart towards each other past each other

The denser plate sinks

Effect on the New crustal material is No crustal material is
into the asthenosphere or
lithosphere formed formed or subducts
subducts
Type of plate Divergent plate boundary Convergent plate Transform plate
boundary boundary boundary

6 Figure 6 shows the distribution of major plates.
Figure 6
a Name plates A to F in Table 5.
Table 5
Plate Name Plate Name
A Eurasian Plate D Pacific Plate
B Philippine Plate E North American Plate
C Indo-Australian Plate F Nazca Plate
b Complete the key in Figure 6 to show the distribution of plate boundaries.

c Draw arrows in the boxes in Figure 6 to show the direction of major plate movement.

What are the landforms/features resulted from the

1.3 major internal forces and processes?
A What are the internal forces and processes?

1 a Identify the internal forces shown by the diagrams in Table 1.
Table 1
Original rock Internal force applies to rock Type of internal force
Compression
Tension
Shearing force
b These forces give rise to three internal processes. They are folding , faulting and
volcanism .
B What is folding?
2 Study Figures 1a and b. What is folding?
Folding is the process by which rock layers
are folded up under
compressional force.
Figure 1a

Figure 1b
3 a Figures 2a and b show the landforms/features formed by folding. Identify them.
Credit: Sadikgulec/Dreamstime.com Credit: Fotomorgana/Dreamstime.com

Figure 2a Figure 2b
Fold Fold mountain

b Give two examples of the landform as shown in Figure 2b.
The Himalayas/The Alps/The Rockies/The Andes/The Atlas Mountains (any 2)
C What is faulting?
4 a i Compressional, tensional and shearing forces place stress on rock. When the stress
exceeds the internal strength of the rock, the rock may ( break apart / fold up ).
ii What happen when rocks are broken up?
When rocks are broken up, they are displaced relative to each other. Faulting
occurs. The cracks or fractures along which rocks are displaced are called
faults .

Figure 3
b Study Figures 4a to c on p. 9.
i Mark the faults on the right diagram of Figures 4a to c.
ii Complete the last column to:
• describe the movement of rock blocks; and
• identify the types of fault shown in the diagrams.
Before After Description
The rock block on the right
( moves up / moves down /
slides past each other).
The fault formed is called a
normal fault
Figure 4a
reverse fault
Figure 4b

strike-slip fault
Figure 4c
5 Faulting may form large-scale landforms called block mountains or rift valleys. Both of them can
be formed by both compressional and tensional forces. Refer to Figures 5 and 6 on p. 10.
a State the type of force applied to the blocks in the last column.
b For each diagram,
i draw the position of the central block after the displacement of rock blocks;
ii label the movement of blocks with arrows; and
iii describe the movement of the block(s) in the last column.
c Label the resulting landform as shown by the central block.
a Compressional force
biii The central block
(upthrown block) is
squeezed up or uplifted
Figure 5a
a Tensional force
biii The side blocks
(downthrown blocks)
sink and the central block
(upthrown block) is left

Figure 5b as it is
a Tensional force
biii The central block
(downthrown block)
sinks
Figure 6a
a Compressional force
biii The side blocks
(upthrown blocks) are
pushed up and a
depression forms
Figure 6b
d Name ONE example for each landform.
Block mountain: Black Forest/Vosges (any 1); rift valley: Rhine Rift Valley/East African Rift
(any 1)

D What is volcanism?
6 a Volcanism refers to all the processes related to the occurrence and movement of magma:
Figure 7
Y Magma escapes from the X Magma becomes The process is called

magma chamber and reaches lava extrusive volcanism
the earth’s surface
Z Magma cools and solidifies before it The process is called

reaches the earth’s surface intrusive volcanism
Figure 8
b Refer to Figure 7. Put the answers to the following questions in Table 2.

i Name landforms/features A to H.
ii Describe the appearance of these landforms/features.
Table 2
A Volcano Appears as a cone , with a vertical vent at the centre, and

symmetrical slopes for sides. There is a crater at the top of
a volcano
B Crater lake It is formed when the crater is filled with water
C Lava flow Lava flows in a sheet form
D Lava plateau Sheets of lava pile up
E Laccolith Dome-shaped feature found parallel to the bedding plane
F Dyke Vertical or tilted sheet-like feature
G Sill Sheet-like feature found parallel to the rock layers

