CHAPTER-4

Algebraic Structures
Chapter Outline

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Basic Definitions and Examples
4.3 Properties of group
4.4 Exercises-1
4.5 Congruence relation
4.6 Permutations
4.7 Sub group
4.8 Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism
4.9 Cosets
4.10 Normal subgroup
4.11 Quotient group
4.12 Cyclic group
4.13 Algebraic structures with two binary operations
4.14 Exercise-2

4.1 Introduction:

Algebraic structures are studied in abstract algebra. The general theory of algebraic structures has been
formalized in universal algebra. This chapter includes some of the main algebraic systems in
mathematics like semi groups, groups. rings and fields. We begin with the some formal definitions of
operation and discuss various types of operations. Also, we shall introduce some important concepts
related to algebraic systems like concept of group homomorphism, group isomorphism, congruence
relation and etc.

4.2 Basic Definitions and Examples:

4.1.1 Binary operation:

Let 𝐴 be a non empty set then𝐴 × 𝐴 = {(𝑎, 𝑏)/𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴}.

A function ∗∶ 𝐴 × 𝐴 → 𝐴 is said to be binary operation on 𝐴if ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴.

e.g. (1) ′ + ′is binary operation on 𝑁.

(2) ′ × ′is binary operation on 𝑅.

(3) ′ − ′is not binary operation on 𝑁.

4.1.2 Algebraic structure:

A nonempty set 𝐴 equipped with one or more binary operation on 𝐴 is said to be an algebraic structure.

e.g. (𝑁, +), (𝑍, +), (𝑅, +,×)𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Below mentioned table 4.1 gives details regarding algebraic structures on basic sets.

∗ + × − ÷
set
𝑁 Yes Yes No No
𝑍 Yes Yes Yes No
𝑄 Yes Yes Yes No
𝑅 Yes Yes Yes No
𝑅 − {0} No Yes No Yes

4.1.2 Semi group:

Let 𝑆 be a non empty set and ∗ be a binary operation on𝑆. Then (𝑆, ∗) is said to be semi group if the
binary operation ∗ satisfies the following properties:

(1) Closure property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆

(2) Associative property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆 we have (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).

e.g (𝑁, +), (𝑍, +), (𝑅, ×) are semi groups.

Semi groups are very important in the theory of sequential machine and certain applications to
computer arithmetics.

4.1.3 Monoid:

Let 𝑀 be a non empty set and ∗ be a binary operation on𝑀. Then (𝑀, ∗) is said to bemonoid if the
binary operation ∗ satisfies the following properties:

(1) Closure property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀 we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑀

(2) Associative property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑀 we have (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).
(3) Existence of an identity: There exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑀 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎 ∈
𝑀.

e.g.(𝑍, +), (𝑅, ×) are monoids.

Note that every monoid is a semi group but converse is not true in general since (𝑁, +) is semi group
but not a monoid.

Monoids are used mostly in the area of syntactic analysis and formal languages.

Example 1.If 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏} then (𝑃(𝑆), ∪)𝑎𝑛𝑑(𝑃(𝑆), ∩) are monoids where 𝑃(𝑆) be power set of 𝑆.

Solution: Here𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏} then 𝑃(𝑆) = {∅, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, 𝑆}

∪ ∅ {𝑎} {𝑏} 𝑆 ∩ ∅ {𝑎} {𝑏} 𝑆

∅ ∅ {𝑎} {𝑏} 𝑆 ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
{𝑎} {𝑎} {𝑎} 𝑆 𝑆 {𝑎} ∅ {𝑎} ∅ {𝑎}
{𝑏} {𝑏} 𝑆 {𝑏} 𝑆 {𝑏} ∅ ∅ {𝑏} {𝑏}
𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 𝑆 ∅ {𝑎} {𝑏} 𝑆
 1. Closure prop.: From the both tables it is clear that 𝑃(𝑆) is closed under binary operations ∪ & ∩.
2. Asso. prop.: We know that 𝑃(𝑆) is always associative under binary operations ∪ & ∩.
3. Exist. of an identity: From the both tables it is clear that
∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 are identities of 𝑃(𝑆)under binary operations ∪ & ∩respectively.

Hence, (𝑃(𝑆), ∪)𝑎𝑛𝑑(𝑃(𝑆), ∩) are monoids with identities∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆 respectively.

4.1.4 Group:

Let 𝐺 be a non empty set and ∗ be a binary operation on𝐺. Then (𝐺, ∗) is said to bemonoid if the binary
operation ∗ satisfies the following properties:

(1) Closure property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

(2) Associative property: For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐).
(3) Existence of an identity: There exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑎 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
(4) Existence of an inverse: For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 there exists an element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎
Here, 𝑏 = 𝑎−1 is said to be an inverse of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

4.1.5 Abelian group or Commutative group:

A group (𝐺, ∗) is said to be an abelian group or commutative group if for all , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎.

The application of group theory is useful in the design of fast adders and error correcting codes.

4.1.6 Composition table:

Let 𝐺 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑛 }is a finite set having 𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡. Let∗ be a binary operation defined on 𝐺 then
all possible composition of elements of 𝐺 can be arranged in a tabular form as under

❖ Write elements of 𝐺in a horizontal raw, say it column header.

❖ Write elements of 𝐺in vertical column say it raw header.
❖ The element 𝑎𝑖 ∗ 𝑎𝑗 is associated with the ordered pair (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑗 ) is placed at the intersection of the
ith raw and jth column.

The table so obtained is called composition table under the binary operation ∗.

𝑒. 𝑔. Let 𝐺 = {𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁, 𝑂𝐷𝐷} and a binary operation∗ be defined in below Table 4.4then it is clear that
(𝐺, ∗) is a group where 𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁 is the identity and both 𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁 & 𝑂𝐷𝐷 are their own inverse. More it
observe that (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.

∗ 𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁 𝑂𝐷𝐷
𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁 𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁 𝑂𝐷𝐷
𝑂𝐷𝐷 𝑂𝐷𝐷 𝐸𝑉𝐸𝑁

Example 2.Show that the set of square roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = {−1,1} and the composition table is as under:

 ∙ -1 1
-1 1 -1
1 -1 1

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under multiplication
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: We know that multiplication of integers is always associative.

i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 1 is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of -1 is -1 & inverse of 1 is 1.

Also for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎

Hence, (𝐺, ∙) is an abelian group.

Example 3. Show that the set of cube roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication.

Solution: Let 𝑥 3 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 3 − 1 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1) = 0

−1±√3𝑖
⇒ 𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟𝑥 = 2

−1+√3𝑖 −1−√3𝑖
Here, 𝐺 = {1, 𝑤, 𝑤 2 }𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑤 = &𝑤 2 = and the composition table is as under:
2 2

∙ 1 𝑤 𝑤2
1 1 𝑤 𝑤2
𝑤 𝑤 𝑤2 1
𝑤2 𝑤2 1 𝑤

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under multiplication
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that multiplication is associative in 𝐺
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 1 is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 1 is 1
 Inverse of 𝑤 is 𝑤 2 &

Inverse of 𝑤 2 is 𝑤.

Also for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎

Hence, (𝐺, ∙) is an abelian group.

Example 4. Show that the set of fourth roots of unity form an abelian group under multiplication.

Solution: Let 𝑥 4 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 4 − 1 = 0 ⇒(𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 1) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = ±1, ±𝑖

Here, 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖}𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑖 = √−1 and the composition table is as under:

∙ 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
−1 −1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −1 1
−𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 −1

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under multiplication
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that multiplication is associative in 𝐺
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 1 is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 1 is 1

Inverse of −1 is −1

Inverse of 𝑖 is – 𝑖&

Inverse of- 𝑖 is 𝑖

Also for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎

Hence, (𝐺, ∙) is an abelian group.

Example 5. Show that the set of all positive rational numbers form an abelian group under the binary
𝑎𝑏
operation defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = .
2

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = 𝑄 + = the set of all positive rationals and ∗ be a binary operation on 𝐺 defined by
 𝑎𝑏
𝑎∗𝑏 = for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
2

𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
1. Closure prop.: let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = ∈ 𝐺 since 𝑎&𝑏 are positive rationals implies is also
2 2
positive rational.
2. Asso. prop.: Let𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 then
𝑎𝑏 (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 𝑎(𝑏𝑐) 𝑏𝑐
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = ( ) ∗ 𝑐 = ( )=( ) = 𝑎 ∗ ( ) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)
2 4 4 2
𝑖. 𝑒. ∗is associative in 𝐺.
3. Exist. of an identity: let 𝑒 be the identity of 𝐺 under ∗ then
𝑎𝑒
𝑎∗𝑒=𝑎 ⇒ =𝑎⇒𝑒=2
2
𝑖. 𝑒. 2 is the identity in 𝐺.
4. Exist. of an inverse: Let 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 be the inverse of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then we have
𝑎𝑏 4
𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑒 ⇒ =2⇒𝑏= ∈𝐺
2 𝑎
4
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎is the inverse of 𝑎 in 𝐺.
𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑎
5. Commutative prop.: For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = = =𝑏∗𝑎
2 2

Hence, (𝐺, ∗) is an abelian group.

𝑎 𝑏
Example 6.Show that 𝐺 = {[ ] / 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 &𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅} is non commutative group under
𝑐 𝑑
matrix multiplication.

𝑎 𝑏
Solution: Here, 𝐺 = {[ ] / 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 &𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅}
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
1. Closure prop.: Let 𝐴 = [ ] &𝐵 = [ ] ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 ≠ 0 &𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓 ≠ 0 --- (I)
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ

𝑎 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔 𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ
Now, 𝐴𝐵 = [ ][ ]=[ ]∈𝐺
𝑐 𝑑 𝑔 ℎ 𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔 𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ

Since (𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑔)(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑ℎ) − (𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑔)(𝑎𝑓 + 𝑏ℎ) = (𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐)(𝑒ℎ − 𝑔𝑓) ≠ 0

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺is closed under matrix multiplication.

2. Asso. prop.: We know that for all 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝐴𝐵)𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶).

