CONTENTS 1.

INTRODUCTION

1. Introduction This project will basically cover the complete

2. Literature Survey
3. Methodology
4. Power quality issues
4.1 Over voltage
4.1.1 Causes of overvoltage
protection of the industrial used application
procedures. The real time use of contactors will
used to make it more efficient and reliable. The
basic switching of the unit and protection is used
to be done with the help of contactor. This
device is capable of running on the high ampere
ratings.

4.2 Under voltage This device will make over temperature along
with the voltage regulation control systems. The
4.2.1 Causes of under voltage
higher voltage as well as the lower voltage along
5. Component used with the temperature shut down procedure will
execute using the Contactor. The multiple
5.1 Relay
alarms along with the visual notifications will
5.2 Capacitor execute. The voltage increase or decrease will
5.3 Inductor execute on auto transformer. The relay section
along with sensing element will make the start
5.4 Resistor
of the basic protection system.
5.5 Auto transformer When a relay is used to switch a large amount of
5.6 Diode electrical power through its contacts, it is
designated by a special name: contactor.
5.7 Rectifier
Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and
5.8 Transistor those contacts are usually (but not always)

5.9 Variable resistor normally-open, so that power to the load is shut

off when the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the
6. Working
most common industrial use for contactors is the
6.1 Circuit operation control of electric motor

7. Advantage and Disadvantage

2. LITERATURE SURVEY
8. Conclusion
In present scenario, as the human race is
9. Project live photo developing day by day so their need of more
10. Preferences advance devices and machines have increased,
which increase the occurrence of fault
frequently, so to overcome such hazardous
condition we need to give all our equipment
protection from electrical parameters like over 4. Power quality issues:
voltage, under voltage, over current, over
temperature, short circuit. So to cut out our 4.1 Overvoltage:
devices from main supply we have to make such
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms value of
mechanism whenever the above electrical
ac voltage greater than 110 percent or 0.11pu at
parameters occur we can do switching with an
the power frequency for a duration longer than 1
ease. The all above topics under one roof called
min. over voltages are usually the result of load
switchgear and protection, switchgear is a
switching (e.g., switching off a large load or
generic term which includes all the switching
energizing a capacitor bank). The over voltages
devices associated with power system
result because either the system is too weak for
protection. It also includes all devices associated
the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls
with control, metering and regulating of
are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on
electrical power systems. Assembly of such
transformers can also result in system over
devices in a logical manner forms switchgear. In
voltages.
other words systems used for switching,
controlling and protecting the electrical power
circuits and different types of electrical
equipment are known as switchgear.