H Batholith Large mass of intrusive rock formed deep underground
7 Figure 9 shows a contour map of a volcano.

a Draw a cross-section along line A–B in Figure 10.
b Mark the volcano and its crater in the cross-section. Label two characteristics of the
volcano.
c Is it possible to have a crater lake in this area? If yes, where will the lake be? Mark the
location on the cross-section.
d Describe the volcano and its related features shown in the cross-section in Figure 10.
The volcano is in conical shape. It is high, over 2,000 metres. Its slopes are gentle and
symmetrical. A crater lake may develop in the crater if rainwater accumulates in the
depression.
Figure 9

Figure 10

What are the major landforms found at the plate

1.4 boundaries?
A What are the major landforms/features found at divergent plate

boundaries?
1 Refer to Figure 1. Name the four major zones of divergent plate boundary.
Figure 1
1 Mid-Atlantic zone 3 Antarctic zone
2 Mid-Indian zone 4 South-east Pacific zone
2 a Complete the following flow chart about the landforms found at divergent plate boundaries.
* Tick () the correct answer Plates move apart/split

at divergent plate boundaries
*
Tensional force leads to two internal processes:
foldingfaultingvolcanism Landforms/features produced
Mid-oceanic Rift Transform Submarine volcanoes

ridge valleys faults and volcanic islands

3 Study Figure 2 which shows the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
a Mark the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in Figure 2.
b Draw a pair of arrows in Figure 2 to show

the movement of the South American Plate
and the African Plate.
Figure 2
c How is the mid-oceanic ridge formed here?
i Along the divergent plate boundaries at the

Atlantic Ocean, the South American Plate and the
African Plate split from each other/ move apart
.
A fissure is created.
ii Hot magma rises through the lithosphere

and fills the fissure . The hot lava cools and
solidifies . This creates new crustal
materials, which are hot and have a low density
. They rise above the existing crust and form a
ridge on the seabed.
d How does a rift valley formed at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge?

Under tensional force, normal faults occur.
As plates continue to move apart, the central
block of the ridge sinks to form a rift valley.
4 Refer to Figure 2 (p. 14) and Figure 3 below.
Figure 3
a Is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge shown in Figure 2 a smooth continuous line? Tick the correct
answer.
Yes, it is a smooth continuous line.
 No, it is not. It is broken into short segments.
b Refer to sections I and II in Figure 3. What is in between these sections?
A fault is in between these sections.
c Do sections I and II move in the same direction?
Yes, they do.
d Study the section between A and B. Describe the direction of plate movement at both sides.
The movement of plates at both sides is in opposite directions.
e Name the fault found between A and B.
A transform fault
5 Figures 4a and b show the formation of submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands at a divergent
plate boundary. Fill in the blanks on p. 16 for their formation.

Figure 4a Figure 4b
a Submarine volcanoes
i Cracks form in the ii When magma rises iii Active submarine

plates under  through these cracks,  volcanoes form
tensional force volcanism occurs
b Volcanic islands
i ii When they rise above sea level

Repeated eruptions raise the
 , volcanic islands are
height of the submarine volcanoes
formed
6 Look at Figure 5 which shows some submarine volcanoes and a volcanic island at a divergent
plate boundary.
a Do the submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands stay
where they are?
No, they will move away from the mid-oceanic
ridge.
b What are the reasons?

 As plates continue to diverge, ridge push and
slab pull will cause the plates to be dragged Figure 5
in opposite directions.
 Old submarine volcanoes and volcanic islands are
carried away from the zone of rising magma.
B What are the major landforms/features at convergent plate

boundaries?
7 What internal force is produced at convergent plate boundaries?
At convergent plate boundaries, plates move towards each other or collide.
Compressional force is produced.
8 What happens when two plates collide?