1 0
3. Exist. of an identity: There exists 𝐼 = [ ] ∈ 𝐺such that𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴; ∀𝐴 ∈ 𝐺
0 1
1 0
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐼 = [ ]is the multiplicative identity in 𝐺.
0 1
𝑎 𝑏 1 𝑑 −𝑏
4. Exist. of an inverse: For 𝐴 = [ ] ∈ 𝐺 we must have 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 [ ] ∈ 𝐺 such that
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 𝑎
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼 = 𝐵𝐴.
1 𝑑 −𝑏
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐵 = 𝑎𝑑−𝑏𝑐 [ ]is the inverse of 𝐴 in 𝐺.
−𝑐 𝑎
 1 2 1 0 7 4 1 2
Now, consider 𝐴 = [ ] &𝐵 = [ ] then 𝐴𝐵 = [ ]≠[ ] = 𝐵𝐴
3 4 3 2 15 8 9 14
Hence, 𝐺 is non commutative group under matrix multiplication.

4.3 Properties of group:

1. Let 𝑒 be an identity in group (𝐺, ∗) then ′𝑒′ is unique.

Proof: Suppose 𝑒&𝑒′ are two identities in 𝐺 then we have

𝑒 ∗ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′ if𝑒 is identity

𝑒 ∗ 𝑒′ = 𝑒if𝑒′ is identity

Since 𝑒𝑒′ is unique element in 𝐺.

Hence, 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒.

2. Prove that inverse of each element in group (𝐺, ∗) is unique.

Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 be any element and𝑒 be the identity of (𝐺, ∗)

Suppose 𝑏&𝑐 are two inverses of 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then we have

𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎&𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑒 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎 -------------- (𝐼)

Now, 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑏 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐) (∵ (𝐼))

= (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑐 (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

=𝑒∗𝑐 (∵ (𝐼))

=𝑐

Hence, 𝑎 has unique inverse in (𝐺, ∗).

3. If 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 in group (𝐺, ∗) then (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎.

Proof: Let 𝑒 be the identity in group (𝐺, ∙) then we have 𝑎 −1 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒

Multiply on both left side by (𝑎−1 )−1

(𝑎−1 )−1 ∗ (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) = (𝑎−1 )−1 ∗ 𝑒

⇒ ((𝑎−1 )−1 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) ∗ 𝑎 = (𝑎−1 )−1

⇒ 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = (𝑎−1 )−1

⇒ 𝑎 = (𝑎−1 )−1

Hence, (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎.

4. If (𝐺, ∗) be a group then for any two elements 𝑎 and 𝑏 of𝐺, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎 −1 .
Proof: Let 𝑎−1 and 𝑏 −1 are inverse of 𝑎 and 𝑏 in𝐺 respectively and 𝑒 be the identity of (𝐺, ∗) then

𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 & 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1 = 𝑒 = 𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑏

Now, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ (𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) = ((𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) ∗ 𝑎−1 ) (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

= (𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 −1 )) ∗ 𝑎−1 ) (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑒) ∗ 𝑎−1

= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1

=𝑒

Similarly we can prove that (𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑒

This shows that 𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏

Hence, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 ∗ 𝑎−1 .

5. If 𝑎, 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑐are any three elements of a group (𝐺, ∗) then

(a) 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 left cancellation law

(b) 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 right cancellation law

Proof: let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then there exists 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 = 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 where 𝑒 is the identity of
(𝐺, ∗)

Now, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐

⇒ 𝑎 −1 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑎−1 ∗ ( 𝑎 ∗ 𝑐) (∵ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑦𝑎−1 )

⇒ (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 = (𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑐 (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

⇒𝑒∗𝑏 =𝑒∗𝑐

⇒𝑏=𝑐

Also, 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎

⇒ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑎−1 = ( 𝑐 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑎−1 (∵ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑏𝑦𝑎−1 )

⇒ 𝑏 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) = 𝑐 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 ) (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

⇒𝑏∗𝑒 =𝑐∗𝑒

⇒𝑏=𝑐

6. Prove that in a group (𝐺, ∗) if for every𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏 2 then (𝐺, ∗) is abelian.

Proof: Here, (𝐺, ∗) is a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

Now, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏 2
⇒ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑏)

⇒ 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑏

⇒𝑏∗𝑎 = 𝑎∗𝑏 (∵ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

Hence, (𝐺, ∗) is abelian.

Example 7. If 𝑎 & 𝑏 are any two elements of a group (𝐺, ∗) then show that the equation 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏 have
unique solution in 𝐺.

Solution: Here, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then there exists 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 −1 = 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑎 where 𝑒 is the identity
of (𝐺, ∗)

Now, 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

Substitute 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑏 in the left side of 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏, we have

𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑎(𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑏)

= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 ) ∗ 𝑏 (∵ 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜. 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝. )

=𝑒∗𝑏

=𝑏

Thus, 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 ∗ 𝑏 is a solution of the equation𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏.

Let 𝑥1 & 𝑥2 are two different solution of the equation 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑏

Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥1 = 𝑏 & 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥2 = 𝑏

⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥1 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 (∵ 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
⇒ Solution is unique.

4.4 Exercise-1:

1.Show that the set 𝐺 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√2 /𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑄} is a group under the binary operation addition.

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
2. Show that the set matrices 𝐴𝛼 = [ ] ; 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅 form a group under matrix multiplication.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
3. Show that the set 𝐺 = {𝐼, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶} where 𝐼 = [ ] ,𝐴 = [ ],𝐵 = [ ],𝐶 = [ ]
0 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1
is an abelian group under matrix multiplication.

4. The set of rational numbers excluding zero is an abelian group under multiplication.

5. If (𝐺, ∗)is an abelian group, then for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺show that (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑏 𝑛 .
4.5 Congruence relation:

4.5.1 Congruence relation: For a given positive integer 𝑛, two integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are
called 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑛, written as 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) if 𝑎 − 𝑏 is divisible by 𝑛( or equivalently if
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 have the same remainder when divided by 𝑛).

𝑒. 𝑔. 67 𝑎𝑛𝑑 37 are𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 10,67 ≡ 37 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 10) since 67 − 37 = 30 is a multiple of 10,

or equivalently 67 𝑎𝑛𝑑 37 have same remainder 7 when divided by 10.

→More, congruence modulo 𝑛 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑛 ) is compatible with both addition and multiplication on
the set of integers.

That is if 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ≡ 𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) then

𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑑 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛).

→The congruence modulo 𝑛 relation satisfies all the conditions of an equivalence relation

1. Reflexivity: 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
2. Symmetrivity: 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
3. Transitivity: 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛).

→ [𝑎]is called congruence class 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 of 𝑎 ( equivalence class for the relation congruence modulo 𝑛)

We denote the set of congruence classes 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 on set of integers 𝑍 by 𝑍𝑛 .

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑍𝑛 = {[0], [1], [2] … [𝑛 − 1]}

Sometimes we denote [𝑎] 𝑏𝑦 𝑎̅.

4.5.2 𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎:

Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are integers and 𝑚 is fixed positive integers, then 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚 written as 𝑎 +𝑚 𝑏
and defined as 𝑎 +𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑟; 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚 where 𝑟 is the least non negative remainder when 𝑎 + 𝑏 is
divided by 𝑚.

𝑒. 𝑔. 7 +5 11 = 3 & 5 +3 8 = 1.

4.5.2 𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒑:

Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are integers and 𝑝 is fixed positive integers, then 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑝 written as 𝑎 ×𝑝 𝑏 and
defined as 𝑎 ×𝑝 𝑏 = 𝑟; 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑝 where 𝑟 is the least non negative remainder when 𝑎 × 𝑏 is divided by
𝑝.

𝑒. 𝑔. 7 ×5 11 = 2 & 5 ×3 8 = 1.

4.5.3 Order of a group:

Let (𝐺, ∗) be finite group then the number of distinct elements in 𝐺 is called order of group 𝐺 and is
denoted by 𝑂(𝐺) or|𝐺|.

𝑒. 𝑔. (1) 𝐺 = {−1, 1} is a group of order 2 under multiplication. That is 𝑂(𝐺) = 2.

 (2) 𝐺 = {−1, 1, −𝑖, 𝑖}is a group of order 4 under multiplication. That is 𝑂(𝐺) = 4.

4.5.4 Order of an element of a group:

Let (𝐺, ∗) 𝑏𝑒 a group then by order of an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is meant the least positive integer 𝑛, if one
exists such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 and it is denoted by 𝑂(𝑎).

If there does not exists such positive number 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 we say that 𝑎 is of infinite order or zero
order.

𝑒. 𝑔. (1) 𝐺 = {−1, 1} is a group under multiplication then 𝑂(1) = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (1)1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑂(−1) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (−1)2 = 1.

(2) 𝐺 = {−1, 1, −𝑖, 𝑖} is a group under multiplication then

𝑂(1) = 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (1)1 = 1

𝑂(−1) = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (−1)2 = 1

𝑂(−𝑖) = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (−𝑖)4 = 1

𝑂(𝑖) = 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑖)4 = 1.

Example 8. Show that (𝑍6 , +6 ) is finite abelian group of order 6 under addition modulo 6.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = 𝑍6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} and the composition table is as under:

+𝟔 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under addition modulo 6
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎+6 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that +6 is associative in 𝐺

i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎+6 𝑏)+6 𝑐 = 𝑎+6 (𝑏+6 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 0̅ is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 0̅ is 0̅

Inverse of 1̅ is 5̅
 Inverse of 2̅ is 4̅

Inverse of3̅ is 3̅

Inverse of4̅ is 2̅&

Inverse of5̅ is 1̅

Also, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎+6 𝑏 = 𝑏+6 𝑎 and 𝑂(𝐺) = 6.

Hence, (𝑍6 , +6 ) is finite abelian group.

Example 9. Show that (𝑍5 , ×5 ) is not a group.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = 𝑍5 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} and the composition table is as under:

×5 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅
1̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
2̅ 0̅ 2̅ 4̅ 1̅ 3̅
3̅ 0̅ 3̅ 1̅ 4̅ 2̅
4̅ 0̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under ×5
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ×5 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that ×5 is associative in 𝐺

i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ×5 𝑏) ×5 𝑐 = 𝑎 ×5 (𝑏 ×5 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 1̅ is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 1̅ is 1̅

Inverse of 2̅ is 3̅

Inverse of3̅ is 2̅

Inverse of4̅ is 4̅ but

Inverse of0̅ does not exists.