3. METHODOLOGY

This project proposes an effective scheme for

controlling the electrical parameters like over
voltage, under voltage, over current, over
temperature, short circuit. It reduces the manual
effort to switch over the circuit and break it, and
by decreasing the manual effort we also lower
the risk any impact to human life. So we are
increasing the life of machine and human also.
Under this topic for complete this study. Design
architecture is the main block function for the
proposed design. While the components
description will. Contactor is the heart of this
project, which performs the main task that is
switching, and when it have to switch will be
send through various sensors.
Fig (1) over voltage waveform
4.1.1 Causes of over voltages:
Overvoltage is less common than under voltage
but they also arise due to system faults.
Overvoltage can occur due to single line to
ground fault, which in turn will raise the voltage
of the other phases. It can also cause due to
disconnection of heavy industrial loads or
switching on the capacitor banks. This is
generally due to ungrounded or floating ground
delta systems, where a change in ground
reference would give voltage rise to the
ungrounded system.
Causes of overvoltage are mainly due to
energization of capacitor bank. It can also be
generated by sudden load deduction. Due to the
disconnection of load there is a sudden reduction
of current, which will give rise the voltage,
where L is the inductance of the line. The effects
of overvoltage are more severe and destructive.
It may cause the electrical equipment to fail, due
to overheating caused by high voltage. Also
electronic and other sensitive equipment are
prone to malfunction.
4.2 Under voltage:
An under voltage is a decrease in the RMS value
ac voltage to less than 90 percent or 0.90pu at
the power frequency for a time period longer
than 1 min. Under voltages are the results of
switching events that are the opposite of the
events that cause over voltage.
Fig (2) under voltage waveform
Under voltages are the most common power
disturbance whose effect is quite severe
especially in industrial and large commercial
customers such as the damage of the sensitivity
equipment’s and loss of daily productions and
finances. The examples of the sensitive
equipment’s are Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC), Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD) and
Chiller control. Under voltage at the equipment
terminal can be due to a short circuit fault
hundreds of kilometers away in the transmission
system
4.2.1 Causes of under voltages:
• Closing and Opening of Circuit Breakers
• Due to Fault
• Due to Motor Starting
• Due to Transformer Energizing
• Equipment Failure
• Bad Weather and Pollution (Lightning strikes,
Flash over, etc.)
• Construction Activity (damage to underground
Cables
5. COMPONENTS USED
5.1 RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It
consists of a set of input terminals for a single or
multiple control signals, and a set of operating
contact terminals. The switch may have any
number of contacts in multiple contact forms,
such as make contacts, break contacts, or
combinations thereof. Relays are used where it
is necessary to control a circuit by an
independent low-power signal, or where several charge and the other plate
circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays
were first used in long-
distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters:
they refresh the signal coming in from one
circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. The
traditional form of a relay uses
an electromagnet to close or open the contacts, FIG (4):- Different types of Capacitor

but other operating principles have been

invented, such as in solid-state relays which
use semiconductor properties for control without
relying on moving parts. Relays with calibrated
operating characteristics and sometimes multiple
operating coils are used to protect electrical
circuits from overload or faults; in modern
Fig (4.1):- Symbols of Different Capacitors
electric power systems these functions are
performed by digital instruments still
Accumulates negative charge.
called protective relays.
The capacitance is the amount of electric charge
that is stored in the capacitor at voltage of 1
Volt.
The capacitance is measured in units
of Farad (F).
The capacitor disconnects current in direct
current (DC) circuits and short circuit in
alternating current (AC) circuits.

FIG (3):- Simple electromechanical relay
5.2 CAPACITOR
Capacitor is an electronic component that
stores electric charge. The capacitor is made of 2
close conductors (usually plates) that are
separated by a dielectric material. The plates
accumulate electric charge when connected to
power source. One plate accumulates positive
5.3 INDUCTOR
An inductor is a passive electronic component
that stores energy in the form of a magnetic
field. In its simplest form, an inductor consists
of a wire loops or coil. The inductance is
directly proportional to the number of turns in
the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius
of the coil and on the type of material around
which the coil is wound.
 High-power resistors that can dissipate
many watts of electrical power as heat may be
used as part of motor controls, in power
distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances
that only change slightly with temperature, time
or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be
used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume
control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices
for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical
Fig (5):- Different Type of Inductors
activity.

5.5 AUTO TRANSFORMER

Fig (5.1):- Symbol of Inductor An autotransformer is a kind of electrical
transformer where primary and secondary shares
5.4 RESISTOR same common single winding. So basically it’s a
one winding transformer.
Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical
Autotransformer Theory In an auto
component that implements electrical
transformer, one single winding is used as
resistance as a circuit
primary winding as well as secondary winding.
But in two windings transformer two different
windings are used for primary and secondary
purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is
shown below.