When two plates collide, the denser or heavier plate slides/subducts below the other plate.
This is called subduction . During collision, folding , faulting and
volcanism may occur.
9 Figure 6 shows the two major belts of convergent plate boundary. In Table 1,
a name belts A and B;
b describe their distribution.
Figure 6
Table 1
A: Alpine-Himalayan belt It stretches from the Mediterranean

Sea, crosses the north of India and turns south-east
into the Indian Ocean
B: Circum-Pacific belt It nearly surrounds the Pacific Ocean

10 The types of landforms that result from the collision depend on the nature of the crust carried by
the plates where they collide. Name the three types of collision below.
1 Ocean-continent collision
2 Ocean-ocean collision
3 Continent-continent collision

11 Answer the following questions which are about ocean-continent collision.

a Refer to Figure 7.
i Fill in Table 2.
Table 2 Plate X Plate Y
Nature of
Continental
crust at the Oceanic crust
crust
edge
ii Draw a pair of arrows to show the moving

direction of plates X and Y.
iii Name the belt where ocean-continent

collision occurs.
The eastern Circum-Pacific Belt
Figure 7
b Figures 8a and b shows the process of collision of plates X and Y. Fill in the blanks to
describe the process and the resulting landforms.
Figure 8a
Formation process
How do plates The Nazca Plate (Plate X) (with oceanic crust at the edge)
move? collides with the South American Plate (Plate Y) (with
continental crust at the edge).
How is sedimentary Sediment from the South American landmass is washed

rock formed? down and deposited in the coastal water . Later, the layers of
sediment are compacted into sedimentary rock.

Figure 8b
Formation process
The three kinds When denser plate subducts, an ocean trench ( Peru-Chile
of landforms Trench) is formed at the plate margin. It is a deep and elongated trough
formed: under the sea.
Landform 1
Landform 2 Because of the collision of plates, sedimentary rock is folded up .

Fold mountains ( The Andes ), are formed.
Landform 3 During subduction, water released from the subducted plate causes the
asthenosphere to melt at a lower temperature. This forms magma.
Folding and subduction result in compressional force, this produces
cracks in the rock.
When magma rises through cracks, volcanic eruption occurs. This forms
volcanoes , for example, Mount Chimborazo .
c Draw an annotated diagram in the space provided below to show the landforms created by
ocean-continent collision at the convergent plate boundary. (Hint: collision of plates; direction of
plate movement; subduction of denser plate; presence of ocean trench, fold mountain and volcanoes)

12 Ocean-ocean collision occurs when two plates carrying

oceanic crust at their edges collide.
Refer to Figures 9 and 10 about ocean-ocean collision

between the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate.
Fill in the blanks about the formation of two major
landforms/features.
Figure 9
a Ocean trenches
i How do plates move

here?
The Eurasian Plate

collides with the
Indo-Australian
Plate.
Figure 10a

ii How is this ocean trench formed? What is the name of this ocean trench?
The denser Indo-Australian Plate subducts under the Eurasian Plate. This
produces an ocean trench called Java Trench .
b Volcanic island arcs
i How do plates move

here?
The Eurasian Plate

collides with the
Indo-Australian
Plate.
Figure 10b
ii How is the volcanic

island arc formed?
The denser Indo-

Australian Plate
subducts under the
Eurasian Plate.
During subduction,
magma is formed and Figure 10c
cracks are produced.

Magma then rises up
through the cracks.

This results in volcanic eruptions on the sea floor. A chain of submarine volcanoes
appear parallel to the ocean trench. After repeated eruption,
some submarine volcanoes may rise above sea level to become volcanic islands
. They finally develop into a chain of volcanic island called a volcanic island
arc .
iii
Give some examples of volcanic islands along this volcanic island arc.
Sumatra, Java and Bali are some of the volcanic islands along the island arc that
makes up the country of Indonesia.
c Draw an annotated diagram in the space provided below to show the landforms created by
ocean-ocean collision at the convergent plate boundary. (Hint: collision of plates; direction of plate
movement; subduction of denser plate; presence of ocean trench, volcanic islands and volcanic island arc)
13 Refer to Figure 11 which shows the continent-continent collision at Plate boundary A.

a On Figure 11,
i label plates X and Y.
ii draw some arrows to show the direction

of movement of plates X and Y.
iii color the convergent plate boundaries in

RED.
iv name and label the fold mountains found

at Plate boundary A.
Figure 11
b Refer to Figures 12a and b. Complete the paragraphs below to show the situation before the
formation of the fold mountains.
• Million years ago, the Indian subcontinent and
the Asian continent were separated by an
ocean. Plate movement caused the
Indo-Australian Plate to move towards the
Eurasian Plate.
Figure 12a
Figure 12b
• The collision caused the subduction of the ocean floor at the contact zone
( oceanic crust) to be under the Asian continent.