Hence, (𝑍5 , ×5 ) is not a group but it is monoid.

Example 10. Show that (𝑍5 ∗ , ×5 )where 𝑍5 ∗ = { 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅}is finite abelian group.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = 𝑍5 ∗ = { 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} and the composition table is as under:
 ×5 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
2̅ 2̅ 4̅ 1̅ 3̅
3̅ 3̅ 1̅ 4̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under ×5
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ×5 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that ×5 is associative in 𝐺

i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎 ×5 𝑏) ×5 𝑐 = 𝑎 ×5 (𝑏 ×5 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 1̅ is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 1̅ is 1̅

Inverse of 2̅ is 3̅

Inverse of3̅ is 2̅

Inverse of4̅ is 4̅

Also for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎 ×5 𝑏 = 𝑏 ×5 𝑎 and 𝑂(𝐺) = 4.

Hence, (𝑍5 ∗ , ×5 ) is finite abelian group.

4.6 Permutations:

4.6.1 Permutations:Let 𝑆 be a finite set having 𝑛 - distinct elements, then a 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 mappings of
𝑆 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 is called a permutation of degree 𝑛.

The number of elements in the finite set 𝑆 is known as the degree of permutation.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 . . 𝑎𝑛
𝑖. 𝑒. Let 𝑆 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } then permutation 𝑓 = (𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏3 . . 𝑏𝑛 )
1

Where 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑆 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑏𝑖 ∈ 𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … 𝑛.

The collection of all possible permutations on 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑆𝑛 or 𝑃𝑛 and it has 𝑛! members.

1 2 1 2
𝑒. 𝑔. 1. If 𝑆 = {1,2} then the set of all permutation on 𝑆 is given by 𝑆2 = {( ),( )}.
1 2 2 1
2. If 𝑆 = {1,2,3} then the set of all permutation on 𝑆 is given by

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑆3 = {( ),( ),( ),( ),( ),( )}.
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
4.6.2 Equality of two permutations:
Let 𝑆 be a finite set having 𝑛 - distinct elements, then a two permutations 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 of degree 𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑆 are
said to be equal if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑎)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆.

4.6.3 Identity permutation:

Let 𝑆 be a finite set having 𝑛 - distinct elements, then a permutation 𝐼 of degree 𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑆 is said to be an
identity permutation on 𝑆 if 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆.

1 2 3
𝑒. 𝑔. If 𝑆 = {1,2,3} then 𝐼 = ( ) is an identity permutation on 𝑆.
1 2 3
4.6.4 Product or composition of two permutations:

The product or composition of two permutations 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 of degree 𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑆 is denoted by 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 and is

obtained by first carrying out the operation defined by 𝑓 and then by 𝑔.

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑒. 𝑔. If 𝑆 = {1,2,3}, 𝑓 = ( )& 𝑔 = ( ) then 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = ( ).
2 1 3 1 3 2 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Example 11. For the elements 𝑓 & 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆6 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = ( )&𝑔 = ( )
3 1 4 5 6 2 2 4 1 3 6 5
obtain (1) 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 (2) 𝑔 ∙ 𝑓 (3) 𝑓 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4) 𝑓 2 .

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
Solution: Here, 𝑓 = ( )&𝑔 = ( ) ∈ 𝑆6
3 1 4 5 6 2 2 4 1 3 6 5

(1) 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 = (1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
)∙ ( )=( )
3 1 4 5 6 2 2 4 1 3 6 5 1 2 3 6 5 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
(2) 𝑔 ∙ 𝑓 = (1 2 3 4 5 6
)∙(
5 6
)=(
6
)
2 4 1 3 6 5 3 1 4 5 6 2 1 5 3 4 2 6

(3) 𝑓 −1 = (1 2 3 4 5 6
)
3 1 4 2 6 5

(4) 𝑓 2 = 𝑓 ∙ 𝑓 = (1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
)∙( )=( ).
3 1 4 5 6 2 3 1 4 5 6 2 4 3 5 6 2 1
Example 12. Show that the set 𝑆3 of all permutations on three symbols 1,2,3 is a finite non abelian group
of order 6 under composition of two permutations.

𝑶𝑹

Give an example of a non abelian group of order 6.

Solution: here, 𝑆3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } where

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝1 = ( ) , 𝑝2 = ( ) , 𝑝3 = ( ) , 𝑝4 = ( ) , 𝑝5 = ( ) &𝑝6 = ( )
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
The composition table of 𝑆3 under composition of two permutations is as under:

∙ 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
 𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝3
𝑝3 𝑝3 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝2 𝑝4
𝑝4 𝑝4 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝3 𝑝2
𝑝5 𝑝5 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝6 𝑝1
𝑝6 𝑝6 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝1 𝑝5

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝑆3 is closed under composition of two
permutations
i.e. for all 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑝𝑗 ∈ 𝑆3 we have 𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑝𝑗 ∈ 𝑆3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2,3,4,5,6.

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that composition of two permutations is
associative in 𝑆3
i.e. for all 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑝𝑗 , 𝑝𝑘 ∈ 𝑆3 we have (𝑝𝑖 ∙ 𝑝𝑗 ) ∙ 𝑝𝑘 = 𝑝𝑖 ∙ (𝑝𝑗 ∙ 𝑝𝑘 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1,2,3,4,5,6.

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 𝑝1 is the identity in 𝑆3 .

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of𝑝1 is 𝑝1

Inverse of𝑝2 is 𝑝2

Inverse of𝑝3 is 𝑝3

Inverse of𝑝4 is 𝑝4

Inverse of𝑝5 is 𝑝6

Inverse of𝑝6 is 𝑝5 .

Also, 𝑝3 ∙ 𝑝4 = 𝑝6 ≠ 𝑝5 = 𝑝4 ∙ 𝑝3 and 𝑂(𝑆3 ) = 6.

Hence, (𝑆3 , ∙) is non abelian symmetric group of order6.

Example 13. Let the permutations of the elements of {1,2,3,4,5} be given by 𝛼 =

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
( ),𝛽 = ( ),𝛾 = ( )& 𝛿 = ( )
2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4 5 4 3 1 2 3 2 1 5 4
Find 𝛼𝛽, 𝛽𝛼, 𝛼 2 , 𝛾𝛽, 𝛿 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝛽𝛾. solve the equation 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽.

Solution:

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 34 5
𝛼𝛽 = ( )( )=( ) … … … (𝐼)
2 3 1 4 5 1 2 3 5 4 2 3 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛽𝛼 = ( )( )=( )
1 2 3 5 4 2 3 1 4 5 2 3 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛼 2 = 𝛼𝛼 = ( )( )=( )
2 3 1 4 5 2 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 4 5
 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛾𝛽 = ( )( )=( )
5 4 3 1 2 1 2 3 5 4 4 5 3 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛿=( ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛿 −1 = ( )
3 2 1 5 4 3 2 1 5 4
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
𝛼𝛽𝛾 = (𝛼𝛽)𝛾 = ( )( )=( )(∵ (𝐼))
2 3 1 5 4 5 4 3 1 2 4 3 5 2 1
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Now, 𝛼 = ( ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝛼 −1 = ( )
2 3 1 4 5 3 1 2 4 5

Now,to solve 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽 multiply it on both left side by𝛼 −1

𝛼 −1 (𝛼𝑥) = 𝛼 −1 𝛽

⇒ (𝛼 −1 𝛼)𝑥 = 𝛼 −1 𝛽

⇒ 𝐼𝑥 = 𝛼 −1 𝛽

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝛼 −1 𝛽 = ( )( )
3 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 5 4
1 2 3 4 5
⇒𝑥=( ).
3 1 2 5 4
4.7 Subgroup:

4.7.1 Definition:

Let 𝐺 be a group under the binary operation ∗. A non empty subset 𝐻 of group 𝐺 is said to be subgroup
of 𝐺 if 𝐻 is itself a group under the same binary operation defined on 𝐺.

𝑒. 𝑔. (𝑍, +)is a subgroup of (𝑄, +) and (𝑄 − {0}, ×) is a subgroup of (𝑅 − {0}, ×).

Note that for any group (𝐺, ∗) we always have two subgroups as 𝐻 = {𝑒} 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐺
and 𝐻 = 𝐺 𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 and are called improper or trivial subgroups of 𝐺& others are called proper or non-
trivial subgroups of 𝐺.

Example 14.Find all proper and non proper subgroups of symmetric group (𝑆3 , ∙).

Solution: Here, 𝑆3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 are defined in Example 12.

Improper subgroups of 𝑆3 are 𝐻1 = {𝑝1 }&𝐻2 = 𝑆3 and proper subgroups are given by

𝐻3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }

𝐻4 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝3 }

𝐻5 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝4 }

𝐻6 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }

4.7.1 Theorem 1. A non empty subset 𝐻 of a group (𝐺,∗) is a subgroup of 𝐺 if and only if
(1) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

(2) 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 −1 ∈ 𝐻where𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.

Proof: The conditions are necessary:

Suppose 𝐻 is a subgroup 𝐺. Then 𝐻 must be closed with respect to ∗

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Now, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 since 𝐻 is group under ∗.

The conditions are sufficient:

1. Closure prop.: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻is closed under ∗.

2. Asso. Prop.: The elements of 𝐻 are also elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺 is group and hence ∗ is associative
in 𝐻.
3. Exist. Of an inverse: Now, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝐻 is closed under ∗ then
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻. Thus 𝐻 and 𝐺 have same identity.
4. Exist. Of an inverse: Since 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻 therefore each element of 𝐻 possess an inverse in
𝐻.

Hence, 𝐻 is a subgroup of𝐺.

4.7.2 Theorem 2.A necessary and sufficient condition for a non empty subset 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 to be a
subgroup of 𝐺 is that 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 where 𝑏 −1 is the inverse of 𝑏 in 𝐺.

4.7.3 Theorem 3.If 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are two subgroups of G then 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is also subgroup of G.

Proof: Let 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are two subgroups of G. Then 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ≠ ∅ since 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2

In order to prove 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is a subgroup of 𝐺 it is sufficient to prove that

𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 .