Fig (6):- An array of axial-lead resistors

Fig (6.1):- Symbol of Resistor

Element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used

to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to
Fig (7) Auto-transformer Circuit Diagram
divide Voltages, bias active elements, and
terminate transmission lines, among other uses.
The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered ohmic loss and core loss due to reduction of
as primary winding. This winding is tapped from transformer material.
point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as Auto transformer has better voltage
secondary. Let’s assume the number of turns in regulation as voltage drop in resistance and
between point’s ′B′ and ′C′ is N2. reactance of the single winding is less.
If V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in
between ′A′ and ′C′.
5.6 DIODE

A diode is a two-terminal electronic

Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the
component that conducts current primarily in
winding, will be,
one direction (asymmetric conductance); it has
low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction,
and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

As BC portion of the winding is considered as

secondary, it can easily be understood that value
of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or
voltage ratio of that auto transformer. When
load is connected between secondary terminals
i.e.between ′B′ and ′C′, load current I2 starts
flowing. The current in the secondary winding
or common winding is the difference of I2 and I1.
For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto
transformer would be approximately 50% of
the corresponding size of two winding
transformer. For transformation ratio say 20
however the size would be 95 %. The saving in
Fig (8):- Semiconductor Diode and Its
cost of the material is of course not in the same
Equivalent diagram
proportion. The saving of cost is appreciable
when the ratio of transformer is low, that is
lower than 2. Thus auto transformer is smaller in A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a
size and cheaper. vacuum tube with two electrodes, a

An auto transformer has higher efficiency than heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons
two winding transformer. This is because of less can flow in only one direction, from cathode to
plate. A semiconductor diode, the most
commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece 5.8 TRANSISTOR
of semiconductor material with a p–n Transistor is a semiconductor device that can
junction connected to two electrical both conduct and insulate. A transistor can act as
[5]
terminals. Semiconductor diodes were the a switch and an amplifier. It converts audio
first semiconductor electronic devices. waves into electronic waves and resistor,
controlling electronic current. Transistors have
5.7 RECTIFIER very long life, smaller in size, can operate on
lower voltage supplies for greater safety and
A rectifier is an electrical device
required no filament current. The first transistor
that converts alternating current (AC), which
was fabricated with germanium. A transistor
periodically reverses direction, to direct
performs the same function as a vacuum tube
current (DC), which flows in only one direction.
triode, but using semiconductor junctions
The process is known as rectification, since it instead of heated electrodes in a vacuum
"straightens" the direction of current. Physically, chamber. It is the fundamental building block of
rectifiers take a number of forms, modern electronic devices and found
including vacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc everywhere in modern electronic systems.
valves, stacks of copper and selenium oxide
plates, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled
rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor
switches. Historically, even synchronous
electromechanical switches and motors have
been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal
radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire
pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to
serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal
detector".

Fig (10):-circuit diagram an n–p–n

Fig (10.1):- An-p-n
Fig (9):-Circuit Diagram of Rectifier
5.9 VARIABLE RESISTOR
A variable resistor is a resistor of which the
electric resistance value can be adjusted. A
variable resistor is in essence an electro-
mechanical transducer and normally works by
sliding a contact (wiper) over a resistive
element. When a variable resistor is used as a
potential divider by using 3 terminals it is called
a potentiometer. When only two terminals are
used, it functions as a variable resistance and is
called a rheostat. Electronically controlled
variable resistors exist, which can be controlled
electronically instead of by mechanical action.
These resistors are called digital potentiometers.
Fig(11):-A Variable Resistor and its symbol
6. WORKING
This voltage protection circuit is designed to
develop a low-voltage and high-voltage tripping
mechanism to protect a load from any damage.
In many of the homes and industries fluctuations
in AC mains supply take place frequently. The
electronic devices get easily damaged due to
fluctuations. To overcome this problem, we can
implement a tripping mechanism of under /
overvoltage protection circuit to protect the
loads from the undue damage.
Fig (12) Block Diagram of Circuit
6.1 Circuit Operation
 As shown in the above block diagram,
the mains AC power supplies the power to
the whole circuit and for operating loads by
using relays, and also for tripping the load
(lamps) in the presence of the input voltage
which falls above or below a set value.
 Two comparators used as a window
comparator formed out of one
quad comparator IC. This operation delivers
an error in the output if the input voltage to
the comparator crosses the limit beyond the
voltage window.
 In this circuit, an unregulated power supply
is connected to both op-amps terminals,
wherein each non-inverting terminal is
connected through the two series resistors
and a potentiometer arrangement. Similarly,
the inverting terminal is also powered
through Zener diode and resistance
 arrangements, as shown in the given under or 7. ADVANTAGES
overvoltage protection circuit.
 It helps to protect the electrical
machines and appliances. It
interrupts the circuit that is
experiencing overload while still
allowing currents to flow through
the unaffected circuits.