• Landforms associated with an ocean-continent collision such as (1) ocean

trench and (2) volcanoes were formed.
c Refer to Figures 13a and b. Follow the guiding questions to write paragraphs to show the
formation of the fold mountains.
Figure 13a
Figure 13b
Guiding questions Formation process
 Where did sediment come Before both continents met, sediment from each of them was
from? Where did it deposit?
washed down and deposited in the coastal waters around them.
 How was sedimentary rock Due to the weight of the overlying sediment, water was squeezed
formed?
out. The layers of sediment were compacted into sedimentary
rock.
 What happened when the As two landmasses got closer, the ocean floor between them
two landmasses got closer?
eventually subducted. The Indian subcontinent directly collided
with the Asian continent.

What happened to the As the continental crust of the two continents was thick and light,
sedimentary rock?
neither of the continents could subduct. The sedimentary rock
between the two plates experienced great compressional force.
Folding occurred and the rock was folded up to form a fold

mountain range.
 Name the fold mountain It is called the Himalayas.

formed.
14 Figure 14 concludes the types of collision and the landforms formed at convergent plate
boundaries. Complete the flow chart.
Plates converge
Convergent plate boundaries
Ocean-continent collision Ocean-ocean collision Continent-continent collision
Resulting landforms: Resulting landforms: Resulting landforms:
•Ocean trenches •Fold •Ocean trenches•Volcanic •Fold mountains

mountains •Volcanoes island arcs
Figure 14
C What are the major feature found at transform plate boundaries?

15 What internal force is produced at transform plate boundaries?
At transform plate boundaries, plates slide past horizontally each other.
Shearing force is produced.
16 What happens when two plates slide past each other? What feature is formed?
When two plates slide past each other, ( new / no new ) crustal material is formed and ( the
denser / neither ) plate subducts. The internal force produced at these plate boundaries forms
transform faults (feature).
17 Name the most active and typical example of a transform plate boundary.
It is the San Andreas Fault . It is found between the North American Plate and the

Pacific Plate.

1.5 How do plate movements create hazards?
A How do plate movements create earthquakes?

1 Refer to Figure 1. The boxes i, ii and iii refer to some important terms related to earthquakes.
Figure 1
a What is an earthquake?
It is the sudden shaking of the land.
b How is it caused?
It is caused by the sudden release of energy stored in the rocks beneath the earth’s
surface :
• When the stress is applied to rocks, energy builds up in the rock layer and a
fracture is formed;
• When the energy exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock breaks and
displaces along the fracture.
c Fill in the boxes in Figure 1 to show the important terms related to earthquakes.
d Which place, X, Y or Z, will have the strongest destruction if earthquake occurs in the area?
What is the reason?
Place X will have the strongest destruction. Compared with places Y and Z, Place X is the
closest to the epicentre where most of the energy is released from the focus.

2 Figure 2 shows the distribution of earthquakes of the world in a selected month of a year.
Figure 2
a Describe the distribution of earthquakes with reference to plate boundaries.
Earthquakes can be found at all types of plate boundaries .
b Convergent and transform plate boundaries produce more earthquakes. Explain.
This is because when plates move towards or slide

past each other, friction and stress are great. Energy builds up more easily
and rapidly at the plate boundaries.
c Some earthquakes are found far away from plate boundaries.
i Give two examples.
Hawaiian Islands, eastern USA, central Asia (any two or other reasonable answers)
ii Suggest reasons.
Some earthquakes may be triggered by volcanic eruptions at hot spots.
Some earthquakes are generated from fault systems which may affect the nearby
plates.