Now, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻2

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻2 since both 𝐻1 &𝐻2 are two subgroups of G.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2

Hence, 𝐻1 ∩ 𝐻2 is also a subgroup of G.

Example 15. If 𝐻1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻2 are two subgroups of G then what about 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 ?

Solution: Let G be an additive group of integers and let 𝐻1 = {… − 6, −4, −2, 0, 2, 4, 6 … } and

𝐻2 = {… − 6, −3, 0, 3, 6 … }are both additive subgroups of G.

Now, we have 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 = {… − 6, −4, −3, −2, 0, 2, 3, 4, 6 … }

Closure property: Here, 2, 3 ∈ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 but 2 + 3 = 5 ∉ 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2

Thus, 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is not closed under addition.

Hence, 𝐻1 ∪ 𝐻2 is not a subgroup of G.

→ The union of two subgroups of group G is subgroup of G if one is contained in the other.

4.8 Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism:

4.8.1 Homomorphism or Group homomorphism:

Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ , ∙) are any two groups then a mapping ∅: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺 ′ , ∙) is said to be Homomorphism
if ∅(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = ∅(𝑎) ∙ ∅(𝑏); 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

4.8.2 Isomorphism or Group isomorphism:

Let (𝐺,∗) and (𝐺 ′ , ∙) are any two groups then a homomorphism ∅: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺 ′ , ∙) is said to be
isomorphism if ∅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 and is denoted by 𝐺 ≅ 𝐺 ′ .

4.8.3 Endomorphism:

A homomorphism ∅: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺,∗) is called an endomorphism.

4.8.4 Automorphism:

An isomorphism ∅: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺,∗) is called an automorphism.

Example 16. Let 𝐺 be a group and let 𝑒 be the identity of 𝐺 then show that the function 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺
defined by 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is an endomorphism of 𝐺.

Solution: Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are any two elements of 𝐺 then we have 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒

Also 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑒 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)

Thus, 𝑓 preserve the composition and it is a function form 𝐺 𝑡𝑜 𝐺 therefore 𝑓 is an endomorphism of 𝐺

4.8.5 Theorem: If 𝑓 is the homomorphism of group 𝐺 on to 𝐺′ then

(1) 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′where𝑒 &𝑒 ′ are identities of 𝐺 & 𝐺′ respectively.

(2) 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = (𝑓(𝑎)−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺

(3) if𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 is a subgroup of 𝐺 then 𝑓(𝐻) is also subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .

Proof: (1) Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐺′

Now, 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎 ∙ 𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑓(𝑒) since 𝑓 is homomorphism.

By 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤 we get

𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′.

(2) Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝑓(𝑎)& 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) ∈ 𝐺′

Now, 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑎−1 ) = 𝑒′

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑒′since𝑓 is homomorphism

This shows that 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) is the inverse of 𝑓(𝑎)𝑖𝑛 𝐺 ′ .

Hence, 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = (𝑓(𝑎))−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.

(3) Let (𝐻,∗) be a subgroup of (𝐺,∗) with 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 an identity element.

(𝑖) Existence of identity: Let 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 ⇒ 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻 since 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

⇒ 𝑓(𝑒) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

⇒ 𝑒′ ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒′

(𝑖𝑖) Closure prop.: For any 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

⇒𝑎∗𝑏 ∈𝐻

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑓(𝑏) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

Thus, closure property holds in 𝑓(𝐻).

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Asso. Prop.: Let 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑓(𝑏), 𝑓(𝑐) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑓(𝐻) ⊂ 𝐺′

But 𝐺′ is a group and so it possess the associative property

𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑓(𝑏)) ∙ 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ (𝑓(𝑏) ∙ 𝑓(𝑐))

Thus, associative property holds in 𝑓(𝐻).

(𝑖𝑣) Existence of an inverse: For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻 we have 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

Now, 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻

⇒ 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)but𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = (𝑓(𝑎))−1

⇒ (𝑓(𝑎))−1 ∈ 𝑓(𝐻)

Thus, for 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝑓(𝐻) we have (𝑓(𝑎))−1 ∈ 𝑓(𝐻).

Hence, 𝑓(𝐻). Is a subgroup of𝐺 ′ .

Example 17.Let(𝑅, +) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑅 + , ∙) be any two groups then prove that the function 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 + defined
by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 is an isomorphism from 𝑅 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑅 + .

Solution: He 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅re, 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 + defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 +

(𝑖) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦)

⇒ 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦

⇒ 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 𝑦

⇒𝑥=𝑦

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒.

(𝑖𝑖)let𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 + then we have 𝑙𝑛𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑓(𝑙𝑛𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑦

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.

(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅

Now, 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(𝑦)

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚.

Hence, 𝑓 is an isomorphism from𝑅 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑅 + .

Example 18.Show that (𝑍, +) ≅ (𝑍𝑚 , +) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍𝑚 = {… − 3𝑚, −2𝑚, −𝑚, 0, 𝑚, 2𝑚, 3𝑚, … }

Solution: Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 ⇒ 𝑚𝑥 ∈ 𝑍𝑚

Let 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝑍𝑚 be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍.

To prove 𝑓 define an isomorphism between (𝑍, +)&(𝑍𝑚 , +) we prove that

(𝑖)𝑓is one-one

Let for 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍 we have 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⇒ 𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚𝑦

⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 (𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤)

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒.

(𝑖𝑖)𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
let𝑦 ∈ 𝑍𝑚 then we have𝑚 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑓 (𝑚) = 𝑚 𝑚 = 𝑦

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.
 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍

𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑚(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑚𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)

∴ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚.

Thus, 𝑓 is an isomorphism from𝑍 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑍𝑚 .

Hence, (𝑍, +) ≅ (𝑍𝑚 , +).

Example 19.Prove that (𝑍6 , +6 ) is isomorphic to (𝑍 ∗ 7 , ×7 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍 ∗ 7 = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}.

Solution: Here, 𝑍6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅}&𝑍 ∗ 7 = {1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅, 6̅}.

Define 𝑓: (𝑍6 , +6 ) → (𝑍 ∗ 7 , ×7 )as under:

𝑓(0̅) = 1̅ 𝑓(0̅) = 1̅

𝑓(1̅) = 5̅ 𝑓(1̅) = 3̅

𝑓(2̅) = 4̅ 𝑓(2̅) = 2̅

𝑓(3̅) = 6̅ OR𝑓(3̅) = 6̅

𝑓(4) = 2̅ 𝑓(4) = 4̅

𝑓(5̅) = 3̅ 𝑓(5̅) = 5̅

Then, clearly 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑜 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.

Also, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍6 we have 𝑓(𝑎 +6 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) ×7 𝑓(𝑏)

𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 2̅& 𝑏 = 3̅

𝑓(𝑎 +6 𝑏) = 𝑓(2̅ +6 3̅) = 𝑓(5̅) = 3̅ … (𝐼)

(𝑓(𝑎) ×7 𝑓(𝑏) = (𝑓(2̅) ×7 𝑓(3̅) = 4̅ ×7 6̅ = 3̅ … (𝐼𝐼)

From (𝐼)&(𝐼𝐼)

𝑓(2̅ +6 3̅) = (𝑓(2̅) ×7 𝑓(3̅)

Thus, f is homomorphism.

Hence, (𝑍6 , +6 ) is isomorphic to (𝑍 ∗ 7 , ×7 ).

Example 20.Show that the group of fourth roots of unity is isomorphic to (𝑍4 , +4 ).

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} and 𝑍4 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅}

Define 𝑓: (𝐺, ∙) → ( 𝑍4 , +4 )as under:

𝑓(1) = 0̅

𝑓(−1) = 2̅

𝑓(𝑖) = 1̅

𝑓(−𝑖) = 3̅

Then, clearly 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑜 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.

Also, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑓(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎)+4 𝑓(𝑏)

𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = −1 & 𝑏 = 𝑖

𝑓(𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) = 𝑓(−1 ∙ 𝑖) = 𝑓(−𝑖) = 3̅ … (𝐼)

(𝑓(𝑎)+4 𝑓(𝑏) = (𝑓(−1)+4 𝑓(𝑖) = 2̅+4 1̅ = 3̅ … (𝐼𝐼)

From (𝐼)&(𝐼𝐼)

𝑓(−1 ∙ 𝑖) = (𝑓(−1)+4 𝑓(𝑖)

Thus, f is homomorphism.

Hence, (𝐺, ∙) is isomorphic to (𝑍4 , +4 ).

4.8.6 Kernel of homomorphism:

Let (𝐺, ∗) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐺′, ∙) be two groups and let 𝑓 is homomorphism of 𝐺 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐺 ′ .Then the subset of
group 𝐺 which are mapping into an identity of 𝐺′ is called kernel of homomorphism and is denoted by
𝐾𝑓 𝑜𝑟 ker(𝑓).

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾𝑓 𝑜𝑟 ker(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 /𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ }where𝑒 ′ is an identity of 𝐺 ′ .

4.8.7 Theorem: Prove that the kernel of homomorphism 𝑓: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺 ′ , ∙) is a subgroup of (𝐺,∗).

Proof: Here, 𝑓: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺 ′ , ∙) is homomorphism and

ker(𝑓) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 /𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ′ }

Also, ker(𝑓) ≠ ∅ since e′ ∈ ker(𝑓) (∵ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ )

Now, Let a, b ∈ ker(𝑓) then 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒 ′

To prove a ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓) we prove 𝑓(a ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑒′

𝑓(a ∗ 𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ 𝑓(𝑏 −1 )(∵ 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚)

= 𝑓(𝑎) ∙ (𝑓(𝑏))−1

= 𝑒′ ∙ (𝑒′)−1

= 𝑒′ ∙ 𝑒′
 = 𝑒′

⇒ a ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ ker(𝑓)

Hence, ker(𝑓) is a subgroup of (𝐺,∗).

4.8.8 Caley’s Theorem:

Every finite group of order n is isomorphic to some permutation group of degree𝑛.