 It also provides isolation of circuits

Fig ( 13) Circuit diagram of Project
and the part of the system that is
energized. This provides protection
 The Potentiometer’s preset VR1 is adjusted
to the person who is repairing the
such that the voltage at non-inverting is less
power system/equipment.
than 6.8V for stable maintenance of load for
the normal supply range of 180V-240V and  It enhances system availability by
the voltage of inverting terminal is 6.8V allowing more than one source to
constant due to Zener diode. feed a load
 Hence the op-amp output is zero under this
 It provide controlling of system
range and thus the relay coil is de-
from remote location
energized and the load is not interrupted
during this stable operation.  No need of manual work for
 When the voltage is beyond the 240 V the switching whenever fault occurs
voltage at the non-inverting terminal is more
than 6.8, so the operational amplifier output
7.1 LIMITATIONS
goes high. This output drives the transistor
and thus the relay coil gets energized and  Initial investment is higher compared to
finally loads are turned off due to conventional manual switching
overvoltage.
 Circuit Congaing to many circuitry
 Similarly, for under voltage protection, lower
complex and hard to maintain
comparator energizes the relay when the
 Op Amps are Used therefor atmospheric
supply voltage falls below 180 V by
factor will also reduce effectiveness of
maintaining 6V at the inverting terminal.
whole protection circuit
These under and overvoltage settings can be
 Coil may burn due which would cause
changed by varying the respective
no magnetic field, hence the contacts
potentiometers.
won’t close and the contactor wouldn’t
operate.
  2- Contacts may burn or fray which may
also cause the contactor not to work.
Contacts may also weld shut which may
cause the load to keep running even
when there is no control voltage which
may cause unsafe machine or machine
damage.
 3- The insects can get in the contacts
which may cause the contactor failure
which may ultimately cause the
equipment failure.
While selecting the contactor the designer can
remedy some of the problems such as using the
cover over the contacts so the insects don’t get
in the contacts. Also, depending on application
one may want to choose a contactor which
would have open contacts in case of fault or a
redundant contactors so if contacts of one shut
close the other one could control and save the
machine failure or save the machine operator
from being injured.
versatile, extendable and totally adjustable to
user needs. Switchgear has a proven record of
reliability and performance failures are rare, but
there are precautions that should be taken to
ensure the safety of personnel working with or
in the vicinity of protection circuit.
Older types of protection circuit have with time
been proven to be deficient in some areas. This
together with changing system fault levels and
poor or no maintenance can lead to high safety
risks to personnel in aged switchgear
installations.
This risk can be largely eliminated by
performing system studies followed by remedial
actions such as retrofitting aged installations
with modern circuit breakers, high speed
protection systems, remote switching or
ultimately the Internal Arc Fault feature.

8. CONCLUSION

For every successful and efficient working of

any machinery its control and protection of
different parameters is necessary. Protection is
not a new topic to the world of engineering but
automatic and remote control is still under
development.

By using smart control and switchgear one can

save surplus amount of energy and human
investment lowering the risk life. The system is
9.PROJECT LIVE PHOTO
10. PREFERENCES

1. A.R. Van C. Warrington, “Protective relays-

Their Theory and Practice, Vol. I & II” John
Wiley & Sons

2. Advantages of Fixed Circuit Breaker

Switchgear by Lionel Mackay, EDF Energy, and
Mike Adams, Schneider Electric Ltd
3. Improving safety on ageing switchgear E.H.
worthmann (BSc electrical)
4. en.wikipedia.org

5. www.schneider-electric.co.in

6. www.rapidtables.com

7. www.electrical4u.com