3 Figure 3 shows the depth of earthquake foci at different types of plate boundary.
Figure 3
a Describe the depth of earthquake foci at different plate boundaries.
At convergent plate boundaries, shallow to deep earthquakes occur. At divergent and
transform plate boundaries, shallow earthquakes occur.
b How is the depth of earthquake foci related to plate movement?

Subduction of plates causes friction at a great depth, therefore generating intermediate-
to deep-focus earthquakes. Non-subduction plate movements cause shallow-focus
earthquakes.
B How do plate movements create volcanic eruptions?

4 Figure 4 shows the distribution of active volcanoes in the world.

Figure 4
a Describe the distribution of active volcanoes.
Active volcanoes are found at convergent and divergent plate boundaries. They
form a rough circle around the Pacific Ocean and is known as the
Pacific Ring of Fire .
b Why do volcanic eruptions occur at convergent plate boundaries?

At convergent plate boundaries, collision of plates builds up pressure . The melting
of the asthenosphere creates magma. When cracks develop and extend downward
to the magma chamber , the magma will then rise through these cracks.
c Some volcanic eruptions have been occurred in scattered places away from plate
boundaries. Complete the following paragraphs for the explanation.
Away from plate boundaries, there are often lines of
volcanic islands. They are located above hot spots
. A hot spot is where a mantle plume rises from
between the core and the mantle
At a hot spot, magma rises and erupts at the earth’s
surface and forms volcanoes, submarine volcanoes
or volcanic islands . Figure 5a

As the plate moves, the

volcanoes/ volcanic islands/submarine
volcanoes are carried away. The hot
spot later creates new volcanoes just
above it. The process is repeated and
this results in a line of
volcanic islands . The further
the volcano from the hot spot, the
older the age of it.
A famous example of volcanoes/

Figure 5b
volcanic islands formed by a hot spot
is the Hawaiian Islands .
C How do plate movements create tsunamis?

5 a What are tsunamis?
Tsunamis are a series of big sea waves that can travel at a speed of 700 kilometres per
hour or more. Once generated, they travel in all directions.
.
b Figure 6 shows the three causes of tsunami. With reference to this diagram, explain why
tsunamis are most often generated at convergent plate boundaries.
Figure 6
Tsunami is caused when the sudden vertical displacement of rock displaces a large
body of water . The causes for this situation include submarine

earthquakes , submarine volcanic eruptions and submarine

landslides .
At convergent plate boundaries, plates collide and the denser plate subducts.
Friction and stress are great. Energy builds up. When the
energy exceeds the strength of the rock, the rock breaks and displaces along the
fracture. If the epicentre is under the sea, submarine earthquakes may be generated. If
the displacement is a vertical one, it can displace a large body of water and cause tsunamis.
At these plate boundaries, submarine volcanic eruptions and submarine
landslides are common. If either event causes vertical displacement of water, tsunami is
also resulted.
c Why are tsunamis most active in the Pacific Ocean?
This is because the plate boundaries in the Pacific Ocean are mainly convergent ones. The
above three causes occur most frequently at convergent plate boundaries.
.
What destruction do tectonic hazards cause? How
1.6
can we deal with them?
A What destruction do earthquakes and volcanic eruption cause?

1 Fill in the flow chart in Figure 1 to show the major destruction caused by earthquakes.
Earthquakes
Damage structures, such as: • Breaking of underground gas Trigger:

• Buildings/hospitals pipes and power lines causes • landslides
• Bridges fires • avalanches
• Roads/Railways/ • Breakdown of • tsunamis
Transport facilities communication links
• Dams • Spread diseases
Loss of life and

property
Figure 1

2 Fill in the flow chart in Figure 2 to show the major destruction caused by volcanic eruption.
Lava • Burns houses, crops and vegetation

• Damages communication • Loss of life
and property
• Destruction of
• Causes mudflows after rain natural
• People may find it difficult to environment
breathe
Volcanic • Blocks sunlight and lowers
Volcanic ash
eruption visibility
• Affects traffic and damages farmland
• Poisonous gas kills people

• Sulphur dioxide can cause acid rain
Gases • High concentration of carbon dioxide can kill
people and animals
Triggers landslides, earthquakes or even tsunamis

Figure 2
B What destruction do tsunamis cause?