4.9 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕:

4.9.1 Definition:Let𝐺 be a group and𝐻 is any subgroup of 𝐺. Let 𝑎 be any element of 𝐺. Then the set
𝐻𝑎 = { ℎ𝑎 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}is called a 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠of 𝐻 in 𝐺 generated by 𝑎.
Similarly, 𝑎𝐻 = { 𝑎ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 generated by𝑎.
Note that(𝑖)𝐻𝑎 and 𝑎𝐻 are both subset of 𝐺.
(𝑖𝑖) No 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 can be empty
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) If the group 𝐺 is abelian then we have
𝑎ℎ = ℎ𝑎 ∶ ∀ℎ ∈ 𝐻
∴ 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 is equal to the corresponding 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡
(𝑖𝑣) If 𝐺 is additive group then its 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 are generated by 𝑎 defined as
𝐻 + 𝑎 = { ℎ + 𝑎 ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻} → 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡
& 𝑎 + 𝐻 = { 𝑎 + ℎ ∶ ℎ ∈ 𝐻} → 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡
4.9.2 𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒐 𝑯 𝒊𝒏 𝑮 ∶
Let (𝐺, ∗) be a group and (𝐻, ∗) be its subgroup then a relation between elements of 𝐺 defined as 𝑎 ≡
𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻) if 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
The relation is known as 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.
4.9.3 Index of a subgroup in a group:
If 𝐻 is a subgroup of a group 𝐺 then number of distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is called the index
of 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 and is denoted by 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻).
𝑂(𝐺)
Also, 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 𝑂(𝐻) 𝑖𝑓 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
Example 21.Let 𝐺 be the additive group of integers
𝐢. e. 𝐺 = {… , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 = {… , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, . . . }
be a subgroup of 𝐺 then find all 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
Solution: Here,𝐺 is additive group of integers and so it is abelian
∴ 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡
Now, we have 0 ∈ 𝐺 then𝐻 = 𝐻 + 0 = {… , −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, … }
Again 1 ∈ 𝐺then 𝐻 + 1 = {… , −5, −2, 1, 4, 7, … }
Also 2 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝐻 + 2 = {… , −4, −1, 2, 5, 8, … }
Now, 3 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝐻 + 3 = {… , −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, … } = 𝐻
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝐻 + 4 = 𝐻 + 1
𝐻 + 5 = 𝐻 + 2
Thus, we have three distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠𝐻, 𝐻 + 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 + 2 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 and obviously
𝐺 = 𝐻 ∪ ( 𝐻 + 1 ) ∪ ( 𝐻 + 2)
Example 22. Let𝐺 = 𝑆3 be the group ofall permutation of degree 3 of symbol 1,2,3
i.e.𝐺 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } where

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝1 = ( ) , 𝑝2 = ( ) , 𝑝3 = ( ) , 𝑝4 = ( ) , 𝑝5 = ( ) &𝑝6 = ( )
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
Let 𝐻 = { 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }be a subgroup of 𝐺 the find 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠of 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } & 𝐻 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }

The composition table of 𝐺 under composition of two permutations is as under:

∙ 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝3
𝑝3 𝑝3 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝2 𝑝4
𝑝4 𝑝4 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝3 𝑝2
𝑝5 𝑝5 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝6 𝑝1
𝑝6 𝑝6 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝1 𝑝5

Now, 𝑝1 ∈ 𝐺
𝐻𝑝1 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝1 } = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2∙ } = 𝐻
𝐻𝑝2 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝2 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝2 } = {𝑝2 , 𝑝1∙ } = 𝐻
𝐻𝑝3 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝3 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝3 } = {𝑝3 , 𝑝6∙ }
𝐻𝑝4 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝4 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝4 } = {𝑝4 , 𝑝5∙ }
𝐻𝑝5 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝5 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝5 } = {𝑝5 , 𝑝4∙ } = 𝐻𝑝4
𝐻𝑝6 = {𝑝1 ∙ 𝑝6 , 𝑝2 ∙ 𝑝6 } = {𝑝6 , 𝑝3∙ } = 𝐻𝑝3
Thus, we get three distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and are 𝐻, 𝐻𝑝3 & 𝐻𝑝4 .
Obviously, 𝐺 = 𝐻 ∪ 𝐻𝑝3 ∪ 𝐻𝑝4 .
Also, 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 3.

Example 23. Let(𝑍4 , +4 )be a group and (𝐻, +4 ) be a sub group of (𝑍4 , +4 ) where 𝐻 = {0̅, 2̅}
then determine 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝑍4 .
Solution: Here,𝑍4 = { 0̅ , 1̅ , 2̅ , 3̅} and thecomposition table of 𝑍4 with respect to +4 is given by

+4 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅

Now 0̅ ∈ 𝑍4 then we have

0̅ + 𝐻 = {0̅ + 0̅, 0̅ + 2̅} = {0̅, 2̅} = 𝐻
1̅ + 𝐻 = {1̅ + 1̅, 0̅ + 2̅} = {1̅, 3̅}
 2̅ + 𝐻 = {2̅ + 0̅, 2̅ + 2̅} = {2̅, 0̅} = 𝐻
3̅ + 𝐻 = {3̅ + 0̅, 3̅ + 2̅} = {3̅, 1̅} = 1̅ + 𝐻
Thus, we get two distinct 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1̅ + 𝐻.
Also, 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) = 2.
4.9.4 Theorem : Any two 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡s of a subgroup are either disjoint or identical.
Proof:Let 𝐻 be any subgroup of 𝐺and let 𝐻𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑏 any two 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺
where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺
If 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏 then we have nothing to prove.
Let𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑏 are not disjoint
i.e. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 an element 𝑐 such that𝑐 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 & 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻𝑏
Let 𝐶 = ℎ1 𝑎 & ℎ2 𝑏 ; ℎ1 , ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻
Now, ℎ1 𝑎 = ℎ2 𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 = ℎ1 −1 (ℎ2 𝑏) = (ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 )𝑏
Since, ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 ∈ 𝐻 we have 𝐻(ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 ) = 𝐻
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻(ℎ1 −1 ℎ2 )𝑏 = 𝐻𝑏.
Hence, 𝐻𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻𝑏 are identical.
Example 24. Let 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 are two subgroup of group 𝐺 then show that (𝐻𝐾)−1 = 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1 .
Solution: Let 𝑥 ∈ (𝐻𝐾)−1 then 𝑥 = (ℎ𝑘)−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ ∈ 𝐻& 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
= 𝑘 −1 ℎ−1 ∈ 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1
Thus, for any 𝑥 ∈ (𝐻𝐾)−1 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑥 ∈ 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1
𝑖. 𝑒. (𝐻𝐾)−1 ⊆ 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1 … … … … (𝑰)
Now, let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1 then 𝑦 = 𝑘 −1 ℎ−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ ∈ 𝐻& 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾
= (ℎ𝑘)−1 ∈ (𝐻𝐾)−1
Thus, for any 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑦 ∈ (𝐻𝐾)−1 .
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1 ⊆ (𝐻𝐾)−1 … … … … (𝑰𝑰)
From (𝑰)&(𝐼𝐼)
(𝐻𝐾)−1 = 𝐾 −1 𝐻 −1.

4.9.5 Lagrange’s theorem:

The order of each subgroup of a finite group 𝐺 is a divisor of the order of group 𝐺.
𝑶𝑹
Let 𝐺 be group with 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛 and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺 with 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑚 then 𝑚│𝑛.
Proof: Let 𝐺 be a finite group of order 𝑛. 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑛 and
𝐻 be subgroup of 𝐺 with 𝑂(𝐻) = 𝑚.
Suppose ℎ1 , ℎ2 , … , ℎ𝑚 are 𝑚 distinct elements of 𝐻 … … … … . . (𝐼)
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 then 𝐻𝑎 is a 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 and we have 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ1 𝑎, ℎ2 𝑎, … , ℎ𝑚 𝑎}
𝐻𝑎 has 𝑚 distinct elements. (∵ 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 ℎ𝑖 𝑎 = ℎ𝑗 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 ⇒ ℎ𝑖 = ℎ𝑗 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠
𝑗 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
Also, any two 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 are disjoint.
𝑖. 𝑒. They have no element in common.
Since, 𝐺 is finite group and so the number of distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 in 𝐺 are finite say 𝑘.
The union of these 𝑘 distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 is equal to 𝐺.
Thus, if 𝐻𝑎1 , 𝐻𝑎2 , … , 𝐻𝑎𝑘 are distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻 in 𝐺 then
𝐺 = 𝐻𝑎1 ∪ 𝐻𝑎2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐻𝑎𝑘 .
⇒ The number of elements in 𝐺= (The number of elements in 𝐻𝑎1 ) +
(The number of elements in 𝐻𝑎2 ) + ⋯ (The number of elements in 𝐻𝑎𝑘 )
⇒ 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑚 + 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑚 (𝑘 − 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)
⇒ 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑘𝑚
⇒ 𝑚│𝑛
⇒ 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛
⇒ 𝑂(𝐻)𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂(𝐺).

4.10 Normal subgroup:

4.10.1 Definition:
A subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is said to be normal subgroup of 𝐺 if for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐻
⇒ 𝑥ℎ𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
→ From the definition we say that 𝐻 normal subgroup of 𝐺if 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 ⊆ 𝐻.
→ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 {𝑒}are improper subgroup of 𝐺.
→ A group having no normal subgroup is called “Simple group”.

Example 25. Show that every subgroup of an abelian group is normal subgroup.

Solution: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 and ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑥ℎ𝑥 −1 = 𝑥(ℎ𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑥(𝑥 −1 ℎ) (∵ 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛)

⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 −1 ℎ) = (𝑥𝑥 −1 )ℎ = 𝑒ℎ = ℎ ∈ 𝐻

Hence, 𝐻 is normal subgroup of 𝐺.

Note that 𝑥𝐻𝑥 −1 = 𝐻 if 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠for each subgroup of 𝐻 if 𝐺 then 𝐻 is normal.

4.10.2 Theorem:

A subgroup 𝐻 of a group 𝐺 is normal subgroup of 𝐺 if and only if the product of two 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻
in 𝐺 is again 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠.

Example 26. State all proper subgroup of symmetric group (𝑆3 ,∙). Determine which subgroups are normal.