3 Read the news clipping in Figure 3 and answer the questions.
South Asian tsunami in 2004

A submarine earthquake of 9.0 on the Richter scale
struck the seabed off Sumatra, Indonesia at 07:58 local
time on 26 December 2004. The earthquake had
triggered a huge tsunami that hit many countries
surrounding the Indian Ocean.
The tsunami reached a height of 30 metres and
caused widespread destruction. It knocked down
buildings and houses, swept ships and boats, flooded
low-lying areas, drowned thousands of local people and
tourists, destroyed coastlines, beaches, fish ponds and
vegetation.
The earthquake together with the tsunami killed
over 280,000 people and caused huge economic loss.
Figure 3

a Figure 4 shows typical destruction caused by tsunamis. Complete the flow chart with
reference to the 2004 South Asian tsunami.
Ships and other objects swept ashore
Buildings collapse, houses smashed and • Loss of life and

washed away property
• Local ecosystem
Tsunami disrupted
Flooding
• C oastline
changes
People and animals drowned or washed
away; disease may spread
B eaches washed away

Figure 4
b Read the case study of the 2011 Tohoku tsunami in Japan on pp. 65–6 of the textbook. Why
is the impact of this tsunami so serious?
This tsunami not only caused destruction as in the case of the 2004 South Asian tsunami,
it also damaged the back-up power generator of a nuclear power plant. This resulted in
the meltdown of the three nuclear reactors and the leakage of radioactive materials.
Radiation contamination has long-term adverse impact on people.
C What has been done to minimize losses caused by tectonic hazards?

How effective are they?
4 Table 1 (pp. 32–3) shows the measures of reducing losses caused by tectonic hazards. Complete
the table.
Table 1
Measures Details
i Monitoring and warning For earthquakes

systems • Use seismographs and satellites
Aim: to monitor earthquakes

• to give time for For volcanic eruptions

evacuation , • Use instruments to detect volcanic activities
which helps reduce
• Study the history and geological
casualties
structure of the volcano
For tsunamis
• Use tsunami buoys and

ocean-bottom tsunami gauges to monitor tsunamis
• Set up warning systems and warning centres, such

as the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System,
Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre
ii Hazard-proof structures For earthquake-prone regions
Aim: • Erect buildings and structures
• to provide protection and with earthquake-proof
help prevent the designs, e.g. the one shown on
collapse of structures the right
,
thus reducing the numbers
of injuries and deaths
For eruption-prone regions
• Build strong and steep-sided roofs to

shed the ash
• Build barriers to stop lava flows
ii Hazard-proof structures For tsunami-prone regions

(con’t)

• Construct sea walls
• Reinforce coastal structures
• Provide vertical evacuation routes

for coastal structures
iii Land-use planning For earthquake-prone regions
General policy: • Reserve large open spaces as safety evacuation
• Avoid building facilities areas, such as parks
with potential danger, e.g. • Designate schools and indoor stadiums as

nuclear plants, oil shelter centres
depots For volcanic regions
• Govern the height • Issue volcanic hazard-zone maps

and structures of for preparing emergency evacuation plans
buildings For tsunami-prone regions
• Establish evacuation • Encourage people to move from coastal area to
routes higher ground
• Design a coastal belt for beaches or woodland

reserves
• Build evacuation routes leading to
higher ground
iv Education and drills • Example: regular large-scale earthquake

Aim: drills
• to raise the
awareness of
people about tectonic
hazards
v Rescue systems • Rescue teams are well-trained and
Aim: well-equipped

• to reduce the number of • Use advanced equipment such as advanced life

deaths detectors, helicopters, medicines and wireless
communication networks
vi Other measures • Provide disaster aid
• Provide insurance against hazards

5 Read the news clipping in Figure 5 and answer the questions.
Strong earthquake triggered tsunami in the

Mentawai Islands in Indonesia
An earthquake of 7.7 on the Richter scale occurred off
the western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia on 25 October
2010. The earthquake had triggered a localized tsunami
that struck the Mentawai Islands.
The tsunami reached a height of 3 metres and
swept as far as 600 metres inland of the islands. It
caused widespread destruction and killed 435 people.
The bad weather, the rough sea and the
remoteness of the islands had caused the delay of relief.
Indonesian military and international aid organizations
could only reach the islands two days after the tsunami.
Although a tsunami warning was issued after the
tsunami, people on these remote islands do not have
radio access. They therefore did not receive warnings.
Figure 5
a How effective are the following measures in the Mentawai Islands in Indonesia?
i Monitoring and warning systems
- it is not effective
- people have no access to radios and therefore they did not receive warnings
ii Rescue systems
- it is not effective
- rescue had been delayed by bad weather and rough sea

b Would you suggest building hazard-proof structures on the Mentawai Islands? Why or why
not?
Open answer. Suggested answer:
Yes, because it offers more protection to local people.
No, because Indonesia has limited capital and technology. Corruption makes building
laws difficult to be enforced. Providing more education and drills may be more helpful.
D What factors cause a place to be more vulnerable to tectonic

hazards?
6 There are many factors affecting the level of destruction.
a Complete Table 2 which shows the factors concerning the affected area.
Table 2
Factors concerning the affected area More vulnerable to Less vulnerable to

tectonic hazards tectonic hazards
i Population density of the area (Higher/Lower) (Higher/Lower)
ii Level of economic development (Higher/Lower) (Higher/Lower)
iii Preparedness of people Less prepared More prepared
iv The weather after the hazard Extreme weather Normal weather

occurs condition condition
v Relief of land:
• For earthquakes: steep slopes gentle slopes
• For volcanic eruptions: steep slopes gentle slopes
• For tsunamis: low-lying areas higher ground
vi Coastal relief (for tsunamis) narrow inlets of wide inlets, deep

shallow water water
b Complete Table 3 which shows the factors concerning the tectonic hazards.

Table 3
Factors concerning the tectonic More serious Less serious

hazards destruction destruction
i Magnitude of earthquakes Higher Lower
ii Duration Longer Shorter
iii Onset speed Fast (occur suddenly) Slow
iv Distance from the sources Short distance from/ Long distance/Farther

of destruction Closer to the source away from the source
v The path through which Directly hit by the Not directly hit by the
the hazard ‘travels’ hazard hazard
vi Time of the occurrence Night-time, rush hour Off-peak hour
E What makes less developed countries suffer more than more

developed countries?
7 Refer to pp. 77–8 of the textbook for the case studies of earthquakes in Haiti and New Zealand.
Complete Table 4 below to compare the backgrounds of and losses caused by the two
earthquakes.
Table 4
Port-au-Prince, Haiti Canterbury Plains, New

Zealand
Magnitude of earthquake 7.0 7.1

(Richter scale)
Depth of focus of 13 km 10 km
earthquake
Time of occurrence 16:53 04:35
Number of deaths 316,000 0
Number of injured 300,000 102

Buildings destroyed 90% of the buildings in the city A few old buildings were
were destroyed damaged
Infrastructure affected All hospitals, transport facilities Power cut, water and sewage
and communication systems pipes broken, roads cracked and
damaged or destroyed; public bridges collapsed
telephone system not
functional; fibre-optic
connectivity disrupted
Level of economic Low High

development
Level of technology Low High
Level of education Low High
Population density High Low
8 From the case study of Haiti and Figure 5 (p. 34) about the tsunami in Mentawai Islands, can you
generalize the reasons for less developed countries to suffer more in tectonic hazard? Fill in the
blanks in Figure 6.
Lack of capital Poorly developed Non-hazard-proof/Poor

and technology transport network building material
High urban Low awareness of Inefficient and corrupt

population density people government
Figure 6
EXTENDED
9 Refer to textbook p. 83. What can less developed countries do with limited resources? Complete
Table 5.
Table 5

Measures
a Increase people’s i Education

awareness of ii Propaganda
hazards
b Land-use i Building hazard-proof structures/buildings
planning ii Reserve open spaces
c Cooperate with i Economic: Attract foreign investment to improve

other countries the economy
or international
ii Technology: Invite specialists from technology-advanced
organizations
countries to share knowledge and give
advice
iii Research: Join international research bodies which
study hazards
iv Forecasting and Send officers overseas to learn about

warning systems: forecasting and warning systems

Is it rational to choose to live in hazard-prone

1.7
areas?
A What is a rational decision?