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Solution: Here, 𝑆3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } where 𝑝1 = ( ) , 𝑝2 = ( ) , 𝑝3 = ( ),
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑝4 = ( ) , 𝑝5 = ( ) & 𝑝6 = ( )
3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
The composition table of 𝑆3 under composition two permutations is given by

∙ 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
 𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝6
𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝3
𝑝3 𝑝3 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝6 𝑝2 𝑝4
𝑝4 𝑝4 𝑝6 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝3 𝑝2
𝑝5 𝑝5 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝6 𝑝1
𝑝6 𝑝6 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝1 𝑝5

The subgroups of 𝑆3 are as under:

𝐻1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }, 𝐻2 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝3 }, 𝐻3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝4 }&𝐻4 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }

Now, we check which of among subgroups are normal

(1) For 𝐻1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }

The 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝑝1 𝐻1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }
𝑝2 𝐻1 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝1 }
𝑝3 𝐻1 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝5 }
𝑝4 𝐻1 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝6 }
𝑝5 𝐻1 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝3 }
𝑝6 𝐻1 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝4 }
The 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝐻1 𝑝1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 }
𝐻1 𝑝2 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝1 }
𝐻1 𝑝3 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝6 }
𝐻1 𝑝4 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝5 }
𝐻1 𝑝5 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝4 }
𝐻1 𝑝6 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝3 }
Here, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻1 are not same as 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠of 𝐻1 .
Thus, 𝐻1 is not normal subgroup of𝑆3 .
(2) For 𝐻2 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝3 }
The 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝑝1 𝐻2 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝3 }
𝑝2 𝐻2 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝6 }
𝑝3 𝐻2 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝1 }
𝑝4 𝐻2 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝5 }
𝑝5 𝐻2 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝4 }
𝑝6 𝐻2 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝2 }
The 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝐻2 𝑝1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝3 }
𝐻2 𝑝2 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝5 }
𝐻2 𝑝3 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝1 }
𝐻2 𝑝4 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝6 }
 𝐻2 𝑝5 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝2 }
𝐻2 𝑝6 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝4 }
Here, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻2 are not same as 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻2 .
Thus, 𝐻2 is not normal subgroup of𝑆3 .

(3) For 𝐻3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝4 }

The 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝑝1 𝐻3 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝4 }
𝑝2 𝐻3 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝5 }
𝑝3 𝐻3 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝6 }
𝑝4 𝐻3 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝1 }
𝑝5 𝐻3 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝2 }
𝑝6 𝐻3 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝3 }
The 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝐻3 𝑝1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝4 }
𝐻3 𝑝2 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝6 }
𝐻3 𝑝3 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝5 }
𝐻3 𝑝4 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝1 }
𝐻3 𝑝5 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝3 }
𝐻3 𝑝6 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝2 }
Here, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻3 are not same as 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠of 𝐻3 .
Thus, 𝐻3 is not normal subgroup of𝑆3 .
(4) For 𝐻4 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }
The 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝑝1 𝐻4 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }
𝑝2 𝐻4 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝3 }
𝑝3 𝐻4 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝4 }
𝑝4 𝐻4 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝2 }
𝑝5 𝐻4 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝6 , 𝑝1 }
𝑝6 𝐻4 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝1 , 𝑝5 }
The 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒:
𝐻4 𝑝1 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 }
𝐻4 𝑝2 = {𝑝2 , 𝑝3 , 𝑝4 }
𝐻4 𝑝3 = {𝑝3 , 𝑝4 , 𝑝2 }
𝐻4 𝑝4 = {𝑝4 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 }
𝐻4 𝑝5 = {𝑝5 , 𝑝6 , 𝑝1 }
𝐻4 𝑝6 = {𝑝6 , 𝑝1 , 𝑝5 }
Here, 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of 𝐻4 are same as 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠of 𝐻4 .
Thus, 𝐻4 is normal subgroup of𝑆3 .

4.11 Quotient group or Factor group:

4.11.1 Definition:
Let 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of group 𝐺 then the set of all distinct 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡(𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 is
called quotient group under multiplication of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐺│𝑁 .

→ Let 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺 then 𝐺│𝑁 = {𝑁𝑎 / 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}.

Now, for 𝑁𝑎, 𝑁𝑏 ∈ 𝐺│𝑁 the multiplication of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 is defined as 𝑁𝑎 ∙ 𝑁𝑏 = 𝑁𝑎𝑏 and addition
is defined as 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑁𝑏 = 𝑁𝑎 + 𝑏.

Example 27. Let (𝑍, +) be a group and 𝐻 = {5𝑘 / 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍} be a subgroup of 𝑍, then find 𝐺│𝐻 and show
that (𝐺│𝐻 , +) is group. Moreover, solve the equation (𝐻 + 3) + 𝑋 = 𝐻 + 1.

Solution: Here, 𝐻 = {… − 10, −5, 0, 5, 10, … }is a subgroup of 𝐺 then

𝐻 + 0 = {… − 10, −5, 0, 5, 10, … } = 𝐻

𝐻 + 1 = {… − 9, −4, 1, 6, 11, … }

𝐻 + 2 = {… − 8, −3, 2, 7, 12, … }

𝐻 + 3 = {… − 7, −2, 3, 8, 13, … }

𝐻 + 4 = {… − 6, −1, 4, 9, 14, … }

𝐻 + 5 = {… − 10, −5, 0, 5, 10, … } = 𝐻

𝐻 + 6 = {… − 9, −4, 1, 6, 11, … } = 𝐻 + 1

𝒊. 𝒆. 𝐺│𝐻 = {𝐻, 𝐻 + 1, 𝐻 + 2, 𝐻 + 3, 𝐻 + 4}

Now, the composition table of 𝐺│𝐻 under addition of two 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 is as below:

+ 𝐻 𝐻+1 𝐻+2 𝐻+3 𝐻+4

𝐻 𝐻 𝐻+1 𝐻+2 𝐻+3 𝐻+4
𝐻+1 𝐻+1 𝐻+2 𝐻+3 𝐻+4 𝐻
𝐻+2 𝐻+2 𝐻+3 𝐻+4 𝐻 𝐻+1
𝐻+3 𝐻+3 𝐻+4 𝐻 𝐻+1 𝐻+2
𝐻+4 𝐻+4 𝐻 𝐻+1 𝐻+2 𝐻+3

(1) Closure Prop.: from the composition table it is clear that 𝐺│𝐻 is closed under addition of two
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠.
(2) Asso. prop.: from the composition table it is clear that addition of two 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 is associative in
𝐺│𝐻.
(3) from the composition table it is clear that 𝐻 is the identity of 𝐺│𝐻.
(4) from the composition table
Inverse of 𝐻 is 𝐻
Inverse of 𝐻 + 1 is 𝐻 + 4
Inverse of 𝐻 + 2 is 𝐻 + 3
 Inverse of 𝐻 + 3 is 𝐻 + 2
Inverse of 𝐻 + 4 is 𝐻 + 1

Hence, (𝐺│𝐻 , +) is group.

Now, (𝐻 + 3) + 𝑋 = 𝐻 + 1

By adding (𝐻 + 2) both right sides the inverse of (𝐻 + 3)

⇒ (𝐻 + 2) + (𝐻 + 3) + 𝑋 = (𝐻 + 2) + (𝐻 + 1)

⇒𝐻+𝑋 =𝐻+3

⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐻 + 3is the required solution.

Example 28. Show that every quotient group of an abelian group is abelian and the converse is not true.

Solution: Let 𝐺 be an abelian group and 𝐻 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺 then

𝐺│𝐻 = {𝐻𝑎 / 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}.

Now, for 𝐻𝑎, 𝐻𝑏 ∈ 𝐺│𝐻 we have

𝐻𝑎 ∙ 𝐻𝑏 = 𝐻𝑎𝑏

= 𝐻𝑏𝑎 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

= 𝐻𝑏 ∙ 𝐻𝑎

Hence, 𝐺│𝐻is abelian.

Now, 𝐻4 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝5 , 𝑝6 } is normal subgroup of symmetric group (𝑆3 ,∙) but it is not abelian.

4.12 Cyclic group:

4.12.1 Definition: Let (𝐺,∗) be a group. If there exists at least one element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝐺 = {𝑎𝑘 / 𝑘 ∈
𝑍} then 𝐺 is called cyclic group generated by 𝑎 and it is denoted by 𝐺 = [𝑎] 𝑜𝑟 (𝑎).

→ There may be more than one generators of a cyclic group.

→ If a group 𝐺 is cyclic and generated by 𝑎 then elements of 𝐺 will be of the form

… , 𝑎−1 , 𝑎0 = 𝑒, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , …

Of course they are not necessarily all distinct.

𝑒. 𝑔. 𝐺 = {−1, 1, −𝑖, 𝑖]fourth roots of unity is cyclic group generated by 𝑖.

Since, 𝑖 1 = 𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖 &𝑖 4 = 1

Example 29.Show that (𝑍6 , +6 ) is a cyclic group generated by 1̅&5̅.

Solution: Here, 𝑍6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} is a group under +6 and the composition table is as under:

+𝟔 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅

Now, for 1̅ ∈ 𝑍6 , we have

1̅ = 1̅,

1̅+6 1̅ = 2̅,

1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅ = 3̅

1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅ = 4̅

1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅ = 5̅

1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅+6 1̅ = 6̅ = 0̅

Hence, 1̅ is the generator of 𝑍6 .

Again, for 5̅ ∈ 𝑍6 , we have

5̅ = 5̅,

5̅+6 5̅ = 4̅,

5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅ = 3̅

5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅ = 2̅

5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅ = 1̅

5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅+6 5̅ = 6̅ = 0̅

Hence, 5̅ is the generator of 𝑍6 .

Example 30.Find all generator of (𝑍5 ∗ ,×5 ) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍5 ∗ = { 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} .

Solution: Here, 𝑍5 ∗ = { 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅} and the composition table under ×5 is as under:

×5 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅
 2̅ 2̅ 4̅ 1̅ 3̅
3̅ 3̅ 1̅ 4̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅
For 2̅ ∈ 𝑍5 ∗

2̅ = 2̅

2̅ ×5 2̅ = 4̅

2̅ ×5 2̅ ×5 2̅ = 3̅

2̅ ×5 2̅ ×5 2̅ ×5 2̅ = 1̅

𝑖. 𝑒. 2̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑍5 ∗ .