1 When deciding to leave or stay in hazard-prone areas, a rational person will weigh possible gains
and losses. What does a rational person concern? Complete Figure 1.
Possible gains: Possible losses:
More safety for one’s life and property Losses in the new social and
economic environment
Move away?
Staying behind?
Possible gains: Possible losses:
Opportunities offered by resources Probability of hazard reoccurrence and the

available in the hazard-prone area anticipated destruction
Figure 1
B What do people consider when deciding to leave or stay in hazard-

prone areas?
2 What do people consider when deciding to leave or stay in hazard-prone areas?
a Risks
 The more risks people perceive, the less likely they choose to stay.

b Opportunities
 Many hazard-prone areas provide valuable resources.
- Volcanic ash and weathered solidified lava provide fertile soil for
farming.
- Metals and minerals , such as iron ore are useful raw material for many
industries; some minerals are valuable precious stones , for example,
diamonds.
- The hot water and steam found in volcanic areas generate geothermal power.
- Volcanic and geological sceneries, hot springs and geysers attract

tourist.
 These resources bring job opportunities and wealth to local people.
These improve the living standards of people.
c Social links
 The ties to one’s motherland and ancestors , friends and relatives, and their
own culture, prevent people from moving away.
d Limitations on migration
 Political barriers
- There are strict population and immigration policies.

 Physical constraints
- Some areas which are free of tectonic hazards are too dry, too cold or too wet for
people to live.


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1 Opportunities and risks—Is it rational to

Senior Secondary Exploring Geography (Second Edition)

A What are natural hazards?

a A tsunami which has caused 1,000 deaths

This is a natural ( event / hazard )..

b A volcanic eruption on a remote island

This is a natural ( event / hazard ).

c An earthquake which leads to the damage of

This is a natural ( event / hazard ).

B Is the earth we live on stable?

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 1

1.2 Why is our earth unstable?

A What is the structure of the earth?

Layer Thickness Characteristic

Crust 6–8 km A Oceanic crust

 It is found under the oceans. It is thin and dense

 It consists of mainly silica with relatively more

25–70 km B Continental crust

 It makes up the continents and the continental shelves. It is

 It consists of mainly silica with relatively more

C 2,900 km  It lies below the crust

Mantle  It is rich in iron and magnesium

D 3,470 km  It is the hottest and densest part of the earth

Core  It is rich in iron and nickel

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 2

Crust Oceanic crust and continental crust 

Mantle Uppermost part of the mantle 

Core Outer core 

B What are plates?

1 Shape: They vary in shape

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 3

2 Thickness and sizes: They have different thickness and sizes

3 The direction of movement: They move in different directions

some carry oceanic crust only

C Why do plates move?

magma crustal materials fissure ridge sinks density slab pull

gravity asthenosphere suction oceanic increases ridge push

 The intense heat in the earth’s core causes some

 • When the rising (ii) magma reaches

 • These materials gradually cool off, solidify

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 4

two sides of the ridge under the force of

d • This pushes the rest of the plates away from

 • As the newly formed part of the oceanic

 • When this dense slab of plate collides with

D What types of plate boundaries are there?

Figure 5a Figure 5b Figure 5c

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 5

The denser plate sinks

Type of plate Divergent plate boundary Convergent plate Transform plate

boundary boundary boundary

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 6

6 Figure 6 shows the distribution of major plates.

Plate Name Plate Name

A Eurasian Plate D Pacific Plate

B Philippine Plate E North American Plate

C Indo-Australian Plate F Nazca Plate

b Complete the key in Figure 6 to show the distribution of plate boundaries.

© Oxford University Press (China) Ltd 2014 7

What are the landforms/features resulted from the

A What are the internal forces and processes?

Folding is the process by which rock layers

are folded up under