For 3̅ ∈ 𝑍5 ∗

3̅ = 3̅

3̅ ×5 3̅ = 4̅

3̅ ×5 3̅ ×5 3̅ = 2̅

3̅ ×5 3̅ ×5 3̅ ×5 3̅ = 1̅

𝑖. 𝑒. 3̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑍5 ∗ .

For 4̅ ∈ 𝑍5 ∗

4̅ = 4̅

4̅ ×5 4̅ = 1̅

4̅ ×5 4̅ ×5 4̅ = 4̅

4̅ ×5 4̅ ×5 4̅ ×5 4̅ = 1̅

𝑖. 𝑒. 4̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑍5 ∗ .

4.12.2 Theorem: Every cyclic group is abelian.

Solution: let (𝐺, ∙) be a cyclic group generated by 𝑎.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝐺 = {𝑎𝑘 / 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍}

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑥 & 𝑦 can be expressed as the power of 𝑎

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 & 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑍

Now, 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟 ∙ 𝑎 𝑠

= 𝑎𝑟+𝑠
 = 𝑎 𝑠+𝑟

= 𝑎 𝑠 ∙ 𝑎𝑟

=𝑦∙𝑥

Hence, 𝐺 is abelian.
4.12.3 Theorem: if 𝑎 is generator of a group (𝐺, ∙) then 𝑎 −1 is also generator of group (𝐺, ∙).

4.12.4 Theorem: If a finite group of order group 𝑛 contains an element of order 𝑛 then group must be
abelian.
4.12.5 Theorem: Every group of prime order is cyclic.

4.12.6 Theorem: If a cyclic group (𝐺, ∙) is generated by an element 𝑎 of order 𝑛 then 𝑎𝑚 is generator of
(𝐺, ∙) if and only if the greatest common divisor of 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 1(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒).

4.12.7 Theorem: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

4.12.8 Theorem: Prove that two cyclic groups of same order are isomorphic.

Example 31. How many generator are there of the cyclic group 𝐺 of order 8 ?

Solution: Let 𝐺 is a cyclic group of order 8 generated by 𝑎.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 = {𝑎, 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎5 , 𝑎6 , 𝑎7 , 𝑎8 = 𝑒}

Now, 3,5,7 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 8

Thus, 𝑎, 𝑎3 , 𝑎5 &𝑎7 are only generators of cyclic group𝐺.

Example 32. Find all subgroups of cyclic group of order 12 with generator 𝑎. Also, find other generators of
group 𝐺 and order of each element of 𝐺. Find other generators of 𝐺.

Solution: Let 𝐺 is a cyclic group of order 12 generated by 𝑎.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 = (𝑎)& 𝑂(𝐺) = 12.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 = {𝑎0 = 𝑒, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎11 }

Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a cyclic group 𝐺.

By Lagrange’s theorem,

𝑂(𝐻)│𝑂(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑂(𝐻)│12

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐻) = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.
12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 1 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 1 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎12 = 𝑒) = {𝑒}
 12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 2 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 2 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎6 ) = {𝑎6 , 𝑎12 = 𝑒}

12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 3 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 3 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎4 ) = {𝑎4 , 𝑎8 , 𝑎12 = 𝑒}

12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 4 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 4 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎3 ) = {𝑎3 , 𝑎6 , 𝑎9 , 𝑎12 = 𝑒}

12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 6 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 6 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎2 ) = {𝑎2 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎6 𝑎8 , 𝑎10 , 𝑎12 = 𝑒}

12
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 12 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎12 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎1 ) = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎11 , 𝑎12 = 𝑒} = 𝐺.

Now, we find order of each element of 𝐺.

(𝑎1 )12 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎1 ) = 12

(𝑎2 )6 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎2 ) = 6

(𝑎3 )4 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎3 ) = 4

(𝑎4 )3 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎4 ) = 3

(𝑎5 )12 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎5 ) = 12

(𝑎6 )2 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎6 ) = 2

(𝑎7 )12 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎7 ) = 12

(𝑎8 )3 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎8 ) = 3

(𝑎9 )4 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎9 ) = 4

(𝑎10 )6 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎10 ) = 6

(𝑎11 )12 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎11 ) = 12

(𝑎12 )1 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎12 ) = 1

Here, 1, 5, 7, 11 are relatively prime to 12

Hence, 𝑎1 , 𝑎5 , 𝑎7 &𝑎11 are generators of cyclic group𝐺.

Example 33. Find all subgroup of cyclic group of order 20 with generator 𝑎. Also find order of each
element of group 𝐺 and find other generators of 𝐺.

Solution: Let 𝐺 is a cyclic group of order 20 generated by 𝑎.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 = (𝑎)& 𝑂(𝐺) = 20.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐺 = {𝑎0 = 𝑒, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … , 𝑎19 }

Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of a cyclic group 𝐺.

By Lagrange’s theorem,

𝑂(𝐻)│𝑂(𝐺) ⇒ 𝑂(𝐻)│20

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑂(𝐻) = 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 20.

20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 1 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 1 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎20 = 𝑒) = {𝑒}
20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 2 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 2 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎10 ) = {𝑎10 , 𝑎20 = 𝑒}

20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 4 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 4 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎5 ) = {𝑎5 , 𝑎10 , 𝑎15 , 𝑎20 = 𝑒}

20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 5 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎 5 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎4 ) = {𝑎4 , 𝑎8 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎16 , 𝑎20 = 𝑒}

20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 10 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎10 )

⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎2 ) = {𝑎2 , 𝑎4 , 𝑎6 𝑎8 , 𝑎10 , 𝑎12 , 𝑎14 , 𝑎16 , 𝑎18 , 𝑎20 = 𝑒}

20
If 𝑂(𝐻) = 20 ⇒ 𝐻 = (𝑎20 ) = 𝐺

Now, we order of each element of group 𝐺.

(𝑎1 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎1 ) = 20

(𝑎2 )10 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎2 ) = 10

(𝑎3 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎3 ) = 20

(𝑎4 )5 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎4 ) = 5
 (𝑎5 )4 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎5 ) = 4

(𝑎6 )10 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎6 ) = 10

(𝑎7 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎7 ) = 20

(𝑎8 )5 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎8 ) = 5

(𝑎9 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎9 ) = 20

(𝑎10 )2 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎10 ) = 2

(𝑎11 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎11 ) = 20

(𝑎12 )5 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎12 ) = 5

(𝑎13 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎13 ) = 20

(𝑎14 )10 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎14 ) = 10

(𝑎15 )4 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎15 ) = 4

(𝑎16 )5 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎16 ) = 5

(𝑎17 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎17 ) = 20

(𝑎18 )10 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎18 ) = 10

(𝑎19 )20 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎19 ) = 20

(𝑎20 )1 = 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑂(𝑎20 ) = 1

Now, 1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 132, 17, 19 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑒 𝑡𝑜 20

Hence, 𝑎1 , 𝑎3 , 𝑎7 , 𝑎9 , 𝑎11 , 𝑎13 , 𝑎17 , 𝑎19 are other generators of𝐺.

Example 34. For 𝑃 = {𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , 𝑝3 ¸𝑝4 , 𝑝5 } explain why (𝑃,∗) is not group. The operation ∗ is given in the
following table:

∗ 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5
𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4 𝑝5
𝑝2 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑝4 𝑝5 𝑝3
𝑝3 𝑝3 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝4
𝑝4 𝑝4 𝑝3 𝑝5 𝑝1 𝑝2
𝑝5 𝑝5 𝑝4 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑝4

Solution: From the composition table it is clear that 𝑃 is closed under ∗ and 𝑝1 is the identity element.

Inverse of 𝑝1 is 𝑝1
Inverse of 𝑝2 is 𝑝2

Inverse of 𝑝3 is 𝑝3

Inverse of 𝑝4 is 𝑝4

But inverse of 𝑝5 does not exists.

Hence, (𝑃,∗) is not a group.

Example 35. Show that every subgroup of a cyclic group is normal.

Solution: Here, (𝐺, ∙) be a cyclic group and we know that every cyclic group is an abelian group.

Now, let 𝐻 be any subgroup of cyclic group 𝐺.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻 is abelian and every abelian group is normal

Hence, 𝐻 is normal.

OR

let (𝐺, ∙) be a cyclic group generated by 𝑎.

𝑖. 𝑒 𝐺 = {𝑎𝑘 / 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍}

Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝑥 can be expressed as the power of 𝑎

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑟 ∈ 𝑍

Now, let 𝐻 be any subgroup of 𝐺, then for any 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟 ∈ 𝐺

We have 𝐻𝑥 = {ℎ𝑥 / ℎ ∈ 𝐻} but 𝐻 ⊂ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ ∈ 𝐻 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℎ = 𝑎 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑠 ∈ 𝑍

= {𝑎 𝑠 𝑎𝑟 / ℎ = 𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻}

= {𝑎 𝑠+𝑟 / ℎ = 𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻}

= {𝑎𝑟+𝑠 / ℎ = 𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻}

= {𝑎𝑟 𝑎 𝑠 / ℎ = 𝑎 𝑠 ∈ 𝐻}

= {𝑥ℎ / ℎ ∈ 𝐻}

= 𝐻𝑥

Thus, 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡

𝐻 is normal subgroup of 𝐺.

4.13 Algebraic structures with two binary operations:

4.13.1 Ring:
Let 𝑅 be a non empty set equipped with two binary operations addition and multiplication is said to be
ring if it satisfies the following conditions:

1. For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 we have 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

2. Addition is associative:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 we have (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
3. There exist an element 0 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅
4. For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 there exists an element −𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 such that (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0
5. Multiplication is associative:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 we have (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)
6. Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 we have 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
(𝑏 + 𝑐) ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
OR

A non empty set 𝑅 is said to be ring if it satisfies the followings:

(1) (𝑅, +) is commutative group

(2) 𝑅 is closed under multiplication
(3) Multiplication is associative on 𝑅
(4) Distributive property holds.

𝑒. 𝑔. (𝑅, +,∙)is a ring where R is set of reals.

4.13.2 Subring:

A subset 𝑆 ⊆ 𝑅 where (𝑅, +,∙) is a ring is called subring if (𝑆, +,∙) is itself a ring with same operations
+ & ∙ restricted to 𝑆.

𝑒. 𝑔. The ring of even integers is a sub ring of the ring of integers.

4.13.3 Ring with unity:

If in ring 𝑅 there exists an element 1 ∈ 𝑅 such that 1 ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∙ 1 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 then ring 𝑅 is said to
be ring with unity.

4.13.4 Commutative ring:

If in ring 𝑅 if for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 then 𝑅 is said to be commutative ring.

Example 36. The set of integers 𝑍 is a ring with respect to addition and multiplication of integers. This
ring is known as ring of integers.

Solution: Here, 𝑍 is set of integers

(1) We know that addition and multiplication of two integers is again integer.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑍 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
(2) Addition is associative:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍 we have (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐)
 (3) There exist an element 0 ∈ 𝑍 such that 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 = 0 + 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍
(4) For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 there exists an element −𝑎 ∈ 𝑍 such that (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = 0
(5) Multiplication is associative:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍 we have (𝑎 ∙ 𝑏) ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 ∙ 𝑐)
(6) Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition:
For 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍 we have 𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
(𝑏 + 𝑐) ∙ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ∙ 𝑎 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤
Hence, (𝑍, +,∙) is ring.
Also, 1 ∈ 𝑍 implies 𝑍 is ring with unity.
More, for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎

𝑍is commutative ring with unity.

Example 37. Show that (𝑧6 , +6 ,×6 ) is a commutative ring with unity.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 = 𝑍6 = {0̅, 1̅, 2̅, 3̅, 4̅, 5̅} and the composition table for +𝟔 is as under:

+𝟔 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
1̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅
2̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅
3̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅
4̅ 4̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅
5̅ 5̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅

1. Closure prop.: From the composition table it is clear that 𝐺 is closed under addition modulo 6
i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎+6 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺

2. Asso. prop.: From the composition table it is clear that +6 is associative in 𝐺

i.e. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺 we have (𝑎+6 𝑏)+6 𝑐 = 𝑎+6 (𝑏+6 𝑐)

3. Exist. of an identity: From the composition table it is clear that 0̅ is the identity in 𝐺.

4. Exist. of an inverse: From the composition table it is clear that

Inverse of 0̅ is 0̅

Inverse of 1̅ is 5̅

Inverse of 2̅ is 4̅

Inverse of 3̅ is 3̅

Inverse of 4̅ is 2̅ &

Inverse of ̅5 is 1̅
 5. Also for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we have 𝑎+6 𝑏 = 𝑏+6 𝑎

Hence, (𝑍6 , +6 ) is commutative group.

The composition table for ×6 is as under:

×6 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅ 0̅
1̅ 0̅ 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅
2̅ 0̅ 2̅ 4̅ 0̅ 2̅ 4̅
3̅ 0̅ 3̅ 0̅ 3̅ 0̅ 3̅
4̅ 0̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 4̅ 2̅
5̅ 0̅ 5̅ 4̅ 3̅ 2̅ 1̅

6. From the composition table for ×6 it is clear that 𝑍6 is closed under ×6 .

7. From the composition table for ×6 it is clear that ×6 is associative in 𝑍6 .
8. From the both composition table we say that distributive property holds good.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑍6 we have 𝑎 ×6 (𝑏+6 𝑐) = (𝑎 ×6 𝑏)+6 (𝑎 ×6 𝑐)

𝑒. 𝑔. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 2̅, 3̅, 4̅ ∈ 𝑍6 we have 2̅ ×6 (3̅+6 4̅) = 2̅ ×6 1̅ = 2̅

& (2̅ ×6 3̅)+6 (2̅ ×6 4̅) = 0̅+6 2̅ = 2̅

Thus, (𝑧6 , +6 ,×6 ) is ring.

Also,1̅ ∈ 𝑍6 is multiplicative identity in 𝑍6 and ×6 is commutative in 𝑍6

Hence, (𝑧6 , +6 ,×6 ) is a commutative ring with unity.

4.13.5 Ring without zero divisor:

A ring 𝑅 is without zero divisor if the product of two non zero elements of 𝑅 is zero.

𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑏 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

On the other hand if in a ring 𝑅 there exist two non zero elements 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏 = 0, then
𝑅 is said to be ring with zero divisor.

𝑒. 𝑔. (1)(𝑍, +,∙) is ring without zero divisor where 𝑍 is the set of integers.

(2)(𝑧6 , +6 ,×6 ) is ring with zero divisor since 2̅ & 3̅ ∈ 𝑍6 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (2̅ ×6 3̅) = 0̅.

4.13.6 Integral Domain:

A commutative ring with unity is said to be an integral domain if it is without zero divisor.
𝑒. 𝑔. (𝑍, +,∙)is an integral domain.

4.13.7 Field:

A non empty set 𝐹 with at least two elements is said to be field if it satisfies the followings:

(1) (𝐹, +) is commutative group

(2) (𝐹 − {0},×) is commutative group
(3) Distributive property holds.

𝑒. 𝑔. (1) (𝑅, +,∙) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 is field.

(2) (𝑄, +,∙) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 is field.

4.13.8 Theorem: Every field is an integral domain.

Note that the converse of above theorem is not true in general since ring of integers is an integral
domain but not field.

4.13.9 Theorem: A finite commutative ring without zero divisors is a field.

OR

Every finite integral domain is a field.

Example 38. We are given the ring ({𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}, +,∙) whose operations are given by the following table:

+ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 ∙ 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑎

Is it a commutative ring ? Does it have an identity ? Find the additive inverse of each its elements.

Solution: Let 𝑅 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}

Now, from the composition table it is clear that for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅 we have 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∙ 𝑥

Thus, 𝑅 is commutative ring.

From the composition table 𝑎 is additive identity in 𝑅 but there does not exists any multiplicative
identity in 𝑅.

From the composition table

Additive inverse of 𝑎 is 𝑎

Additive inverse of 𝑏 is 𝑏
Additive inverse of 𝑐 is 𝑑

Additive inverse of 𝑑 is .

Example 39. Prove that 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 where (𝑅, +,∙) is a ring then

(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 where 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎

Solution: Here, (𝑅, +,∙) is a ring.

For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅

(𝑎 + 𝑏)2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∙ (𝑎 + 𝑏) (∵ 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎)

= 𝑎∙𝑎+𝑎∙𝑏+𝑏∙𝑎+𝑎∙𝑎

= 𝑎2 + 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 + 𝑏 ∙ 𝑎 + 𝑏 2 . (∵ 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑎)

Example 40. Show that if group (𝐺, ∗) is of even order, then there must be an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such
that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.

Solution: Here, 𝐺 be a group of even order 2𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.

Now, to prove then there must be an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎 = 𝑎−1

We prove it by method of contradiction.

Suppose 𝐺 has no element other than identity element which is its own inverse.

Also, identity is its own inverse.

Now, in a group every element posses its inverse. Further if 𝑏 is the inverse of 𝑐, then 𝑐 is the inverse
of 𝑏. So, excluding the identity element 𝑒, the remaining 2𝑚 − 1elements of 𝐺 must be divided into
pairs of two such that each pair consists an element and its inverse. But, we cannot do so because the
odd number 2𝑚 − 1 is not divided by 2. Thus our supposition is false.

Hence, there must be an element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ≠ 𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.

4.14 Exercise 2:

1. Show that every cyclic group of order 𝑛 is isomorphic to the group (𝑍𝑛 , +𝑛 ).
2. Every group of order 𝑛 contains an element of order 𝑛 then the group must be cyclic.
3. Every group of prime order is cyclic.
4. If 𝐺 is a cyclic group of order 18 with generator 𝑎 then find order of each elements of 𝐺 and find
other generators of cyclic group.
5. Prove that an infinite cyclic group has exactly two generators.
6. Show that two cyclic groups of same order are isomorphic.
7. Prove that every finite group of order less than six must be abelian.
8. Find the 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 of { 0̅, 3̅} in the group (𝑍6 , +6 ).
9. Let 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺and define 𝑇 = {𝑥 / 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥𝐻 = 𝐻𝑥} then prove that 𝑇 is a
subgroup of 𝐺.
10. If 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 and 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of 𝐺, then 𝐻 ∩ 𝑁 is normal subgroup of 𝐻.
11. Show that every quotient group of a cyclic group is cyclic and the converse is not true.
12. If 𝑂(𝐺) = 𝑝2 where 𝑝 is prime then 𝐺 is abelian.
13. Is 𝑂(𝐺) = 121 abelian group ?
14. Find all generators of (𝑍 ∗ 7 ,×7 ).
15. Find all subgroup of cyclic group of order 16 with generator 𝑎. Also find order of each element of
group 𝐺 and find other generators of 𝐺.
16. Prove that a group of order less than six must be abelian.
17. Show that ({1,4,13,16}, ×17 ) is a subgroup of (𝑍 ∗17 , ×17 ).
18. Prove that (𝑍 ∗ 5 ,×5 ) and (𝑍4 , +4 ) are isomorphic.
19. Show that the set of numbers of the form 𝑎 + 𝑏√2with 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 is field.
20. For any integer 𝑚 show that {𝑥𝑚/ 𝑥 ∈ 𝑍} is a subring of the ring of integers.
21. Consider the set 𝑄 od rational numbers, and let ∗ be the binary operation on 𝑄 defined by
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏
(a) Find 3 ∗ 4 & 2 ∗ (−5)
(b) Is (𝑄,∗) a semi group ? Is it commutative ?
(c) Find the identity element for ∗.
(d) Do any of the elements in 𝑄 have an inverse ? What is it ?
1 2 3 4 5 6
22. Let For the elements 𝑓 & 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑆6 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑓 = ( )&𝑔 =
3 1 5 4 6 2
1 2 3 4 5 6
( )
5 3 1 6 2 4

Obtain (1) 𝑓 ∙ 𝑔 (2) 𝑔 ∙ 𝑓 (3) 𝑓 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4) 𝑓 2 .

23. Show that (𝑍7 , +7 , ×7 ) is an integral domain.

24. If a group 𝐺 has four elements then show that it must be abelian.
25. If the element 𝑎 of a group 𝐺 is of order 𝑛 then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 if and only if 𝑛 is a divisor 𝑚.